This document discusses multi-stage transistor amplifiers and differential amplifier circuits. It describes how multi-stage amplifiers can be formed using multiple BJT or FET transistors coupled directly or through capacitors. Examples given include Darlington pairs, differential pairs, and cascode amplifiers. It also discusses how feedback can be used in amplifiers, describing positive and negative feedback. The document then focuses on differential amplifier circuits, explaining their basic configuration, principles of operation in differential and common modes, and various input/output configurations. Worked examples are provided to calculate component values for a designed differential amplifier.
This document discusses multi-stage transistor amplifiers and differential amplifier circuits. It describes how multi-stage amplifiers can be formed by coupling multiple transistors directly or with capacitors. Differential amplifiers are formed from two common emitter amplifiers connected together. They amplify the difference between two input signals but not signals that are equal at both inputs. The document provides details on the operating principles, configurations, and modes of a differential amplifier.
This document contains information about several transistor amplifier circuits. It discusses the feedback pair circuit, which is similar to a Darlington pair but connects a PNP transistor to control an NPN transistor. It also describes the differential amplifier circuit, which amplifies the difference between two input voltages and suppresses any common voltage. Finally, it provides examples of circuit analysis questions involving determining currents and voltages in circuits using transistors.
Electrónica: Kit de radio AM/FM, La radio superhet modelo AM / FM-108CK conti...SANTIAGO PABLO ALBERTO
The document provides instructions for assembling an AM/FM radio kit, including lists of the required parts and their identification, as well as explanations of the construction and operation of the radio's different sections, such as the audio amplifier, AM and FM detectors, oscillators, and mixers. Detailed diagrams illustrate the circuit board layout and schematics are provided to explain the signal flow through each stage of the radio from antenna to speaker.
Electrónica: U2510B IC de amplificador de audio y receptor AM / FM para todas...SANTIAGO PABLO ALBERTO
The U2510B is an integrated circuit that contains an AM/FM radio receiver and audio amplifier. It has features like AGC, soft mute, and level indicators. It can operate in AM, FM, and tape modes with a wide supply voltage range and low power consumption. The circuit is designed for use in clock radios and portable cassette players.
Se explica de forma sencilla el uso de la polarización fija para activar relevadores y la polarización divisor de voltaje en amplificadores de pequeña señal de una etapa.
This document discusses transistor amplifier circuits with multiple stages. It covers topics like how amplifier circuits use resistors, capacitors, and transistors to receive an electrical signal and output an amplified version without distortion. It also discusses different types of feedback like negative feedback, which decreases gain but improves other characteristics. Exercises are presented on designing multistage amplifier circuits and calculating gains using methods like selective de-coupling.
Here are the steps to solve this:
1) VZ = VBE3 (zener voltage is equal to BJT base-emitter voltage)
2) Using KVL: -VZ + VBE3 + IE3RE = 0
3) Simplify: IE3RE = 0
4) IE3 is constant
Therefore, with a zener diode replacing R2, the current IE3 (and thus IT) remains constant regardless of load or temperature variations. The zener diode acts to stabilize the BJT base-emitter voltage, keeping the current constant.
The document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including:
1) Ohm's law defines the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in circuits.
2) Schematics use symbols to represent circuit elements and show how they are connected.
3) Resistors in series and parallel follow specific rules to calculate total resistance.
4) Capacitors store charge and their behavior changes with frequency based on impedance.
This document discusses multi-stage transistor amplifiers and differential amplifier circuits. It describes how multi-stage amplifiers can be formed by coupling multiple transistors directly or with capacitors. Differential amplifiers are formed from two common emitter amplifiers connected together. They amplify the difference between two input signals but not signals that are equal at both inputs. The document provides details on the operating principles, configurations, and modes of a differential amplifier.
This document contains information about several transistor amplifier circuits. It discusses the feedback pair circuit, which is similar to a Darlington pair but connects a PNP transistor to control an NPN transistor. It also describes the differential amplifier circuit, which amplifies the difference between two input voltages and suppresses any common voltage. Finally, it provides examples of circuit analysis questions involving determining currents and voltages in circuits using transistors.
Electrónica: Kit de radio AM/FM, La radio superhet modelo AM / FM-108CK conti...SANTIAGO PABLO ALBERTO
The document provides instructions for assembling an AM/FM radio kit, including lists of the required parts and their identification, as well as explanations of the construction and operation of the radio's different sections, such as the audio amplifier, AM and FM detectors, oscillators, and mixers. Detailed diagrams illustrate the circuit board layout and schematics are provided to explain the signal flow through each stage of the radio from antenna to speaker.
Electrónica: U2510B IC de amplificador de audio y receptor AM / FM para todas...SANTIAGO PABLO ALBERTO
The U2510B is an integrated circuit that contains an AM/FM radio receiver and audio amplifier. It has features like AGC, soft mute, and level indicators. It can operate in AM, FM, and tape modes with a wide supply voltage range and low power consumption. The circuit is designed for use in clock radios and portable cassette players.
Se explica de forma sencilla el uso de la polarización fija para activar relevadores y la polarización divisor de voltaje en amplificadores de pequeña señal de una etapa.
This document discusses transistor amplifier circuits with multiple stages. It covers topics like how amplifier circuits use resistors, capacitors, and transistors to receive an electrical signal and output an amplified version without distortion. It also discusses different types of feedback like negative feedback, which decreases gain but improves other characteristics. Exercises are presented on designing multistage amplifier circuits and calculating gains using methods like selective de-coupling.
