Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER
Aircraft Design Trends And
Their Impact On Cargo-
Oriented Aircrafts
MSc Air Transport Planning And Management
By Arjun Arayakandy
2014-2015

1
ABSTRACT
There are several factors that need to be taken into account when designing an aircraft.
Whilst most aircraft are passenger-oriented, others are designed for cargo and others
combine both passenger and cargo requirements. Regardless of the aircraft purpose, issues
such as fuel-efficiency, engine performance, maintenance costs, and route requirements are
necessary elements of aircraft design. Aircraft that are cargo-oriented or take into account
cargo requirements on passenger routes must also consider cargo capacity in their design.
There have been significant changes in aircraft design over the last twenty-five years, and
these changes also influence cargo carriers. This dissertation focuses on the trends in
aircraft design and their impact on cargo-oriented aircraft.
This study will examine the challenges of current aircraft designs, and compare the
characteristics of successful, and unsuccessful, cargo aircraft. This study also reviews the
design differences between short-haul and long-haul cargo-oriented aircraft. Aircraft
currently being manufactured, and future innovations and concepts being implemented on
cargo-oriented aircraft by companies like Airbus and Boeing will be compared. This is an
overall comparison of the changes that have transpired in aircraft design over the last
twenty-five years focusing on aircraft like the MD-11, B-707, DC-8, and the A-300 series, and
the trends influencing future cargo-oriented aircraft designs.
WORD COUNT - 16,766

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In my journey of making this dissertation, I have gained many valuable information
regarding the air cargo industry and also the trends in aircraft designs. While trying to
complete this dissertation, I have faced many difficulties. Now with God’s grace as well as
support from my friends and my lecturers I have finished my dissertation.
Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. Ken Stevens who have greatly supported me
in completing my dissertation. Even though I had faced many troubles during the
completion of work, he is the one who motivated me to complete and his extraordinary
knowledge and his deep experience in the aviation industry helped me to gain new ideas
regarding the air cargo industry.
Secondly, I would like to thank my course leader Dr. Nigel Dennis who is one of the most
intelligent person I have met. He has always been helpful and supportive during the whole
period of my MSc Air transport planning and management course.
Thirdly, I would like to thank my dear friends Vivian Chales James, Sydney Kruapech and
Frances Kremarik for being very helpful.
Finally, I would like to thank my beloved parents for being with me throughout my life and
for being very supportive and friendly.

3
CONTENTS
Abstract 1
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 7
Abbreviations 9
1. INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 Background 11
1.2 Types of goods 13
1.3 10 cargo airlines 13
1.4 TOTAL CARGO TRAFFIC 0F 2013 14
1.5 WORLD ECONOMIC GROWTH 15
1.6 WORLD AIR CARGO TRAFFIC 15
1.7 WORLD RTKs CARRIED ON FREIGHTERS 16
1.8 GDP GROWTH RATES 17
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 18
2.1 TRENDS IN AIR CARGO DESIGN: 18
2.1.1 Classification of freighter aircraft 18
2.1.2 PASSENGER AIRCRAFTS - LOWER DECK: 18
2.1.3 QUICK CHANGE AIRCRAFTS: 19
2.1.4 PURE FREIGHTERS/ ALL- CARGO CARRIERS AIRCRAFTS/ FREIGHTERS: 22
2.1.5 FREIGHTERS : Converted from passenger aircrafts 24
2.1.6 SHORT - /MEDIUM- HAUL AND LONG-HAUL AIRCRAFTS: 27
2.2 UNIT LOAD DEVICES: 27
2.3 I.T. SYSTEMS AND GROUND HANDLING 28
2.3.1 IATA e-freight: 29
2.3.2 Cargo 2000 (C2K): 30
2.4 Factors that affect the air cargo aircraft operation: 30

