This document provides an overview of applications of graph theory in various real-world fields. It begins by defining some key graph theory concepts such as vertices, edges, directed and undirected graphs, connected graphs, and adjacency matrices. It then discusses how graph theory originated from the Königsberg bridge problem in 1735. The document outlines how graph theory has gradually expanded and is now used widely in fields like computer science, biochemistry, genomics, electrical engineering, and operations research. It identifies some common applications of graph theory such as resource allocation, network formation, data mining, and image processing. In conclusion, the document aims to provide basic graph theory concepts and demonstrate how they are applied across different domains.
Map Coloring and Some of Its Applications MD SHAH ALAM
This is a research paper which I have conducted at the final year of undergrad study and got 4.00/4.00. It is mainly related to graph theory and has many applications in practical life.
Benefits Of Innovative 3d Graph Techniques In Construction IndustryA Makwana
The construction industry is the second largest industry of the country after agriculture. It makes a significant contribution to the national economy and provides employment to a large number of people. In its path of advancement, the industry has to overcome a number of challenges. One of the challenges is effective utilization of available technology. 3D Graph is one such technique that is rarely being used. Graphs and plots are a natural way to visualize data. It hardly needs saying that their use is common even in non-technical documents. Unfortunately, much work is often required (and rarely performed) to produce plots with sufficient output quality to match a well-typeset document. Recent years have witnessed a rapid development in the technologies that are related to digital visualization and simulation together with the technologies that try to link between digital and physical modelling. Many engineering and design practitioners have begun to apply selective technologies in their practices. The research attempts to classify the possible technologies that can be used throughout stages of urban design projects according to their purpose.
Characteristics of Fuzzy Wheel Graph and Hamilton Graph with Fuzzy Ruleijtsrd
Graph theory is the concepts used to study and model various application in different areas. We proposed the wheel graph with n vertices can be defined as 1 skeleton of on n 1 gonal pyramid it is denoted by w nwith n 1 vertex n=3 . A wheel graph is hamiltonion, self dual and planar. In the mathematical field of graph theory, and a Hamilton path or traceable graph is a path in an undirected or directed graph that visits each vertex exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle is a hamiltonian path that is a cycle. In this paper, we consider the wheel graph and also the hamilton graph using if then rules fuzzy numbers. The results are related to the find the degree of odd vertices and even vertices are same by applying if then rules through the paths described by fuzzy numbers. Nisha. D | Srividhya. B "Characteristics of Fuzzy Wheel Graph and Hamilton Graph with Fuzzy Rule" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29319.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/mathemetics/other/29319/characteristics-of-fuzzy-wheel-graph-and-hamilton-graph-with-fuzzy-rule/nisha-d
Map Coloring and Some of Its Applications MD SHAH ALAM
This is a research paper which I have conducted at the final year of undergrad study and got 4.00/4.00. It is mainly related to graph theory and has many applications in practical life.
Benefits Of Innovative 3d Graph Techniques In Construction IndustryA Makwana
The construction industry is the second largest industry of the country after agriculture. It makes a significant contribution to the national economy and provides employment to a large number of people. In its path of advancement, the industry has to overcome a number of challenges. One of the challenges is effective utilization of available technology. 3D Graph is one such technique that is rarely being used. Graphs and plots are a natural way to visualize data. It hardly needs saying that their use is common even in non-technical documents. Unfortunately, much work is often required (and rarely performed) to produce plots with sufficient output quality to match a well-typeset document. Recent years have witnessed a rapid development in the technologies that are related to digital visualization and simulation together with the technologies that try to link between digital and physical modelling. Many engineering and design practitioners have begun to apply selective technologies in their practices. The research attempts to classify the possible technologies that can be used throughout stages of urban design projects according to their purpose.
Characteristics of Fuzzy Wheel Graph and Hamilton Graph with Fuzzy Ruleijtsrd
Graph theory is the concepts used to study and model various application in different areas. We proposed the wheel graph with n vertices can be defined as 1 skeleton of on n 1 gonal pyramid it is denoted by w nwith n 1 vertex n=3 . A wheel graph is hamiltonion, self dual and planar. In the mathematical field of graph theory, and a Hamilton path or traceable graph is a path in an undirected or directed graph that visits each vertex exactly once. A Hamiltonian cycle is a hamiltonian path that is a cycle. In this paper, we consider the wheel graph and also the hamilton graph using if then rules fuzzy numbers. The results are related to the find the degree of odd vertices and even vertices are same by applying if then rules through the paths described by fuzzy numbers. Nisha. D | Srividhya. B "Characteristics of Fuzzy Wheel Graph and Hamilton Graph with Fuzzy Rule" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29319.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/mathemetics/other/29319/characteristics-of-fuzzy-wheel-graph-and-hamilton-graph-with-fuzzy-rule/nisha-d
ON ALGORITHMIC PROBLEMS CONCERNING GRAPHS OF HIGHER DEGREE OF SYMMETRYFransiskeran
Since the ancient determination of the five platonic solids the study of symmetry and regularity has always
been one of the most fascinating aspects of mathematics. One intriguing phenomenon of studies in graph
theory is the fact that quite often arithmetic regularity properties of a graph imply the existence of many
symmetries, i.e. large automorphism group G. In some important special situation higher degree of
regularity means that G is an automorphism group of finite geometry. For example, a glance through the
list of distance regular graphs of diameter d < 3 reveals the fact that most of them are connected with
classical Lie geometry. Theory of distance regular graphs is an important part of algebraic combinatorics
and its applications such as coding theory, communication networks, and block design. An important tool
for investigation of such graphs is their spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a
graph. Let G be a finite simple group of Lie type and X be the set homogeneous elements of the associated
geometry.