Here are the steps to solve this:
1) VZ = VBE3 (zener voltage is equal to BJT base-emitter voltage)
2) Using KVL: -VZ + VBE3 + IE3RE = 0
3) Simplify: IE3RE = 0
4) IE3 is constant
Therefore, with a zener diode replacing R2, the current IE3 (and thus IT) remains constant regardless of load or temperature variations. The zener diode acts to stabilize the BJT base-emitter voltage, keeping the current constant.
The document provides an overview of basic electronics concepts including:
1) Ohm's law defines the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in circuits.
2) Schematics use symbols to represent circuit elements and show how they are connected.
3) Resistors in series and parallel follow specific rules to calculate total resistance.
4) Capacitors store charge and their behavior changes with frequency based on impedance.
This document provides a summary of the key features and specifications of a high voltage stackable battery management system (BMS). The BMS uses a modular design with a master unit that can be stacked with up to 5 slave units to monitor and control up to 144 cells. It measures cell voltages and temperatures, balances cells, monitors battery health, controls charging and protects the battery from faults. The BMS communicates via CAN and supports logging battery data for analysis.
The LM4929 is a stereo audio power amplifier capable of delivering 40mW per channel into a 16Ω load from a 3V power supply. It has OCL (Output Capacitor-Less) outputs that operate without DC blocking capacitors. It features a low power shutdown mode and internal thermal protection. The LM4929 is well-suited for portable audio applications like portable CD players, PDAs, and other portable electronic devices due to its minimal external component requirements and low power operation from 2V to 5.5V.
The 2N3773 is a silicon NPN power transistor intended for use in power switching circuits such as relay or solenoid drivers. It has a TO-3 package and can withstand collector currents up to 16 amps and collector-emitter voltages up to 140 volts. Its key electrical characteristics include a forward current gain ranging from 15 to 60 at an collector current of 8 amps.
This document contains the solutions to 4 problems presented as part of an Electrical Engineering course. It includes circuit diagrams and calculations to verify theorems related to Norton's theorem, maximum power transfer theorem, phase difference between voltage and current in an AC circuit with an inductor, and calculating the active power consumption of a home based on its electrical layout and appliances. Calculations are shown in detail and also validated using circuit simulation software.
The document discusses the AC analysis of BJT and MOSFET inverting amplifiers. It begins by stating the lesson objectives which are to draw small signal models, calculate parameters, and analyze performance characteristics like voltage gain, input and output resistances. It then discusses the hybrid-pi model of BJTs and defines the transconductance, output resistance and input resistance. Equivalent circuit models are shown for common-emitter and common-source amplifiers using BJTs and MOSFETs. Calculations are presented for voltage gain, input and output resistances of these amplifiers both with and without bypassing the emitter or source resistances. Examples are also worked through.
This document contains 3 problems involving BJT transistor circuits:
1) A 2N3904 npn transistor circuit is given and the collector current is calculated as 7.57mA.
2) A BUV21G transistor circuit is given and the collector-emitter voltage is calculated as 27.67V.
3) A complex transistor circuit is shown and broken down using Thévenin's theorem. The operating point is calculated with a base current of 17uA and a collector current of 2.87mA, giving a collector-emitter voltage of 11.99V.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps), including:
- An op-amp is a differential amplifier with very high gain used to amplify signals and perform mathematical operations. It has two inputs (inverting and non-inverting) and one output.
- An op-amp works by comparing the difference between its two input voltages and amplifying that difference by a very large amount, around 200,000 times.
- An op-amp has very high input impedance, low output impedance, and can provide either voltage or current gain depending on the configuration. It is used to build various circuits like filters, oscillators, and instruments.
This document discusses multi-stage amplifiers and differential amplifiers. It begins by outlining the objectives of analyzing multi-stage amplifiers, determining voltage gain, input and output resistances. It then examines a three-stage amplifier in detail. The document also outlines analyzing the DC and AC properties of differential amplifiers, including calculating differential-mode and common-mode gains and input/output resistances. It concludes by discussing biasing differential amplifiers with electronic current sources to improve common-mode rejection ratio.
This document describes a 3-phase diode bridge rectifier circuit. It contains an AC voltage source that is fed into the rectifier containing 6 diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. This rectifier converts the 3-phase AC input voltage into a DC output voltage that is measured using an oscilloscope and supplies power to a resistive load. The circuit converts a 415V, 50Hz 3-phase AC input into a 585V DC output voltage.
The document summarizes the operation of a class-D amplifier. It describes how class-D amplifiers use transistors as switches that are either fully on or fully off to achieve high efficiency. A comparator compares an audio signal to a high frequency triangle wave to generate a pulse width modulated square wave. A passive filter converts this into an analog output. Class-D amplifiers can be operated in a bridged configuration to increase output power without increasing voltage. Negative feedback is also used to improve performance.
The document discusses the fundamentals of electric generators including how they generate voltage and current through their stator coils and magnetic fields. It also describes the components of a generator including the stator, rotor, and exciter parts. Additionally, it covers topics such as waveform generation, harmonics in line-to-line waveforms, coil numbering and connections in different configurations including series, parallel, and delta.
Understand the “magic” of negative feedback and the characteristics of ideal op amps.
