Cabeza da Vaca was second in command of a failed Spanish invasion and was enslaved by natives, but later gained status as a holy man after praying for sick natives who recovered. He advocated pacifying rather than conquering natives when returning to Mexico. Coronado led an expedition funded by rumors of gold in Zuni cities, but found only beans, corn, and turkeys after sacking the first village that denied them entry. He was then misled by stories of gold on the Great Plains. In New Mexico, Don Juan Onate sought riches and conquered and exploited natives, but after natives killed his nephew in retaliation, he had 800 natives killed and 500 enslaved at A
1 The Pueblo Revolt, 1680 Kevin M. Gannon (2013) IssueMargaritoWhitt221
1
The Pueblo Revolt, 1680
Kevin M. Gannon (2013) Issues and Controversies in History.
Were the Pueblo Indians Justified in Rebelling Against the Spanish?
The Issue
The 1680 Pueblo Revolt in the Spanish colony of New Mexico was the first—and only—
successful rebellion of Native American peoples against the Europeans who ruled them by force
during the colonial period of American history. Spanish colonizers and their Pueblo subjects
embraced diametrically opposed beliefs about the world and their place within it; the tensions
that sprang from this opposition would culminate in an extraordinary outbreak of violence and
insurrection in the summer of 1680. The Spanish believed that their colonial presence in New
Mexico was eminently justifiable, and that Spanish colonization was a mandate from God. To
the Pueblo, the Spanish used religious conversion as a vehicle of oppression, abused the native
population, and were powerless to protect the Pueblos from the numerous threats they faced to
their very survival.
• Arguments that the Spanish Presence in New Mexico Was Legitimate and Just: The
Spanish justified their conquests in the “New World” by arguing that the conversion of
Native Americans to Roman Catholicism was of paramount importance—the true Word
of God was being spread, and Indian souls were saved. Inherent in this view was a belief
that indigenous Americans were inferior to Europeans. By demonstrating the proper ways
to exploit the bountiful resources of the Americas (including plentiful amounts of silver)
and to worship the Christian God, the Spanish were undertaking a mission to “civilize”
what they saw as backwards, ignorant, and savage Indians.
• Arguments that the Spanish Presence in New Mexico Was Intolerable and that the
Spanish Must be Expelled by the Pueblo: For decades, the Pueblo had seen their land
and people mercilessly exploited by the Spanish. The Spanish had forced the Pueblo to
give them a share of their crops and other goods, leaving them with scant provisions to
sustain themselves and their families. The efforts of the Spanish Franciscan priests to
convert them to Catholicism also meant the often violent suppression of their native
religious practices. The Franciscans’ message of a loving and merciful Christian God did
not match the harsh and violent reality of Spanish colonization, which seemed to grow
worse over time.
Background
For Pedro Hidalgo, August 10, 1680, started out as probably most days did. A Spanish soldier,
Hidalgo served as a one-man security detail for Fray Juan Pío, a Franciscan missionary to the
Indians of the Tesuque Pueblo, one of many native pueblos in the Rio Grande region claimed by
the Spanish as part of the colony of New Mexico. Early in the morning, Hidalgo and Pío had set
out from the capital of Santa Fe toward Tesuque, where the priest was to say mass. At dawn, the
two Spaniards reached the pueblo, only to find it empty; even the livestock was gon ...
Chapter 3 Creating New Social Orders Colonial Societies, 15EstelaJeffery653
Chapter 3 | Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700
63
CHAPTER 3
Creating New Social Orders:
Colonial Societies, 1500–1700
Figure 3.1 John Smith’s famous map of Virginia (1622) illustrates many geopolitical
features of early colonization. In
the upper left, Powhatan, who governed a powerful local confederation of Algonquian
communities, sits above other
local chiefs, denoting his authority. Another native figure, Susquehannock, who
appears in the upper right, visually
reinforces the message that the English did not control the land beyond a few
outposts along the Chesapeake.
Chapter Outline
3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society
3.2 Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions
3.3 English Settlements in America
3.4 The Impact of Colonization
Introduction
By the mid-seventeenth century, the geopolitical map of North America had become a
patchwork of
imperial designs and ambitions as the Spanish, Dutch, French, and English
reinforced their claims to
parts of the land. Uneasiness, punctuated by violent clashes, prevailed in the
border zones between the
Europeans’ territorial claims. Meanwhile, still-powerful native peoples waged war
to drive the invaders
from the continent. In the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies, conflicts
erupted as the English
pushed against their native neighbors (Figure 3.1).
The rise of colonial societies in the Americas brought Native Americans, Africans,
and Europeans together
for the first time, highlighting the radical social, cultural, and religious
differences that hampered their
ability to understand each other. European settlement affected every aspect of the
land and its people,
bringing goods, ideas, and diseases that transformed the Americas. Reciprocally,
Native American
practices, such as the use of tobacco, profoundly altered European habits and
tastes.
64
Chapter 3 | Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700
3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Identify the main Spanish American colonial settlements of the 1500s and
1600s
• Discuss economic, political, and demographic similarities and
differences between the
Spanish colonies
During the 1500s, Spain expanded its colonial empire to the Philippines in the Far
East and to areas in
the Americas that later became the United States. The Spanish dreamed of mountains
of gold and silver
and imagined converting thousands of eager Indians to Catholicism. In their vision
of colonial society,
everyone would know his or her place. Patriarchy (the rule of men over family,
society, and government)
shaped t ...
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2. Cabeza da Vaca Conquistador who was second in command of failed invasion Turned slave of the natives he was trying to enslave Turned holy man He and 3 others were pressured to pray for the sick who luckily recovered Returned to Mexico proffering the pacification of the natives vice conquest His reports however spawned several more conquests with no riches ever found
3. Coronado Fed intelligence about Zuni cities sheathed in gold Intel provided by Fray Marcos who never entered a village Funded and equipped a force of; 300 Hispanic soldiers 6 Franciscan Friars 800 Mexican Indian auxiliaries After first village, Hawikuh, denied entry, it was sacked Found beans, corn, and turkeys No gold, no silver Led by rumors, descended into Rio Grande Valley Imposed upon natives who he lumped together under the title Pueblos Pueblos tricked Coronado with stories of gold in the Great Plains Coronado discovers trick Uses compass to return to Pueblo and exact revenge
4. Florida Defense of shipping was main interest of Spain Colonies in area not successful as Menéndez was looking for silver mines Remaining colony, San Augustín, is used as a dumping ground for “hoodlums and the mischievous” 1590s to 1600s saw the influence of the Franciscans in converting the locals Epidemics drove natives to look for spiritual protection Local chiefs looking for an edge over neighbors Priests maintained power through rigid morality enforced with beatings Also relied on Spanish military to punish and intimidate
5. New Mexico Another attempt at pacification Large debts assumed by Don Juan Onate the adelantado Drove him to look for big scores Meant conquering and exploiting Indians Indians protested and killed Onate’s nephew and a patrol In retaliation he had Acoma stormed 800 natives killed 500 enslave Onate also alienated the Franciscan friars Had him removed and charged for adultery and abusing natives and colonists With appointment of new governor, new rules for occupation were introduced Colonists were withdrawn to new settlement, Santa Fe Instructed to raise own crops and livestock to limit food exploitations of the natives Limited military service to married men to reduce rape With the natives isolated from the bulk of the Hispanics, the Franciscans believed they could convert them into “escpecially tractable and pure Christians – superior to common Hispanics” Don Onate Don Peralta