On algorithmic problems concerning graphs of higher degree of symmetrygraphhoc
Since the ancient determination of the five platonic solids the study of symmetry and regularity has always
been one of the most fascinating aspects of mathematics. One intriguing phenomenon of studies in graph
theory is the fact that quite often arithmetic regularity properties of a graph imply the existence of many
symmetries, i.e. large automorphism group G. In some important special situation higher degree of
regularity means that G is an automorphism group of finite geometry. For example, a glance through the
list of distance regular graphs of diameter d < 3 reveals the fact that most of them are connected with
classical Lie geometry. Theory of distance regular graphs is an important part of algebraic combinatorics
and its applications such as coding theory, communication networks, and block design. An important tool
for investigation of such graphs is their spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a
graph. Let G be a finite simple group of Lie type and X be the set homogeneous elements of the associated
geometry. The complexity of computing the adjacency matrices of a graph Gr on the vertices X such that
Aut GR = G depends very much on the description of the geometry with which one starts. For example, we
can represent the geometry as the totality of 1 cosets of parabolic subgroups 2 chains of embedded
subspaces (case of linear groups), or totally isotropic subspaces (case of the remaining classical groups), 3
special subspaces of minimal module for G which are defined in terms of a G invariant multilinear form.
The aim of this research is to develop an effective method for generation of graphs connected with classical
geometry and evaluation of its spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a graph. The
main approach is to avoid manual drawing and to calculate graph layout automatically according to its
formal structure. This is a simple task in a case of a tree like graph with a strict hierarchy of entities but it
becomes more complicated for graphs of geometrical nature. There are two main reasons for the
investigations of spectra: (1) very often spectra carry much more useful information about the graph than a
corresponding list of entities and relationships (2) graphs with special spectra, satisfying so called
Ramanujan property or simply Ramanujan graphs (by name of Indian genius mathematician) are important
for real life applications (see [13]). There is a motivated suspicion that among geometrical graphs one
could find some new Ramanujan graphs.
An analysis between exact and approximate algorithms for the k-center proble...IJECEIAES
This research focuses on the k-center problem and its applications. Different methods for solving this problem are analyzed. The implementations of an exact algorithm and of an approximate algorithm are presented. The source code and the computation complexity of these algorithms are presented and analyzed. The multitasking mode of the operating system is taken into account considering the execution time of the algorithms. The results show that the approximate algorithm finds solutions that are not worse than two times optimal. In some case these solutions are very close to the optimal solutions, but this is true only for graphs with a smaller number of nodes. As the number of nodes in the graph increases (respectively the number of edges increases), the approximate solutions deviate from the optimal ones, but remain acceptable. These results give reason to conclude that for graphs with a small number of nodes the approximate algorithm finds comparable solutions with those founds by the exact algorithm.
FREQUENT SUBGRAPH MINING ALGORITHMS - A SURVEY AND FRAMEWORK FOR CLASSIFICATIONcscpconf
Data mining algorithms are facing the challenge to deal with an increasing number of complex
objects. Graph is a natural data structure used for modeling complex objects. Frequent subgraph
mining is another active research topic in data mining . A graph is a general model to represent
data and has been used in many domains like cheminformatics and bioinformatics. Mining
patterns from graph databases is challenging since graph related operations, such as subgraph
testing, generally have higher time complexity than the corresponding operations on itemsets,
sequences, and trees. Many frequent subgraph Mining algorithms have been proposed. SPIN,
SUBDUE, g_Span, FFSM, GREW are a few to mention. In this paper we present a detailed
survey on frequent subgraph mining algorithms, which are used for knowledge discovery in
complex objects and also propose a frame work for classification of these algorithms. The
purpose is to help user to apply the techniques in a task specific manner in various application domains and to pave wave for further research.
An analysis between different algorithms for the graph vertex coloring problem IJECEIAES
This research focuses on an analysis of different algorithms for the graph vertex coloring problem. Some approaches to solving the problem are discussed. Moreover, some studies for the problem and several methods for its solution are analyzed as well. An exact algorithm (using the backtracking method) is presented. The complexity analysis of the algorithm is discussed. Determining the average execution time of the exact algorithm is consistent with the multitasking mode of the operating system. This algorithm generates optimal solutions for all studied graphs. In addition, two heuristic algorithms for solving the graph vertex coloring problem are used as well. The results show that the exact algorithm can be used to solve the graph vertex coloring problem for small graphs with 30-35 vertices. For half of the graphs, all three algorithms have found the optimal solutions. The suboptimal solutions generated by the approximate algorithms are identical in terms of the number of colors needed to color the corresponding graphs. The results show that the linear increase in the number of vertices and edges of the analyzed graphs causes a linear increase in the number of colors needed to color these graphs.