Understand the conditions for non-ideal op amp behavior so they can be avoided in circuit design.
Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and instrumentation amplifiers, voltage follower and first order filters.
Learn the factors involved in circuit design using op amps.
Find the gain characteristics of cascaded amplifiers.
Special Applications: The inverted ladder DAC and successive approximation ADC
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It describes the basic op-amp configuration, ideal op-amp model, and applications such as inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, differential amplifier, integrator, differentiator, and voltage follower. It also discusses offset adjustments and multiple op-amp circuits.
Dc analysis of four resistor biasing circuitMahoneyKadir
This document discusses analyzing the DC operating point of four-resistor biasing circuits for BJT and MOSFET amplifiers. It explains how to derive the DC equivalent circuit by replacing reactive components with open/short circuits. Examples are provided to calculate the quiescent (Q-) point values such as voltages and currents using KVL, KCL, and small-signal models for the transistors. The goal is to determine if the transistors are operating in the desired active/saturation regions.
DC power supplies work by taking an AC voltage from a transformer, rectifying it using diodes to convert it to DC, filtering it using capacitors to smooth the output, and regulating it using integrated circuits to maintain a steady voltage level. Common rectification methods include half-wave and full-wave rectification using either single-phase or three-phase inputs. The rectification process converts the AC voltage to a pulsing DC voltage that is then filtered and regulated.
An inverter converts DC input voltage into AC output voltage. There are various types of inverters including single-phase and three-phase inverters. Single-phase inverters include half-bridge and full-bridge configurations. Current source inverters directly control AC current instead of voltage. They use thyristors and commutating capacitors to generate quasi-square wave output current from a constant DC current source.
The document discusses a three phase diode rectifier presentation. It describes several three phase rectifier circuits including a half wave rectifier using three diodes, a six pulse midpoint rectifier, and a full wave bridge rectifier using six diodes. Equations are provided for the output voltage and current calculations for each circuit. Key specifications of automotive-grade rectifier diodes are also listed.
The document discusses multi-stage transistor amplifiers and differential amplifier circuits. It describes how multi-stage amplifiers can be directly or capacitively coupled to improve gain, input impedance, output impedance, and bandwidth. It also defines four types of amplifiers - voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. Finally, it analyzes two example circuits, identifying the DC and AC characteristics of each stage.
Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance are a few of the basic elements of electronics and radio. Apart from current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance, there are many other interesting elements to electronic technology. ... Use Electronics Notes to learn electronics online.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It begins by defining an operational amplifier as a circuit that can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. It then discusses the key components of an op-amp, including the differential amplifier input stage. Next, it defines a differential amplifier and describes its basic circuit. The rest of the document provides details on various op-amp applications, including integrators, differentiators, comparators, and multivibrators. It explains the circuitry and operation of each type of application.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and linear integrated circuits. It describes the ideal and practical characteristics of op-amps, including infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and infinite gain in the ideal case. It also discusses various op-amp parameters such as common mode rejection ratio, input offset voltage, input bias current, and slew rate. The document then covers op-amp applications including difference amplifiers, integrators, differentiators, comparators, and timers. It provides examples of using the IC 555 in monostable and astable multivibrator circuits.
This document provides a summary of the key features and specifications of a high voltage stackable battery management system (BMS). The BMS uses a modular design with a master unit that can be stacked with up to 5 slave units to monitor and control up to 144 cells. It measures cell voltages and temperatures, balances cells, monitors battery health, controls charging and protects the battery from faults. The BMS communicates via CAN and supports logging battery data for analysis.
The LM4929 is a stereo audio power amplifier capable of delivering 40mW per channel into a 16Ω load from a 3V power supply. It has OCL (Output Capacitor-Less) outputs that operate without DC blocking capacitors. It features a low power shutdown mode and internal thermal protection. The LM4929 is well-suited for portable audio applications like portable CD players, PDAs, and other portable electronic devices due to its minimal external component requirements and low power operation from 2V to 5.5V.
The 2N3773 is a silicon NPN power transistor intended for use in power switching circuits such as relay or solenoid drivers. It has a TO-3 package and can withstand collector currents up to 16 amps and collector-emitter voltages up to 140 volts. Its key electrical characteristics include a forward current gain ranging from 15 to 60 at an collector current of 8 amps.
This document contains the solutions to 4 problems presented as part of an Electrical Engineering course. It includes circuit diagrams and calculations to verify theorems related to Norton's theorem, maximum power transfer theorem, phase difference between voltage and current in an AC circuit with an inductor, and calculating the active power consumption of a home based on its electrical layout and appliances. Calculations are shown in detail and also validated using circuit simulation software.
The document discusses the AC analysis of BJT and MOSFET inverting amplifiers. It begins by stating the lesson objectives which are to draw small signal models, calculate parameters, and analyze performance characteristics like voltage gain, input and output resistances. It then discusses the hybrid-pi model of BJTs and defines the transconductance, output resistance and input resistance. Equivalent circuit models are shown for common-emitter and common-source amplifiers using BJTs and MOSFETs. Calculations are presented for voltage gain, input and output resistances of these amplifiers both with and without bypassing the emitter or source resistances. Examples are also worked through.
This document contains 3 problems involving BJT transistor circuits:
1) A 2N3904 npn transistor circuit is given and the collector current is calculated as 7.57mA.
2) A BUV21G transistor circuit is given and the collector-emitter voltage is calculated as 27.67V.