4
2.4.1 DENSITY: 32
2.4.2 BLOCK TIME AND RANGE: 33
2.4.3 AIRCRAFT PRODUCTIVITY: 34
2.4.4 AIRCRAFT UTILISATION: 35
2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE FLYING TIME 35
2.5.1 Factor affecting turnaround time 35
2.5.2 Factors affecting the maintenance time 35
2.6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MODAL CHOICE 36
2.6.1 Delivery time 36
2.6.2 Cost/Price 36
2.6.3 Frequency 36
2.6.4 Reliability 37
2.6.5 Physical limitations 37
2.6.6 Quality of services 37
2.6.7 Security of product 37
2.7 ALL CARGO AIRLINE COSTS 38
2.7.1 Direct operating costs 38
2.7.2 Indirect operating costs 39
2.7.3 Fuel costs 39
3. METHODOLOGY 41
4. ANALYSIS 44
4.1 ANALYSIS OF B707 44
4.1.1 General characteristics of Model 707 47
4.2 Payload-range for long range step climb cruise of model 707-320B
Passenger-International 48
4.2.1 Payload-range for long range step climb cruise of model 707-320C
Convertible-International 49
4.3 Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C 50
4.4 Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo 51
5. ANALYSIS OF DC-8 52

5
5.1 General Airplane characteristics 54
5.1.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-61,-61F,-62,-62F 55
5.1.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-63,-63F 56
5.1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODELS DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F 57
5.2 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-54 FREIGHTERS 58
5.2.1 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-55 FREIGHTERS 58
5.2.3 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR DC 8-61/71 FREIGHTERS 60
5.3 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS DC 8-62F, -72F 63
5.3.1 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS DC 8-63F,-73F 63
5.4 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72 64
5.4.1 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73 65
6. ANALYSIS OF MD-11 66
6.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL MD-11 WITH GE ENGINES 67
6.1.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL MD-11 WITH
Pratt & WHITNEY ENGINES 68
6.2 PAYLOAD-RANGE OF MD-11CF WITH GE ENGINES 69
6.3 INTERIOR CARGO ARRANGEMENT OF MODELS MD 11-F/CF 70
6.4 TERMINAL OPERATIONS- TURNAROUND STATIONS FOR MODEL MD-11 71
7. ANALYSIS OF A300 SERIES 72
7.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200 73
7.1.1 GENERAL AIRPLANE CHARACTERISTICS OF MODEL A300 F4-600 R
(A 300-600 freighter) 73
7.2 BASIC UPPER DECK CONFIGURATION OF MODEL C4 74
7.2.1 BASIC UPPER DECK CONFIGURATION OF MODEL A300-600 F 75
7.3 TURNAROUND TIME OF MODEL C4 FREIGHTER 76
7.3.1 TURNAROUND TIME OF MODEL A300-600 F 77
7.4 PAYLOAD -RANGE CAPABILITY FOR A 300-600 F 78

6
8. A BRIEF ANALYSIS OF FUTURE FREIGHTER AIRCRAFT DESIGN CONCEPTS
AND POSSIBILITY 79
8.1 Developing the conventional aircraft designs 79
8.2 Airships 79
8.3 Ground effect aircrafts 79
8.4 Unmanned aircrafts 79
9. CONCLUSION 80
BIBLOGRAPHY 81

7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Total Air Cargo Traffic of 2013 14
Table 2: Freighter Aircraft Types Used in the Earlier Days 18
Table 3: Typical Payload, Volume and Density for Lower Deck Cargo 19
Table 4: The number of Combi, Converted Combi and Quick Change Aircraft 20
Table 5: Top 10 Most Popular Freighters 22
Table 6: The Operational Parameters for Pure Freighter Specifications 23
Table 7: Aircraft in Production, Development and Out of Production for the Boeing 25
Table 8: Wide - Bodied Aircraft Conversions to freighters, 2004-2008 27
Table 9: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for B 707 Aircraft 44
Table 10: Engine Type used by the B707 Family Aircraft 46
Table 11: General Characteristics of Model 707 47
Table 12: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for DC 8 Aircraft 53
Table 13: General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F 54
Table 14: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for MD 11 Aircraft 66
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: World Economic Growth 2014 -2016 15
Figure 2: World Air Cargo Traffic Forecast by BOEING 15
Figure 3: World RTKs Carried on Freighters 16
Figure 4: Forecast Average Regional GDP Growth Rates 17
Figure 5: Different Equipment Installed in Convertible and Quick-Change Aircraft 21
Figure 6: Boeing Current Market Outlook On Conversions 2013 26
Figure 7: Runway Length-Range Graph 31
Figure 8: Runway Payload-Freight Density Graph 32
Figure 9: Block Speed-Range Graph 33
Figure 10: Capacity Tonne Kilometres-Range Graph 34
Figure 11: Jet Fuel and Crude Oil Price 40
Figure 12: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-
International 48