3D Graph Drawings: Good Viewing for Occluded VerticesIJERA Editor
The growing studies show that the human brain can comprehend increasingly complex structures if they are
displayed as objects in three dimensional spaces. In addition to that, recent technological advances have led to
the production of a lot of data, and consequently have led to many large and complex models of 3D graph
drawings in many domains. Good Drawing (Visualization) resolves the problems of the occluded structures of
the graph drawings and amplifies human understanding, thus leading to new insights, findings and predictions.
We present method for drawing 3D graphs which uses a force-directed algorithm as a framework.
The main result of this work is that, 3D graph drawing and presentation techniques are combined available at
interactive speed. Even large graphs with hundreds of vertices can be meaningfully displayed by enhancing the
presentation with additional attributes of graph drawings and the possibility of interactive user navigation.
In the implementation, we interactively visualize many 3D graphs of different size and complexity to support
our method. We show that Gephi Software is capable of producing good viewpoints for 3D graph drawing, by
its built-in force directed layout algorithms.
ON ALGORITHMIC PROBLEMS CONCERNING GRAPHS OF HIGHER DEGREE OF SYMMETRYFransiskeran
Since the ancient determination of the five platonic solids the study of symmetry and regularity has always
been one of the most fascinating aspects of mathematics. One intriguing phenomenon of studies in graph
theory is the fact that quite often arithmetic regularity properties of a graph imply the existence of many
symmetries, i.e. large automorphism group G. In some important special situation higher degree of
regularity means that G is an automorphism group of finite geometry. For example, a glance through the
list of distance regular graphs of diameter d < 3 reveals the fact that most of them are connected with
classical Lie geometry. Theory of distance regular graphs is an important part of algebraic combinatorics
and its applications such as coding theory, communication networks, and block design. An important tool
for investigation of such graphs is their spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a
graph. Let G be a finite simple group of Lie type and X be the set homogeneous elements of the associated
geometry.
On algorithmic problems concerning graphs of higher degree of symmetrygraphhoc
Since the ancient determination of the five platonic solids the study of symmetry and regularity has always
been one of the most fascinating aspects of mathematics. One intriguing phenomenon of studies in graph
theory is the fact that quite often arithmetic regularity properties of a graph imply the existence of many
symmetries, i.e. large automorphism group G. In some important special situation higher degree of
regularity means that G is an automorphism group of finite geometry. For example, a glance through the
list of distance regular graphs of diameter d < 3 reveals the fact that most of them are connected with
classical Lie geometry. Theory of distance regular graphs is an important part of algebraic combinatorics
and its applications such as coding theory, communication networks, and block design. An important tool
for investigation of such graphs is their spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a
graph. Let G be a finite simple group of Lie type and X be the set homogeneous elements of the associated
geometry. The complexity of computing the adjacency matrices of a graph Gr on the vertices X such that
Aut GR = G depends very much on the description of the geometry with which one starts. For example, we
can represent the geometry as the totality of 1 cosets of parabolic subgroups 2 chains of embedded
subspaces (case of linear groups), or totally isotropic subspaces (case of the remaining classical groups), 3
special subspaces of minimal module for G which are defined in terms of a G invariant multilinear form.
The aim of this research is to develop an effective method for generation of graphs connected with classical
geometry and evaluation of its spectra, which is the set of eigenvalues of adjacency matrix of a graph. The
main approach is to avoid manual drawing and to calculate graph layout automatically according to its
formal structure. This is a simple task in a case of a tree like graph with a strict hierarchy of entities but it
becomes more complicated for graphs of geometrical nature. There are two main reasons for the
investigations of spectra: (1) very often spectra carry much more useful information about the graph than a
corresponding list of entities and relationships (2) graphs with special spectra, satisfying so called
Ramanujan property or simply Ramanujan graphs (by name of Indian genius mathematician) are important
for real life applications (see [13]). There is a motivated suspicion that among geometrical graphs one
could find some new Ramanujan graphs.
An analysis between exact and approximate algorithms for the k-center proble...IJECEIAES
This research focuses on the k-center problem and its applications. Different methods for solving this problem are analyzed. The implementations of an exact algorithm and of an approximate algorithm are presented. The source code and the computation complexity of these algorithms are presented and analyzed. The multitasking mode of the operating system is taken into account considering the execution time of the algorithms. The results show that the approximate algorithm finds solutions that are not worse than two times optimal. In some case these solutions are very close to the optimal solutions, but this is true only for graphs with a smaller number of nodes. As the number of nodes in the graph increases (respectively the number of edges increases), the approximate solutions deviate from the optimal ones, but remain acceptable. These results give reason to conclude that for graphs with a small number of nodes the approximate algorithm finds comparable solutions with those founds by the exact algorithm.
FREQUENT SUBGRAPH MINING ALGORITHMS - A SURVEY AND FRAMEWORK FOR CLASSIFICATIONcscpconf
Data mining algorithms are facing the challenge to deal with an increasing number of complex
objects. Graph is a natural data structure used for modeling complex objects. Frequent subgraph
mining is another active research topic in data mining . A graph is a general model to represent
data and has been used in many domains like cheminformatics and bioinformatics. Mining
patterns from graph databases is challenging since graph related operations, such as subgraph
testing, generally have higher time complexity than the corresponding operations on itemsets,
sequences, and trees. Many frequent subgraph Mining algorithms have been proposed. SPIN,
SUBDUE, g_Span, FFSM, GREW are a few to mention. In this paper we present a detailed
survey on frequent subgraph mining algorithms, which are used for knowledge discovery in
complex objects and also propose a frame work for classification of these algorithms. The
purpose is to help user to apply the techniques in a task specific manner in various application domains and to pave wave for further research.