3) A complex transistor circuit is shown and broken down using Thévenin's theorem. The operating point is calculated with a base current of 17uA and a collector current of 2.87mA, giving a collector-emitter voltage of 11.99V.
The document discusses operational amplifiers (op-amps), including:
- An op-amp is a differential amplifier with very high gain used to amplify signals and perform mathematical operations. It has two inputs (inverting and non-inverting) and one output.
- An op-amp works by comparing the difference between its two input voltages and amplifying that difference by a very large amount, around 200,000 times.
- An op-amp has very high input impedance, low output impedance, and can provide either voltage or current gain depending on the configuration. It is used to build various circuits like filters, oscillators, and instruments.
This document discusses multi-stage amplifiers and differential amplifiers. It begins by outlining the objectives of analyzing multi-stage amplifiers, determining voltage gain, input and output resistances. It then examines a three-stage amplifier in detail. The document also outlines analyzing the DC and AC properties of differential amplifiers, including calculating differential-mode and common-mode gains and input/output resistances. It concludes by discussing biasing differential amplifiers with electronic current sources to improve common-mode rejection ratio.
This document describes a 3-phase diode bridge rectifier circuit. It contains an AC voltage source that is fed into the rectifier containing 6 diodes arranged in a bridge configuration. This rectifier converts the 3-phase AC input voltage into a DC output voltage that is measured using an oscilloscope and supplies power to a resistive load. The circuit converts a 415V, 50Hz 3-phase AC input into a 585V DC output voltage.
The document summarizes the operation of a class-D amplifier. It describes how class-D amplifiers use transistors as switches that are either fully on or fully off to achieve high efficiency. A comparator compares an audio signal to a high frequency triangle wave to generate a pulse width modulated square wave. A passive filter converts this into an analog output. Class-D amplifiers can be operated in a bridged configuration to increase output power without increasing voltage. Negative feedback is also used to improve performance.
The document discusses the fundamentals of electric generators including how they generate voltage and current through their stator coils and magnetic fields. It also describes the components of a generator including the stator, rotor, and exciter parts. Additionally, it covers topics such as waveform generation, harmonics in line-to-line waveforms, coil numbering and connections in different configurations including series, parallel, and delta.
Understand the “magic” of negative feedback and the characteristics of ideal op amps.
Understand the conditions for non-ideal op amp behavior so they can be avoided in circuit design.
Demonstrate circuit analysis techniques for ideal op amps.
Characterize inverting, non-inverting, summing and instrumentation amplifiers, voltage follower and first order filters.
Learn the factors involved in circuit design using op amps.
Find the gain characteristics of cascaded amplifiers.
Special Applications: The inverted ladder DAC and successive approximation ADC
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It describes the basic op-amp configuration, ideal op-amp model, and applications such as inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, summing amplifier, differential amplifier, integrator, differentiator, and voltage follower. It also discusses offset adjustments and multiple op-amp circuits.
Dc analysis of four resistor biasing circuitMahoneyKadir
This document discusses analyzing the DC operating point of four-resistor biasing circuits for BJT and MOSFET amplifiers. It explains how to derive the DC equivalent circuit by replacing reactive components with open/short circuits. Examples are provided to calculate the quiescent (Q-) point values such as voltages and currents using KVL, KCL, and small-signal models for the transistors. The goal is to determine if the transistors are operating in the desired active/saturation regions.
DC power supplies work by taking an AC voltage from a transformer, rectifying it using diodes to convert it to DC, filtering it using capacitors to smooth the output, and regulating it using integrated circuits to maintain a steady voltage level. Common rectification methods include half-wave and full-wave rectification using either single-phase or three-phase inputs. The rectification process converts the AC voltage to a pulsing DC voltage that is then filtered and regulated.
An inverter converts DC input voltage into AC output voltage. There are various types of inverters including single-phase and three-phase inverters. Single-phase inverters include half-bridge and full-bridge configurations. Current source inverters directly control AC current instead of voltage. They use thyristors and commutating capacitors to generate quasi-square wave output current from a constant DC current source.
The document discusses a three phase diode rectifier presentation. It describes several three phase rectifier circuits including a half wave rectifier using three diodes, a six pulse midpoint rectifier, and a full wave bridge rectifier using six diodes. Equations are provided for the output voltage and current calculations for each circuit. Key specifications of automotive-grade rectifier diodes are also listed.
The document discusses multi-stage transistor amplifiers and differential amplifier circuits. It describes how multi-stage amplifiers can be directly or capacitively coupled to improve gain, input impedance, output impedance, and bandwidth. It also defines four types of amplifiers - voltage amplifiers, current amplifiers, transconductance amplifiers, and transresistance amplifiers. Finally, it analyzes two example circuits, identifying the DC and AC characteristics of each stage.
Electrical current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance are a few of the basic elements of electronics and radio. Apart from current, voltage, resistance, capacitance, and inductance, there are many other interesting elements to electronic technology. ... Use Electronics Notes to learn electronics online.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and their applications. It begins by defining an operational amplifier as a circuit that can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation. It then discusses the key components of an op-amp, including the differential amplifier input stage. Next, it defines a differential amplifier and describes its basic circuit. The rest of the document provides details on various op-amp applications, including integrators, differentiators, comparators, and multivibrators. It explains the circuitry and operation of each type of application.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and linear integrated circuits. It describes the ideal and practical characteristics of op-amps, including infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and infinite gain in the ideal case. It also discusses various op-amp parameters such as common mode rejection ratio, input offset voltage, input bias current, and slew rate. The document then covers op-amp applications including difference amplifiers, integrators, differentiators, comparators, and timers. It provides examples of using the IC 555 in monostable and astable multivibrator circuits.