8
Figure 13: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-
International 49
Figure 14: Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C 50
Figure 15: Different Type of Mixed Class Configurations of B707-320C 50
Figure 16: Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo 51
Figure 17: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F 55
Figure 18: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F 56
Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F 57
Figure 20: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters 58
Figure 23: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters 60
Figure 26: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F 63
Figure27: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F 63
Figure 28: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72 64
Figure 29: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73 65
Figure 30: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines 67
Figure 31: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines 68
Figure 32: Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines 69
Figure 33: Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF 70
Figure 34: Lower Cargo Deck Arrangement of MD-11 70
Figure 35: Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11 71
Figure 36: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 C4-200, A300 F4-200 72
Figure 37: General Airplane Characteristics of Model A300 F4-600 R (A 300-600 freighter) 73
Figure 38: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of C4 74
Figure 39: Basic Upper Deck Configuration of Model A300-600 F 75
Figure 40: Turnaround Time of Model C4 Freighter 76
Figure 41: Turnaround Time of Model A300-600 F 77
Figure 42: Payload-Range Capability for A300-600 78

9
ABBREVIATIONS
ACN - Air consignment note
AEI - Aircraft engineering and installation services (Company name)
AWB - Airway bill
C2K - Cargo 2000
CF - Convertible freighter versions
CM - Centimeters
CO2 - Carbon dioxide
CTK - Capacity tonne kilometre
CTM - Capacity tonne miles
EADS/EFW - EADS Elbe Aircraft works (Company name)
E-AWB - Electronic airway bill
ECS - Export control system
F/AF - All freighter versions
FT - Feet
GDP - Gross domestic product
HAWB - House Airway bill
ICS - Import control system
IN - Inch
JIT - Just in time
KPI - Key performance indicators
L - Liters
LB - Pounds
M - Meter
MAWB - Master Airway bill
MLW - Maximum landing weight
MTOW - Maximum take-off weight
MTW - Maximum taxi weight
MZFW - Maximum zero fuel weight

10
NMI - Nautical mile
OEW - Operating empty weight
RTK - Revenue tonne – kilometer
STC - Supplementary type certificate
ULD - Unit load device

11
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The air cargo was basically created and introduced to carry postal shipments. In the US
during an aviation meeting conducted at the Nassau, Boulevard, and Long Island, New York
that the initial US airmail service was started on 23 September 1911. Earl. L. Ovington's
'Queen' monoplane was given charge to carry out airmail distribution on the route between
the post office at the Mineola and a temporary post office started at the flying field in Long
Island. Around 35,000 to 37,000 pieces were delivered by that service. In November 1910, it
was an American businessman who came up with the idea of transporting ten bales of silk
from Dayton, Ohio to Columbus, Ohio. For this he made an agreement with the Wright
brothers to start the service for $5,000 at that time and the distance of that service made
was just 100 km. These silk on their arrival at the destination, was cut into small pieces and
were pasted to postcards as souvenirs. The very first scheduled flight from London to Paris
was in 1919 and it carried one passenger along with the pilot as well as consignments of
leather and also mails. The German air cargo has begun on August 1911 where, the
newspaper 'Berliner Morgen post' hired a plane for flying from the airfield of Berlin -
Johannisthal to Frankfurt. The items carried were bundles of newspapers.
Later the US post office department noticed the demand of this system and its scope of
freight transportation. In the early 1912 they made a recommendation to the US congress
for starting an experimental service and the Congress refused to grant the appropriation of
the $50,000 experimental service recommended by the US postal department.
It was after the First World War that, the factors needed for the commercial aviation
developments were made. There were aircrafts available during that time as well as
participants available with the warring nations who had experience and expertise in flying
during that period. There were also many ex-pilots looking for jobs and that, most of the
military aircrafts were not suitable for carrying out passenger services. Even though the
military aircrafts were cheaply available during those periods, a huge amount of operating
and maintenance costs as well as costs for engines were high. These military aircrafts and its
equipment needed modifications and even new engines and designs as they were formerly
used for military purposes. A huge infrastructure was needed to operate this service which
included new landing strips, connecting roads, ground handling facilities and also weather
and flight control systems. For this, the investment and construction for many years were
needed to start both passenger as well as cargo services. Another problem during that time
was the lack of paid traffic. International and Domestic mail delivery gave around 50% of the
income during 1919 - 1939 and that the commercial aviation needed a huge amount of
financial support. During that period due to lack of rules and regulations related to the
aviation industry, it was impossible to operate services across the International boundaries
legally. Later, a number of conventions as well as agreements were made.
The principle for freedom to fly over an airspace of a country was admitted in the Paris
International Air Convention in 1922. Then the Warsaw Convention became one of the most
important conventions conducted in 1929. This agreement was signed by 152 parties and it