An analysis between different algorithms for the graph vertex coloring problem IJECEIAES
This research focuses on an analysis of different algorithms for the graph vertex coloring problem. Some approaches to solving the problem are discussed. Moreover, some studies for the problem and several methods for its solution are analyzed as well. An exact algorithm (using the backtracking method) is presented. The complexity analysis of the algorithm is discussed. Determining the average execution time of the exact algorithm is consistent with the multitasking mode of the operating system. This algorithm generates optimal solutions for all studied graphs. In addition, two heuristic algorithms for solving the graph vertex coloring problem are used as well. The results show that the exact algorithm can be used to solve the graph vertex coloring problem for small graphs with 30-35 vertices. For half of the graphs, all three algorithms have found the optimal solutions. The suboptimal solutions generated by the approximate algorithms are identical in terms of the number of colors needed to color the corresponding graphs. The results show that the linear increase in the number of vertices and edges of the analyzed graphs causes a linear increase in the number of colors needed to color these graphs.
3D Graph Drawings: Good Viewing for Occluded VerticesIJERA Editor
The growing studies show that the human brain can comprehend increasingly complex structures if they are
displayed as objects in three dimensional spaces. In addition to that, recent technological advances have led to
the production of a lot of data, and consequently have led to many large and complex models of 3D graph
drawings in many domains. Good Drawing (Visualization) resolves the problems of the occluded structures of
the graph drawings and amplifies human understanding, thus leading to new insights, findings and predictions.
We present method for drawing 3D graphs which uses a force-directed algorithm as a framework.
The main result of this work is that, 3D graph drawing and presentation techniques are combined available at
interactive speed. Even large graphs with hundreds of vertices can be meaningfully displayed by enhancing the
presentation with additional attributes of graph drawings and the possibility of interactive user navigation.
In the implementation, we interactively visualize many 3D graphs of different size and complexity to support
our method. We show that Gephi Software is capable of producing good viewpoints for 3D graph drawing, by
its built-in force directed layout algorithms.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
MATATAG CURRICULUM: ASSESSING THE READINESS OF ELEM. PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS I...NelTorrente
In this research, it concludes that while the readiness of teachers in Caloocan City to implement the MATATAG Curriculum is generally positive, targeted efforts in professional development, resource distribution, support networks, and comprehensive preparation can address the existing gaps and ensure successful curriculum implementation.
2. Volume 2 | Issue 5 | September-October-2017 | www.ijsrcseit.com | UGC Approved Journal [ Journal No : 64718 ] 752
Theory. Anyhow the term “Graph” was innovated by
Sylvester in 1878 where he drew an analogy between
“Quantic Invariants” and co-variants of algebra and
molecular diagrams. In the year 1941, Ramsey worked
on colorations which lead to the identification of
another branch of Graph Theory called extremely
Graph Theory. In the year 1969, Heinrich has solved
the Four Colour problem by using a computer. The
study of asymptotic graph connectivity gave arise to
random graph theory.
Many problems that are considered hard to determine
or implement can easily solve use of graph theory.
There are various types of graphs as a part of graph
theory. Each type of graph is associated with a special
property. The most application makes use of one of this
graph in order to find the solution to the problems.
Because of the representation power of graphs and
flexibility, any problem may be represented as graphs
and easily solved. A problem that is solved by graph
theory includes Resource allocation, distance
minimization, network formation, optimal path
identification, data mining, circuit minimization, image
capturing, image processing.
II. Related Work
By virtue of the gradual research was done in graph
theory, graph theory has become relatively vast subject
in mathematics. Graph theory includes different types
of graphs, each having basic graph properties and some
additional properties. These properties separate a graph
from there type of graphs. These properties arrange
vertex and edges of a graph is some specific structure.
There are different operations that can be performed
over various types of graph. Therefore, graph theory
can be considered the large and complicated subject.
On the other side, graphs are used in more applications
as a powerful tool to solve large and complicated
problems. The problems that can be solved by graphs
cover many fields such as Chemistry, Biology,
Computer Science and Operational Research. Hence
graphs theory is useful in many applications and these
applications are widely used in real the field. Almost
each field today makes use of graph theory, such as
search computer networks. Hence to absolutely
implement these applications and to operate them, it is
essential to have the clear idea of graph theory. Often
material is not able to cover all the corners of graph
theory. Materials that successfully give every small
detail of graph theory fail to give brief details about
where those concepts are used in real life applications.
Materials covering the application of graph theory
often fail to describe the basics of the graphs and their
characteristics. The authors of this paper make an
attempt to give basics fundaments of graph theory
along with the proper knowledge of where these
fundaments are used i.e. their application. This paper
contains definitions of different types of graphs by
which helps to provide the proper understanding of
graph theory. After that major application of these
graph theory are given in various subjects. The major
fields that extensively usage graphs are Biochemistry,
Genomics, Electrical Engineering - communication
networks and coding theory, Computer Science
algorithms and computations, Operation Research -
scheduling. Various application of graph theory in the
real field has been identified and represented along
with what type of graphs are used in that application.