This document describes an experiment conducted on a small signal amplifier for a public address system. The objectives are to identify the role of an amplifier circuit in a PA system and to design, test, and analyze an amplifier circuit. The experiment involves designing a voltage divider biasing circuit, simulating the circuit in Multisim, and building the circuit on a breadboard. Key measurements taken include the quiescent current, voltage, and gain with and without a bypass capacitor. The results show that adding a bypass capacitor increases the gain while removing it reduces the gain due to increased degeneration.
The document discusses integrated circuits and operational amplifiers. It begins by defining an integrated circuit and listing its advantages. It then describes the two main types of integrated circuits - linear and digital ICs. The document goes on to explain operational amplifiers in detail, including their ideal characteristics, block diagram, equivalent circuit model, open-loop configurations, and applications. It also provides information about specific op-amps like the 741 and TL082, discussing their features, input and bias currents, and common mode rejection ratio.
The document discusses operational amplifiers and differential amplifiers. It provides details on:
1. Differential amplifiers use two identical input stages to amplify the difference between two input voltages while rejecting signals common to both inputs, reducing noise and drift.
2. Differential amplifiers have very high voltage gain, above 1000, and can amplify very small signals in the microvolt range. They have high input and output impedances.
3. The voltage gain of a differential amplifier is given by Vo = A(V1 - V2) where A is the differential gain, V1 is the non-inverting input, and V2 is the inverting input.
This document outlines the design and operation of a cascaded differential amplifier using bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). It first describes the basic BJT and differential amplifier. It then discusses how to implement a differential amplifier using two matched transistor circuits in common emitter configuration. The document explains differential and common mode operation. It also covers four configurations for differential amplifiers and analyzes the cascaded design, noting how successive stages shift the DC operating point. Finally, it proposes using a level shifter, like an emitter follower, after the final stage to bring the output DC level close to ground.
multistage amplifiers analysis and designgirishgandhi4
The document discusses multistage amplifiers. Multistage amplifiers connect two or more amplifiers together to increase the overall gain. The overall gain is calculated by multiplying the individual gains of each stage. There are several types of multistage connections including cascade, cascode, Darlington, and direct coupling. Cascade connection is most common and works by coupling the output of one stage to the input of the next. This allows the stages to multiply their gains to achieve a high overall gain.
The document discusses differential amplifiers and operational amplifiers. It defines a differential amplifier as a circuit that can accept two input signals and amplify the difference between them. It is built using at least two transistors and can have double-ended inputs and outputs. An operational amplifier is described as a special type of differential amplifier that has very high input impedance, low output impedance, and is used for mathematical operations due to its very high gain. Key characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier are also listed.
One gains knowledge from four sources: 1⁄4 from the teacher, 1⁄4 from self-study, 1⁄4 from classmates, and 1⁄4 from gaining experience over time. The document then discusses various types of amplitude modulation (AM) modulators and demodulators, including linear and non-linear modulators, square law modulators, balanced modulators, envelope detectors, and square law detectors. It provides block diagrams and mathematical analysis of how these systems work to modulate and demodulate amplitude modulated signals.
This document discusses different types of rectifier circuits. It describes the half wave rectifier circuit which uses a single diode to rectify only the positive half cycles of the AC input. The full wave rectifier uses two diodes in a center-tapped transformer configuration to rectify both half cycles. Filter capacitors are added to convert the pulsating DC output to a constant DC voltage. Procedures are provided to experimentally determine the ripple factor, efficiency, and regulation of the half wave and full wave rectifiers both with and without filter capacitors. Key waveforms are also shown.
This document discusses the characteristics and applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps). It begins with a block diagram showing the typical components of an op-amp, including the differential amplifier stage, intermediate stage, level shifting stage, and output stage. It then covers ideal and practical characteristics of op-amps such as high input impedance, low output impedance, high voltage gain, and finite bandwidth. Common op-amp configurations like the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers are explained. The document provides detailed descriptions and circuit diagrams to illustrate op-amp characteristics and applications.
This chapter discusses small-signal modeling and linear amplification using transistors. The goals are to understand transistors as linear amplifiers, small-signal models, and amplifier characteristics. A simple common-emitter BJT amplifier circuit is presented and analyzed using DC and AC equivalent circuits. Key points include defining the Q-point, constructing small-signal models, and calculating voltage gain. Capacitor selection criteria are provided to maintain linearity in the amplifier.
This document discusses different classes of power amplifiers, including class A, class B, class AB, and push-pull amplifiers. It provides details on the operating principles, biasing, power efficiency, and output characteristics of each type. Key points include: Class A amplifiers have output current flowing for the full input cycle, leading to low efficiency. Class B amplifiers only conduct for half the input cycle. Class AB provides a small amount of bias to increase conduction. Push-pull amplifiers use two transistors connected out of phase to increase power and gain.