12
came into power in 1933. This included the rules related to documentation, International
carriage, limitations of liability of the carriers as well as rules which were governing
jurisdiction. Later in 1955, two conventions were combined into one i.e. the Warsaw
Convention. This convention lead to the base for setting a regulatory framework for the
aviation industry. Some of the nations such as Germany, China, US and the Soviet Union
formed the Pan - American convention based on the commercial aviation which was signed
by 22 countries in Havern during 1928 instead of joining the Warsaw Convention. The ACN
(air consignment note) was introduced which consisted of documents related to the whole
transport process and it was later simplified into the airway bill (AWB) which is used today
also. Even after introducing these regulatory framework, most of the airlines during that
period initially carried newspapers and mails but later, several airlines started the passenger
services. During the 1930s the world-wide air transport network was expanded and that one
of the greatest achievement in the air cargo transport system was the airmail service
between Germany and South America which was a trans - oceanic flight service which
started o 3rd February 1934. It was after the end of Second World War that the air
transport network was expanded globally. Initially during this period, the Dakota and DC-8s
were famous and later new types of aircrafts were developed with turbo - propellers,
combi-aircrafts and then came the jets.
The introduction of jet aircraft made a revolutionary change in the aviation industry. DC-8
and B-707s were the most popular ones during this period which were used to carry
shipments over very long distances. With a fleet of twenty one DC-8S and twenty three
B707s, the Pan-American airways was one of the leading airlines during that period. The jet
aircraft models such as the B707-320C and the DC-8F were a convertible aircrafts with
forward loading doors and re-in forced decks for carrying cargo. These aircrafts could be
converted into freighters as well as passenger carriers. There were also other combi
aircrafts which were able to carry both passengers as well as freight on the main deck of the
aircraft. The use of ULDs (Unit load devices) made it more easier and controllable loading. It
also helped to manage the available space on the aircraft. The quick change systems were
used so as to convert the aircraft into freighters and passenger carriers and it also helped to
carryout cargo services during night and passenger services during the day time. Later in
1969, B 747 series were introduced. The freighter version of the B 747 was also made with
B747-200 series and the first freighter version was delivered in March 1972 to Lufthansa.
The air freight market today, are led by several factors and one of the main factor is due to
the global economic recessions which led to decrease in goods made, shipped and
purchased. Another factor is the rise in fuel costs which led to the rise in transport costs and
due to this, the freighter operators are finding it difficult to survive with the difference in
price rates of new aircrafts which are more fuel efficient. Also that the aircrafts used by the
freight operators which are converted older aircrafts which are costly to operate and
maintain due to the issues such as noise and CO2 emissions. Even though there are these
kinds of problems, the air freight industry is working hard to find more cost-effective
methods of overcoming these difficulties and trying their best to keep surviving in the
aviation industry.