The Authors tries to give a basic conceptual
understanding of all such type of graphs.
III. Basic Concept of Graph Theory
Earlier we may realize the application of graphs we
need to know some definitions that are part of graph
theory. The Author of this paper has identified some
definitions and has delineated it is so easy to realize
manner.
3.1 Graph: A graph-generally denoted G(V,E) or G=
(V,E) – consists of the set of vertices V unitedly with a
set of edges E. The number of vertices in a graph is
normally denoted n while the number of edges is
normally denoted m [1].
Example: The graph given in the figure 3.1.2 has vertex
set V={1,2,3,4,5,6} and edge
set={(1,2),(1,5),(2,3),(2,5),(3,4),(4,5),(6,6)}.
Figure 1- Simple Graph
3. Volume 2 | Issue 5 | September-October-2017 | www.ijsrcseit.com | UGC Approved Journal [ Journal No : 64718 ] 753
3.2 Vertex: The vertex is the point at which two rays
(edges) of an angle or two edges of a polygon meet.
3.3 Edge: An edge is a line at which vertices are
connected in the graph. Edges are denoted by E=(U,V)
it is a pair of two vertices.
3.4. Undirected graph: An undirected graph is a graph
in which edges have no orientation. The edge (p,q) is
identical to the edge (q,p), i.e., they are not ordered
pairs, but sets {p,q} (or 2- multi-sets) of vertices. The
maximum number of edges in an undirected graph
without a loop is n(n − 1)/2.
3.5. Directed graph: A directed graph in which each
edge is represented by an ordered pair of two vertices,
e.g. (Vi,Vj) denotes an edge from Vi to Vj (from the
first vertex to the second vertex).
3.6. Connected graph: A graph G= (V,E) is expressed
to be connected graph if there exists a path between
every pair of vertices in graph G.
3.7. Loop: Edges drawn from a vertex to itself is called
a loop.
3.8. Parallel edges: In a graph G= (V, E) if a pair of
vertices is allowed to join by more than one edges,
those edges are called parallel edges and the resulting
graph is called multi-graph.
3.9. Simple graph: A graph G= (V, E) has no loops
and no multiple edges (parallel edges) is called simple
graph.
3.10. Adjacent vertices: In a graph G= (V, E) two
vertices are said to be adjacent (neighbor) if there exists
an edge between the two vertices.
3.11. Adjacency matrix: Every graph has associated
with it an adjacency matrix, which is a binary n×n
matrix A in which aij=1 and aji=1 if vertex vi is adjacent
to vertex vj and aij=0 and aji=0 otherwise. The natural
graphical representation of an adjacency matrix s a
table, such as shown below.
Figure 2- Example of an adjacency matrix.
3.12. The Degree of a vertex: Number of edges that
are incident to the vertex is called the degree of the
vertex.
3.13. Regular graph: In a graph if all vertices have
same degree (incident edges) k than it is called a
regular graph.
3.14. Complete graph: A simple graph G= (V, E) with
n mutually adjacent vertices is called a complete graph
G and it is denoted by Kn or A simple graph G= (V, E)
in which every vertex in mutually adjacent to all other
vertices is called a complete graph G.
3.15. Cycle graph: A simple graph G= (V, E) with n
vertices (n≥3), n edges is called a cycle graph.
3.16. Wheel graph: A wheel graph G= (V, E) with n
vertices (n≥4), is a simple graph which can be obtained
from the cycle graph Cn-1 by adding a new vertex (as a
hub), which is adjacent to all vertices of Cn-1.
3.17. Cyclic and acyclic graph: A graph G= (V, E)
has at least one Cycle is called cyclic graph and a graph
has no cycle is called Acyclic graph.
3.18. Connected graph and Disconnected Graph: A
graph G= (V, E) is said to be connected if there exists
at least one path between every pair of vertices in G.
Otherwise, G is disconnected.
3.19. Tree: A connected acyclic graph is called tree or
a connected graph without any cycles is called tree.
3.20. Bipartite graph: A simple graph G= (V, E) is
Bipartite if we may partition its vertex set V to
disjoining sets U and V such that there are no edges
between U and V. We say that (U, V) is a Bipartition of
G. A Bipartite graph is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3- Bipartite graph
3.21. Complete bipartite graph: A bipartite graph G=
(V, E) with vertex partition U, V is known as a
complete bipartite graph if every vertex in U is adjacent
to every vertex in V.
3.22. Vertex coloring: An assignment of colors to the
vertices of a graph G so that no two adjacent vertices of
G have the same color is called vertex coloring of a
graph G.
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Figure 4- Vertex coloring
3.23. Chromatic number: The minimum number of
colors required for the vertex coloring of a graph G, is
called the chromatic number of graph G.
3.24. Line covering: Let G= (V, E) be a graph. A
subset C of E is called a line covering (Edge covering)
of a graph G if every vertex of graph G is incident with
at least one edge in C.
3.25. Vertex covering: Let G= (V, E) be a graph. A
subset K of V is called a vertex covering of graph G if
every edge of graph G is incident with a vertex in K.
3.26. Spanning tree: Let G= (V, E) be a graph. A
subset M of G is called a spanning tree of graph G, if
M is a tree and M contains all the vertices of graph G.