Oscillators provide a sustained oscillating output signal through the use of positive feedback. There are several types of oscillators including LC oscillators which use an LC tank circuit as a resonator to control the frequency. The design of oscillators involves considerations for frequency control and stability, amplitude limits, isolation of the output, and bias circuits. Simulation methods for analyzing oscillators include examining the open loop gain through AC analysis and observing the closed loop response through transient or harmonic balance simulation.
1) The document discusses operational amplifiers (Op-Amps), including their history, characteristics, and various configurations.
2) Op-Amps have very high gain, high input impedance, and low output impedance. They are often used in amplifier, filter, and instrumentation circuits.
3) There are two main Op-Amp configurations - open loop and closed loop. Open loop has stability issues while closed loop with negative feedback is more commonly used and has advantages like stabilized gain and reduced distortion.
4) Common closed loop Op-Amp circuits include the inverting amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, voltage follower, integrator, and differential amplifier. These are built using negative feedback techniques.
Dive into the realm of operating systems (OS) with Pravash Chandra Das, a seasoned Digital Forensic Analyst, as your guide. 🚀 This comprehensive presentation illuminates the core concepts, types, and evolution of OS, essential for understanding modern computing landscapes.
Beginning with the foundational definition, Das clarifies the pivotal role of OS as system software orchestrating hardware resources, software applications, and user interactions. Through succinct descriptions, he delineates the diverse types of OS, from single-user, single-task environments like early MS-DOS iterations, to multi-user, multi-tasking systems exemplified by modern Linux distributions.
Crucial components like the kernel and shell are dissected, highlighting their indispensable functions in resource management and user interface interaction. Das elucidates how the kernel acts as the central nervous system, orchestrating process scheduling, memory allocation, and device management. Meanwhile, the shell serves as the gateway for user commands, bridging the gap between human input and machine execution. 💻
The narrative then shifts to a captivating exploration of prominent desktop OSs, Windows, macOS, and Linux. Windows, with its globally ubiquitous presence and user-friendly interface, emerges as a cornerstone in personal computing history. macOS, lauded for its sleek design and seamless integration with Apple's ecosystem, stands as a beacon of stability and creativity. Linux, an open-source marvel, offers unparalleled flexibility and security, revolutionizing the computing landscape. 🖥️
Moving to the realm of mobile devices, Das unravels the dominance of Android and iOS. Android's open-source ethos fosters a vibrant ecosystem of customization and innovation, while iOS boasts a seamless user experience and robust security infrastructure. Meanwhile, discontinued platforms like Symbian and Palm OS evoke nostalgia for their pioneering roles in the smartphone revolution.
The journey concludes with a reflection on the ever-evolving landscape of OS, underscored by the emergence of real-time operating systems (RTOS) and the persistent quest for innovation and efficiency. As technology continues to shape our world, understanding the foundations and evolution of operating systems remains paramount. Join Pravash Chandra Das on this illuminating journey through the heart of computing. 🌟
Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
Skybuffer AI: Advanced Conversational and Generative AI Solution on SAP Busin...Tatiana Kojar
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With Skybuffer AI, various AI models can be integrated into a single communication channel such as Microsoft Teams. This integration empowers business users with insights drawn from SAP backend systems, enterprise documents, and the expansive knowledge of Generative AI. And the best part of it is that it is all managed through our intuitive no-code Action Server interface, requiring no extensive coding knowledge and making the advanced AI accessible to more users.
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2. Son circuitos electrónicos formados por varios transistores (BJT o
FET), que pueden ser acoplados en forma directa o mediante
capacitores. Algunos de estos son el par Darlington (alta
impedancia de entrada e incremento de la ganancia de corriente),
el par diferencial (Relación de rechazo en modo común elevada),
el amplificador cascode (alta impedancia de salida). Todas estas
etapas amplificadoras pueden ser integradas y encapsuladas en
un chip semiconductor llamado Circuito Integrado (CI). En el CI
las polarización de las etapas se hace usando fuentes de
corriente, debido a la mayor facilidad de construcción (a través
de transistores). La combinación de distintas tecnologías permite
mejorar la prestación de los sistemas deseados.
3. PAR DE RETROALIMENTACIÓN
Un Amplificador con realimentación, es un circuito electrónico,
generalmente integrado, que tiene dos entradas y una salida. La
salida es la diferencia de las dos entradas multiplicada por un factor
de ganancia. El amplificador con realimentación es una alternativa a
los amplificadores con realimentación en voltaje, también llamados
operacionales.
Además, la realimentación puede clasificarse como positiva o
negativa. En el primer caso, cualquier aumento de la señal de salida
da origen a una señal de realimentación en la entrada tal que
aumenta más aún la magnitud de la señal de salida. Cuando la
realimentación provoca una disminución en la magnitud de la señal
de salida, se dice que el amplificador está realimentado
negativamente.
Por su parte, la realimentación (feedback en ingles) negativa es
ampliamente utilizada en el diseño de amplificadores ya que
presenta múltiples e importantes beneficios. Uno de estos
beneficios es la estabilización de la ganancia del amplificador frente
a variaciones de los dispositivos, temperatura, variaciones de la
fuente de alimentación y envejecimiento de los componentes. Otro
beneficio es el de permitir al diseñador ajustar la impedancia de
entrada y salida del circuito sin tener que realizar apenas
modificaciones. La disminución de la distorsión y el aumento del
ancho de banda hacen que la realimentación negativa sea
imprescindible en amplificadores de audio y etapas de potencia. Sin
embargo, presenta dos inconvenientes básicos: en primer lugar, la
ganancia del amplificador disminuye en la misma proporción con el
aumento de los anteriores beneficios. Este problema se resuelve
incrementando el número de etapas amplificadoras para compensar
esa perdida de ganancia con el consiguiente aumento de coste. El
segundo problema esta asociado con la realimentación al tener
tendencia a la oscilación lo que exige cuidadosos diseños de estos
circuitos.