13
1.2 Types of goods
There are basically four types of cargo goods. They are-
 Emergency goods
 Ultra-high value goods
 Perishable goods
 Routine, non-perishable goods
The emergency goods are the goods such as medicines, important documents, spare parts
and machinery parts etc. which have to be shipped immediately from one country to
another. These type of emergency goods have to be accommodated in an aircraft and
because of its unpredictable nature the airlines must leave a space for accommodating the
emergency goods. The ultra-high value goods are the goods which are highly expensive and
are having high values such as diamonds, jewellery, paintings, antiques etc. For this type of
goods, security is most important while shipping. Perishable goods such as newspapers,
fashion goods, sea foods etc. are the goods which have lots of demand in the air cargo
industry. Then there is the routine non-perishable goods such as the electrical/electronic
goods with high value. The airlines normally have more advantage when comparing the
shipping of high value non-perishable goods to long distances because of its ability to save
time.
1.3 Top 10 cargo airlines
1. FedEx Express
2. UPS airlines
3. DHL aviation
4. Emirates
5. Cathay Pacific Airlines
6. Korean Air Cargo
7. Lufthansa
8. Singapore Airlines Cargo
9. China Airlines
10. British Airways

14
1.4 TOTAL CARGO TRAFFIC 0F 2013
Table 1: Total Air Cargo Traffic of 2013
SL NO Total cargo traffic
2013
Cargo (metric tonnes)
Loaded and
unloaded
percentage
1 Hong Kong, HK (HKG) 4,161,718 2.3
2 MEMPHIS TN, US
(MEM)
4,137,801 3.0
3 SHANGHAI, CN (PVG) 2,928,527 -0.3
4 INCHEON, KR (ICN) 2,464,384 0.3
5 DUBAI, AE (DXB) 2,434,567 6.8
6 ANCHORAGE AK, US
(ANC)
2,421,145 -1.7
7 LOUISVILLE KY, US
(SDF)
2,216,079 2.2
8 FRANKFURT, DE
(FRA)
2,094,453 1.4
9 PARIS, FR (CDG) 2,069,200 -3.8
10 TOKYO, JP (NRT) 2,019,844 0.7
Source: http://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-
Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-
The above table shows the total cargo traffic of 2013 in which Hong Kong airport is the
airport with the highest cargo traffic.

15
1.5 WORLD ECONOMIC GROWTH
Figure 1: World Economic Growth 2014 -2016
Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/cargo/wacf.pdf
According to the Boeing's world air cargo forecast it is said that the percentage of GDP
growth is expected to grow gradually until the 2017. The long term average is predicted to
be keeping the same pace. The GDP was less during the last recession and after that it has
slightly increased but in 2009, the percentage in the GDP growth again decreased.
1.6 WORLD AIR CARGO TRAFFIC
Figure 2: World Air Cargo Traffic Forecast by BOEING

16
It is said that the air cargo traffic would double by the next 20 years. The cargo traffic
growth from 2003 to 2013 is 2.6 %. And it is predicted to grow gradually from 2014 to 2033.
In the above figure, there are three scenarios predicted. The highest is expected to be a
cargo traffic growth of 5.5%. Then the medium or the base cargo traffic growth is expected
to be of 4.7% and the final is the lowest world cargo traffic growth which is expected to be
of 4.0%.
1.7 WORLD RTKs CARRIED ON FREIGHTERS
Figure 3: World RTKs Carried on Freighters
The world RTK (revenue tonne-kilometre) carried on freighters is shown in the above figure
in which after the recession, the world RTK has gradually increased and then it was above
60% from 2003 to 2008. In 2009 it decreased to around 57%. According to the Boeing
forecast, the world RTK carried on freighters are expected to be above 55% by 2033 which
will be even higher than that of what it had in 2000.

17
1.8 GDP GROWTH RATES
Figure 4: Forecast Average Regional GDP Growth Rates
As per the Boeing Company's world air cargo forecast, it is said that the forecasted average
percentage change for 2013 to 2033 is the highest for China with 6.3% growth. The second
and the third are Africa and Asia with 4.6% growth each. Japan is the country with the least
growth with just 1.0%.