Figure 5- Spanning Tree
3.27. Cut vertex: Let G= (V, E) be a connected graph.
A vertex V ϵ G is called a cut vertex of graph G, if “G
– V” results in a disconnected graph G.
3.28. Cut edge: Let G= (V, E) be a connected graph,
an edge E ϵ G is called a cut edge of graph G, if “G-E”
result in a disconnected graph G.
3.29. Euler graph: A connected graph G=(V, E) is
said to be Euler graph (traversable), if there exists a
path which includes, (which contains each edge of the
graph G exactly once) and each vertex at least once (if
we can draw the graph on a plain paper without
repeating any edge or letting the pen). Such a path is
called Euler path.
Figure 6- Euler Graph
3.30. Euler circuit: An Euler path in which a starting
vertex of the path is same as ending vertex of the path
is called as Euler circuit (closed path).
3.31. Hamiltonian graph: A connected graph G= (V,
E) is said to be the Hamiltonian graph if there exists a
cycle which contains all vertices of graph G. Such a
cycle is called Hamiltonian cycle.
Figure 7- Hamiltonian Graph
IV. Applications of Graph Theory in Real
Field
Graphs are used to model many problem of the various
real fields. Graphs are extremely powerful and however
flexible tool to model. Graph theory includes many
methodologies by which this modelled problem can be
solved. The Author of the paper have identified such
problems, some of which are determined of this paper.
There are many numbers of applications of graph
theory, some applications are delineated as follows:
4.1. GPS or Google Maps:
GPS or Google Maps are to find out the shortest route
from one destination to another. The goals are Vertices
and their connections are Edges consisting distance.
The optimal route is determined by the software.
Schools/ Colleges are also using this proficiency to
gather up students from their stop to school. To each
one stop is a vertex and the route is an edge. A
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Hamiltonian path presents the efficiency of including
every vertex in the route.
4.2. Traffic Signal Lights:
To study the traffic control problem at an arbitrary
point of intersection, it has to be modeled
mathematically by using a simple graph for the traffic
accumulation data problem. The set of edges of the
rudimentary graph will represent the communication
link between the set of nodes at an intersection. In the
graph stand for the traffic control problem, the traffic
streams which may move at the same time at an
intersection without any difference will be joined by an
edge and the streams which cannot move together will
not be connected by an edge.
The functioning of traffic lights i.e. turning
Green/Red/Yellow lights and timing between them.
Here vertex coloring technique is utilised to solve
contravenes of time and space by identifying the
chromatic number for the number of cycles needed.
4.3. Social Networks:
We connect with friends via social media or a video
gets viral, here user is a Vertex and other connected
users produce an edge, therefore videos get viral when
reached to certain connections. In sociology, economics,
political science, medicine, social biology, psychology,
anthropology, history, and related fields, one often
wants to study a society by examining the structure of
connections within the society. This could befriend
networks in a high school or Facebook, support
networks in a village or political/business connection
networks. For these sorts of networks, some basic
questions are: how do things like information flow or
wealth flow or shared opinions relate to the structure of
the networks, and which players have the most
influence? In medicine, one is often interested in
physical contact networks and modeling/preventing the
spread of diseases. In some sense, even more, basic
questions are how do we collect the data to determine
these networks, or when infeasible, how to model these
networks.
The modern semantic search engine, which is called
Facebook Graph Search acquaint by Facebook in
March 2013. In general, all search engine gives result
in list of link, but Facebook Graph Search gives the
answer to user in nature language rather than a list of
links. In Facebook Graph Search engine graph Search
feature combining external data into a search engine
allow user particular search results and the big data
acquired from its over one billion users. In Facebook
Graph Search engine search algorithm is same, as
Google search engine algorithm so searching will very
faster in Facebook site.
4.4. To clear road blockage:
When roads of a city are blocked due to ice. Planning is
needed to put salt on the roads. Then Euler paths or
circuits are used to traverse the streets in the most
efficient way.
4.5. While using Google to search for Webpages, Pages
are linked to each other by hyperlinks. Each page is a
vertex and the link between two pages is an edge.
4.6. The matching problem:
In order to assign jobs to employees (servers) there is
an analogue in software to maximize the efficiency.
4.7. Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP):-
TSP is a very much intimate problem which is
founded on Hamilton cycle. The problem statement is:
Given a number of cities and the cost of traveling from
any city to any another city, find the cheapest round-
trip route that visits every city precisely once and
returns to the starting city. In graph terminology, where
the vertices of the graph present cities and the edges
present the cost of traveling between the connected
cities (adjacent vertices), traveling salesman problem is
almost trying to find out the Hamilton cycle with the
minimum weight. This problem has been exhibited to
be NP-Hard. Even though the problem is
computationally very difficult, a large number of
heuristic program and accurate methods are known, so
that some instances with tens of thousands of cities
have been solved. The most direct solution would be to
try all permutations and see which one is cheapest
(using brute force search). The running time for this
approach is O(V !), the factorial of the number of cities,
thus this solution gets visionary even for only 24 cities.
A dynamic programming solution solves the problem
with a runtime complexity of O(V 26V ) by considering
dp[end][state] which means the minimum cost to travel
from start vertex to end vertex using the vertices stated
in the state (start vertex may be any vertex chosen at
the start). As there are V 2V subproblems and the time
complexity to solve each sub-problems is O(V ), the
overall runtime complexity O(V 26V ).