Representación de cualquier conexión de
realimemntación de un sólo lazo, alrededor de un
amplificador básico.
4. CIRCUITO AMPLIFICADOR DIFERENCIAL
El amplificador diferencial básicamente está constituido como dos amplificadores
emisores comunes conectados entres sí; es un circuito versátil que sirve como etapa de
entrada para la mayoría de los amplificadores operacionales y también encuentra su
aplicación en circuitos integrados tan diversos como el comparador y compuertas lógicas
acopladas por emisor.
Este además, es un circuito de balance, amplificadores de una diferencia entre dos
entradas para cancelar los niveles de polarización. A su vez, suprime los efectos causados
por los cambios de temperatura cuando afectan por igual a ambas etapas. En general, no
amplifica señales que son iguales para ambas entradas (señal de modo común) pero si lo
hacen para señales que no lo son (señal de modo diferencial).
5. PRINCIPIO DE FUNCIONAMIENTO:
El amplificador diferencial básico tiene 2 entradas V1 y V2. Si la tensión de V1 aumenta, la corriente del emisor del
transistor Q1 aumenta (acordarse que IE = BxIB), causando una caída de tensión en Re. Si la tensión de V2 se mantiene
constante, la tensión entre base y emisor del transistor Q2 disminuye, reduciéndose también la corriente de emisor del
mismo transistor. Esto causa que la tensión de colector de Q2 (Vout+) aumente. La entrada V1 es la entrada no
inversora de un amplificador operacional. Del mismo modo cuando la tensión en V2 aumenta, también aumenta la la
corriente de colector del transistor Q2, causando que la tensión de colector del mismo transistor disminuya, (Vout+)
disminuye. La entrada V2 es la entrada inversora del amplificador operacional. Si el valor de la resistencia RE fuera muy
grande, obligaría a la suma de las corrientes de emisor de los transistor Q1 y Q2, a mantenerse constante,
comportándose como una fuente de corriente. Entonces, al aumentar la corriente de colector de un transistor,
disminuirá la corriente de colector del otro transistor. Por eso cuando la tensión V1 crece, la tensión en V2 decrece.
ETAPA DE AMPLIFICACIÓN:
El Amplificador diferencial se caracteriza por presentar dos transistores idénticos con similares
características, tanto internas como de las redes de polarización.
Ya que el circuito dispone dos entradas y dos salidas de señal, existen cuatro configuraciones posibles
realizando las distintas combinaciones entre entradas y salida.
6. CONFIGURACIONES:
Entrada y salida simétrica
Es la forma más típica de un amplificador diferencial, tiene dos entrada v1 y v2, El voltaje de salida se
obtiene de la diferencia entre las salidas de los colectores.
Entrada asimétrica y salida simétrica
En algunas aplicaciones sólo se usa uno de los terminales de entrada con la otra conectada a tierra,
mientras que la salida se obtiene entre los colectores de los dos transistores del circuito.
Entrada simétrica y salida asimétrica
Esta es la forma más practica y utilizada porque puede excitar cargas asimétricas o de un solo
terminal como lo hacen los amplificadores EC, emisor seguidor y otros circuitos. Esta etapa es la que se
usa para la etapa de entrada de la mayor parte de los Amplificadores Operacionales comerciales.
Presenta dos entradas de señal para las bases de cada transistor mientras que la salida se obtiene
únicamente de uno de los colectores respecto a masa.
Entrada y salida asimétrica
Esta configuración presenta tanto para la entrada como para la salida un único terminal. Este tipo de
configuración es útil para las etapas de acoplamiento directo donde se requiere sólo amplificar una
entrada. Esta configuración es la que se solicita en las especificaciones de la práctica.
7. MODOS DE TRABAJO DE UN AMPLIFICADOR DIFERENCIAL
Modo Diferencial
Para V1=V2 y suponiendo F>>1, las corrientes de colector y emisor de cada etapa son
iguales. Todas estas corrientes tienen magnitudes iguales (aproximadamente) a IEE/2
debido a la simetría del circuito y a la despreciable corriente que circula por RE. Si
incrementamos V1 en v/2 y simultáneamente disminuimos V2 en v/2, la señal de salida
aumenta en v advertir que el circuito funciona en modo lineal mientras v<4VT.
Modo Común
Consideremos que las dos tensiones V1 y V2 aumentan en v/2. La tensión diferencial Vd
permanece nula mientras que Ic1 e Ic2 son iguales. No obstante la tensión VE aumenta.
Por lo tanto dependiendo de la señal de entrada, el amplificador diferencial actúa o bien
como etapa en emisor común o bien como etapa en emisor común con resistencia de
emisor. Por lo tanto la ganancia de esta etapa es notablemente mayor en el funcionamiento
como modo diferencial que como modo común. Normalmente los amplificadores
diferenciales se diseñan de forma que a efectos prácticos sólo resulten amplificadas las
señales diferenciales.
8. EJERCICIOS :
1) Diseñe un amplificador como el mostrado si se desea un A𝑣𝑑𝐷 = 30 y CMRR≥100.
Tomando en cuenta los siguientes valores: Vcc =12v, Vee=9v, 𝛽1 = 𝛽2 = 100,
Vbe1=Veb2=0.7v, ic1=ic2=2mA y ambas Rb=0.
Por lo tanto, el circuito tendría la siguiente forma:
9. Resolución:
Sabemos que A𝑣𝑑𝐷 =
1
2
𝑅𝑐∗ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑅𝑏+ℎ𝑖𝑒
= 30, Además para tener un CMRR≥
100, es necesario conocer A𝑣𝐶𝐷, 𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖ó𝑛: A𝑣𝑐𝐷 =
𝑅𝑐 ∗ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑅𝑏+ℎ𝑖𝑒+2𝑅𝑒(ℎ𝑓𝑒+1)
Entonces se observa que se necesitan hallar los valores de Rc, Re y el de hie, lo cual se realizara a continuación.
Primero hallamos el valor de ib:
Ib=
𝑖𝑐
𝛽
=
2𝑚𝐴
100
= 20𝜇𝐴
Con este valor podemos hallar ie:
ie=ic+ib=2mA+20µA= 2.02mA.
Ya con el valor de ie, se puede calcular hie(el cual es igual para ambos transistores):
Hie=
26𝑚𝑉
𝑖𝑒
𝛽 =
26𝑚𝑉
2.02𝑚𝐴
100 ≅ 1.3kΩ
Ahora bien, para hallar el valor de Re, el camino de V2 hasta Vee se puede analizar como una malla o circuito
cerrado, el cual al hacer un LKV nos queda que:
Re=
𝑉𝑒𝑒−𝑉𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑒
; pero el valor a utilizar debe ser el doble de ie, ya que a Re le llegan las dos corrientes de emisor, o las
corrientes de cada emisor:
∴ 𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉𝑒𝑒 − 𝑉𝑏𝑒
2𝑖𝑒
=
9𝑣 − 0.7𝑣
2 2.02 𝑚𝐴
= 2.054𝑘Ω
10. El valor que falta por calcular es Rc, el cual ya se puede obtener despejándolo de la
expresión de A𝑣𝑑𝐷 :
∴ 𝑅𝑐 =
2(𝐴𝑣𝑑𝐷)(𝑅𝑏 + ℎ𝑖𝑒)
ℎ𝑓𝑒
=
2(30)(0 + 1.3𝑘Ω)
90
= 866.6Ω
Ya con los valores de Rc, Re y hie hallados, se procede a calcular A 𝑣𝑐𝐷:
𝐴𝑣𝑐𝐷 =
𝑅𝑐 ∗ ℎ𝑓𝑒
𝑅𝑏 + ℎ𝑖𝑒 + 2𝑅𝑒(ℎ𝑓𝑒 + 1)
=
866.6Ω ∗ 90
0 + 1.3𝐾Ω + 2(2.54𝐾Ω)(91)
= 0.1687
Ya con los valores de A𝑣𝑑𝐷 𝑦 𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑣𝑐𝐷 se verifica si CMRR ≥100:
CMRR=
𝐴𝑣𝑑𝐷
𝐴𝑣𝑐𝐷
=
30
0.1687
= 177.83
Como si se cumplió dicho requisito, ya estaría culminado dicho ejercicio.
11. 2) Encuentre Ve, Vc1 y Vc2, con un Veb=0.7v, del siguiente circuito:
Analizando Q2, sabemos que:
Vb2=0 ^ Veb2= Ve – Vb2
∴ 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉𝑒𝑏2 = 0.7𝑉
Ahora bien, analizando Q1 se observa que:
Veb1=Ve – Vb1=0.7v – 0.5v=0.2v
(Al ser Veb1<0.7v, nos dice que Q1 no esta conduciendo, por lo que ic1≈0).
Siguiendo con el análisis de Q1, vemos que:
VRc1= ic1(Rc1) o también VRc1= Vc1 – (-5v)
Pero como ic1≈0, entonces:
VRc1=0 ^ ∴ 𝑉𝑐1 = 𝑉𝑅𝑐1 − 5 = 0 − 5 = −5𝑣.
12. Ahora se analizando de nuevo Q2 o la rama de Q2, vemos que:
VRc2= ic2(Rc2) o también VRc2= Vc2 – (-5v)
Por lo que:
Vc2= ic2(Rc2) – 5v.
Para calcular Vc2 se necesita obtener el valor de ic2, por lo que se procede a realizar
un LCK en el nodo del emisor:
iRe=ie1+ie2
Pero sabiendo que ic1≈ ie1, entonces ie1≈0.
iRe=0+ie2=ie2.
Donde además aplicando ley de ohm sobre Re vemos que la corriente que la cruza
viene dada por la siguiente expresión:
iRe=
5−𝑉𝑒
𝑅𝑒
=
5𝑉−0.7𝑉
1𝐾Ω
= 4.3mA = ie2.
13. Ya con ie2 calculada, debemos saber que ie2 ≈ ic2 , por lo que ic2 ≈ 4.3mA.
Ya con estos valores, se procede a calcular Vc2:
Vc2= ic2(Rc2) – 5v.
∴ 𝑉𝑐2 = 4.3𝑚𝐴 1𝑘Ω − 5𝑣 = −0.7𝑣.