4.8. Timetable scheduling:
Allotment of classes and subjects to the teachers is one
of the major issues if the constraints are complex.
Graph theory plays a significant role in this problem.
For m teachers with n subjects, the usable number of p
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periods timetable has to be prepared. This is done as
follows. A bipartite graph (or bigraph) is a graph whose
vertices may be divided into two disjoint sets U and V
such that every edge connects a vertex in U to one in V;
that is, U and V are independent sets G where the
vertices are the number of teachers say m1, m2, m3,
m4, ……. mk and n number of subjects say n1, n2, n3,
n4, ……. nm such that the vertices are connected by pi
edges. It is assumed that at any one period each teacher
may teach at almost one subject and that each subject
may be taught by maximum one teacher. Consider the
first period. The timetable for this single period
consistent to a matching in the graph and conversely,
each matching consistent to a imaginable assignment of
teachers to subjects taught during that period. So, the
solution for the timetabling problem will be obtained
by partitioning the edges of graph G into a minimum
number of matching. Also, the edges have to be colored
with a minimum number of colors. This problem may
also be solved by vertex coloring algorithm. “The line
graph L(G) of G has an equal number of vertices and
edges of G and two vertices in L(G) are connected by
an edge if the corresponding edges of G have a vertex
in common. The line graph L(G) is a simple graph and
a proper vertex coloring of L(G) gives a proper edge
coloring of G by the same number of colors. So, the
problem may be solved by finding minimum proper
vertex coloring of L(G).” For example, Consider there
are 4 teachers namely m1, m2, m3, m4 and 5 subjects say
n1, n2, n3, n4, n5 to be taught. The teaching requirement
matrix P = [Pij] is given below.
P n1 n2 n3 n4 n5
m1 2 0 1 1 0
m2 0 1 0 1 0
m3 0 1 1 1 0
m4 0 0 0 1 1
Table- 1: The teaching requirement matrix for four
teachers and five subjects
The bipartite graph is constructed follows as,
Figure 8- Bipartite graph with Four Teachers and five
Subjects
Finally, the authors found that proper coloring of the
above-mentioned graph can be done by four colors
using the vertex coloring algorithm which leads to the
edge coloring of the bipartite multigraph G. Four colors
are explained to four periods.
V. APPLICATIONS OF GRAPH THEORY IN
TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Graphs Applications in Computer Science:-
Computer networks are too much of the most popular
in today’s real life. In computer networks nodes are
connected to each other with the help of links. This
final network of nodes forms a graph. In computer
network graph is used to form a network of nodes and
enable useful packet routing in the network. This
comprehends determination the shortest paths between
the nodes, analyze the current network traffic and
search fasted root between the nodes, searching cost-
efficient route between the nodes. Standard algorithms
like that Dijkstra’s algorithm, Bellman-Ford algorithm
are used to in the different ways with graph to get the
solutions.
5.1.1. Data Mining:-
Data mining is a process of comprehending needed data
from immense data with the help of different methods.
Mostly the data we deal with in data science can be
shaped as graphs. These graphs may be mined applying
known algorithms and various techniques in graph
theory to realise them in the better system, e.g. in social
networks every person in the network could be
divinatory as a vertex and any connection between
them is so called as an edge. Any problem-related
logistics could be modeled as a network. The Graph is
an entrancing model of data backed with a strong
theory and a set of quality algorithms to solve related
problems.
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5.1.2. GSM Mobile Phone Networks and Map
Coloring:-
Groups Special Mobile (GSM) is a mobile phone
network where the geographical region of this network
is divided into hexagonal regions. All mobile phones
link up to the GSM network by searching for cells in
the neighbors. Since GSM operate only in four discrete
frequency ranges, it is clear by the conception of graph
theory that only four colors can be utilised to the color
of the cellular regions. These four different colors are
applied for the proper coloring of the regions. The
vertex coloring algorithm can be used to allocate at
almost four discrete frequencies for any GSM mobile
phone network.
Given a map drawn on the plane or on the surface of a
sphere, the four color theorem resources that it is
forever potential to color the regions of a map properly
using at almost four different colors such that no two
adjacent regions are assigned the similar color. Now, a
dual graph is created by setting a vertex inside each
region of the map and connect two different vertices by
an edge if their respective regions share all section of
their limits in ordinary. Where the appropriate coloring
of the dual graph gives the suitable coloring of the
original map. Since coloring of the regions of a planar
graph G is equivalent to coloring the vertices of its dual
graph and contrarily. By coloring the map regions
using four color theorem, the four frequencies may be
assigned to the regions consequently.
5.1.3. Web Designing:-
Website designing may be structured as a graph, where
the web pages are entitled by vertices and the
hyperlinks between them are entitled by edges in the
graph. This concept is called as a web graph. Which
enquire the interesting information? Other
implementation areas of graphs are in the web
community. Where the vertices constitute classes of
objects, and each vertex symbolizing one type of
objects, and each vertex is connected to every vertex
symbolizing another kind of objects. In graph theory
such as a graph is called a complete bipartite graph.
There are many benefits graph theory in website
development like Searching and community discovery,
Directed Graph is used in website usefulness evaluation
and link structure. Also searching all connected
component and providing easy detection.
5.1.4. Language Processing:-
In the Computer language processing in the tools
corresponding compiler parse tree are applied to
identify if the input is having correct syntactic structure
or not. This parse tree is make from directed acyclic
graph make on lexical entities. Graph is here put upon
to identify correct structure of input and to assist entire
processing of language.
5.1.5. Code Decoding:-
Usually, in modern coding theory Bipartite graph is
applied for decoding the code words which are,
receives from the channel. For example Factor graph
and Tanner graph is mainly applied for decoding the
code. Tanner graph is an application of bipartite graph
therefore, vertices are divided into two parts in which
the first bipartition represent the digit of the code word,
and the another side bipartition represent the
combination of digits that are expected to sum zero in a
code word except for errors.
5.1.6. Electronic Chip Design:-
In electronic chip design for each one component is
well thought out as a vertex of the graph. The machine
that makes the connection between these components a
printed circuit board gets input in the form of a graph
where edges refer that there is a connection between
the pair of components. The head that makes this
connection on the board then get the optimal to moves
across the chip to get the in-demand resultant circuit.
5.1.7.
The computer has a lot of hardware as well as the
software component. Of that one of the components is
a compiler. It is computer programme that translates
the one computer language into other languages. One
of the compiler optimization technique for register
allotment to improve the performance time is register
allotment method, in which most frequently used
values of the compiled programme are kept in fast
processor registers. Generally, register gets real value
when they used for operations. In the textbook, the
register allocation method is to model as graph coloring
model. The compiler makes an intervention graph,
where vertices are symbolical registers and an edge
may be colored with k-colors then the variables may be
stored in k-registers.
5.2. Graphs in Operation Research:-
Graph theory is a really natural and powerful tool in
combinatorial operations research. Some important
Operation Research problems which may be explicate
using graphs are given here. The transport network is
used to model the transportation of commodity from
one destination to another destination. The objective is
to maximize the flow or minimize the cost within the
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recommended flow. The graph theory is established as
more than competent for these types of problems
though they have more than restraints. In this operation
research directed graph is known as the network, the
vertices are known as a node and the edges are known
as arcs. There are many applications of the network
flow model, like some of them are a picture a series of
water pipes fitting into a network, Kirchhoff‟s current
law, ecology, food web, information theory,
thermodynamics, Robert Ulanowicz. The one of
simplest and common approach, which is used network
flow, is maximum network flow. In which find out a
path from source to sink (destination) that is carried out
the maximum flow capacity. Figure 6 is an example of
maximum flow, in which 11 is maximum flow in the
network.
Figure 9- Example of maximum flow network.
5.3. Graphs in Chemistry:-
The structural formulae of covalently bonded
compounds are graphs; they are known as
constitutional graphs. Graph theory provides the basis
for definition, enumeration, systematization,
codification, nomenclature, correlation, and computer
programming. The chemical information is associated
with structural formulae and that structural formulae
may be consistently and uniquely exponent and
redeemed. One does translate chemical structures into
words by nomenclature rules. Graphs are important for
the polymer. The grandness of graph theory for
chemistry stems mainly from the existence of the
phenomenon of isomerism, which is rationalized by
chemical structure theory. This theory calculates for all
constitutional isomers by using purely graph-theoretical
methods.
5.4. Graphs in Biology:-
Graph Theory is a really large subject; it is also
extensively used for the analysis in biological networks.
In biology analysis, the number of components of the
system and their fundamental interactions is
differentiating as network and they are usually
represented as graphs where lots of nodes are
connected with thousands of vertices. Graphs are
widely used in following biological analysis; Protein-
protein interaction (PPI) networks, Regulatory
networks (GRNs), Signal transduction networks, and
Metabolic and biochemical networks. If we analysis
above components than it will be generated the
structure network which is similar to one of the graph
component in graph theory. Graph isomorphism
method may be used for matching two components in
the biological analysis. If two graphs are isomorphic to
each other than we may conclude that the following
biological component like protein interaction,
biochemical have same molecular property in the
biological component. Similarly isomorphism there is
subgraph may be also applied for the biological
analysis method. If among two graphs one of the
graphs is sub-graph than in biological analysis the sub-
graph component formula may be calculated from main
biological graph component. According to above
example, we must have knowledge about graph theory
then only we may realize the concept of biological
analysis in the real field.
5.5. Geography:-
Consider a map, say of India. Let each country be a
vertex and connect two vertices with an edge if those
countries share a border. A famous problem that went
unsolved for over a hundred years was the four color
problem. Roughly this states that any map can be
colored with at most 4 colors in such a way that no two
adjacent countries have the same color. This problem
motivated a lot of the development of graph theory and
was finally proved with the aid of a computer in 1976.
VI. Conclusion
The main aim of this paper is to present the importance
of graph theoretical ideas in various areas of the real
field for the researcher that we may use graph
theoretical concepts for the research. An overview is
presented particularly to project the concept of graph
theory. Thus, the graph theory section of each paper is
given importance than to the other sections. This paper
is useful for students and researchers to get an
overview of graph theory and its application in various
real fields like everyday life, Computer Science,
Operation Research, Chemistry, Biology, and
Geography. There are many problems in this area
which are eventually to be examined. Researchers may
get some information related to graph theory and its
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applications in the real field and may get some ideas
related to their field of research.
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