18
2. LITRETURE REVIEW
2.1 TRENDS IN AIR CARGO DESIGN:
2.1.1 Classification of freighter aircraft
There are two main network systems in the air cargo. Freighter aircrafts can be basically
divided into two types. One aircraft is specifically designed for carrying just freight or cargo
known as the pure freighters. Another type of freighter aircraft is the Combination aircraft
which is used both to carry passengers as well as cargo. The combination aircrafts can be
further divided into groups based on their capacity and method of usage as both passenger
and cargo carrying aircraft. The all-cargo aircrafts are designed based on the passenger
aircrafts but they will not have windows and many other features of a passenger aircraft.
Even the payload capacity will be more for the freighter aircrafts than that of the passenger
aircrafts. Then there is the quick- change freighters which were more used in the early days
than now. The quick-change freighters are the aircrafts which is another version of
convertible aircrafts that can be changed to full cargo or full passenger aircraft within a
short period of time.
Table 2: Freighter Aircraft Types Used in the Earlier Days.
SL NO. Type Subtype Non Jet Jet
1 Pure freighters Argosy L500
2 Combination
equipment
1. Converted
Obsolete aircraft
Merchantman Early B707s
2. All freighter - B747F, DC8 AF
3. Convertible - B707-320 C,
DC9 CF
4. Quick - change - B727 QC, DC9
RC
Source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith. 1974 edition
The aircrafts such as Argosy, Brequet and Hercules mentioned above have been withdrawn
from service.
2.1.2 PASSENGER AIRCRAFTS - LOWER DECK:
They are the passenger networks in which the cargo is carried in the lower deck of the
passenger aircraft which is known as the "Belly Cargo". This is usually done by utilising the
unused space in a passenger aircraft. The primary purpose of such aircraft is passenger
service, but along with that the cargo is also included. Boeing introduced their B747 in the
early 1970's with an assumption that it was meant to carry passengers for a short amount of
its operating life and then they started producing the freighters. The B747 has greater space
than its predecessor model the B707. The aircraft B707 was only able to carry less than 1
tonne of cargo in its lower deck. Wide-bodied passenger aircrafts normally can takes around
25 tonnes as payload. If the network is broad for that airlines and if they are having high
number of frequencies then the belly cargo will help them earn a good amount of revenue.

19
But at the same time, the flight timing is scheduled for passenger convenience and some of
the destinations do not entertain cargo much whereas, most of the all-cargo carriers fly at
night. Not only this but also the belly cargo will not be able to accommodate large
shipments compared to the all-cargo carriers. Mostly these types of Belly cargo will be
carrying the emergency items and mails etc. The process of planning and booking of the
cargo onto the passenger flights are a bit difficult than that of booking cargo onto a freighter
because of the difficulty in the calculation of payload and volume availability, i.e., the
difference between the maximum fuel weight and the operating empty weight may be
minimised by that of the weight of the fuel needed for a particular sector during the process
of maximum payload determination and this will be done by taking into account the factors
like temperature, headwinds and other such factors excluding the weight of baggage s and
passengers from the airport that day but today we have more automated systems which
makes it more easier. Then only the remaining maximum payload will be allocated for cargo
and passengers. Another issue is that the variation in passenger loads may remain up to the
very last minute as there are last-minute bookings and passengers who missed flights.
Passenger weights, passenger seating densities, estimated checked baggage and lower deck
container size and load are some of the factors that result in difficulty of payload computing.
Table 3: Typical Payload, Volume and Density for Lower Deck Cargo
SL NO. Aircraft Type Payload with full
passenger load
(t)
Volume for
cargo (cu.m)
Max density
(kg/cu.m)
1 A320 1.0 3.6 227.8
2 B737-300 2.3 21.0 107.1
3 B737-400 2.9 24.0 120.7
4 B737-800 3.6 28.0 128.6
5 A330-200 14.1 61.8 228.2
6 A330-300 15.0 80.2 187.0
7 B767-300 16.5 63.0 261.9
8 B747-400 20.0 73.4 272.5
9 A380 20.0 68.0 294.1
Source: Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.
2.1.3 QUICK CHANGE AIRCRAFTS:
The freight services are mostly carried out in the evening and during the night. The quick
change freight has an importance in such situations where there is less demand for
passenger operations. During the night it may be used as a freighter and vice-versa during
other time. It can be more effectively used in short- haul routes with more number of
frequencies. In these quick-change aircrafts, the passenger seats are placed on pallets.
During the conversion process, the passenger pallets are unlocked and are being pushed
away with help of rollers and are then moved to a storage unit. The quick-change aircrafts
are more commonly used in the military. It can be re-configured from:

20
 passenger to cargo and vice- versa
 passenger to VIP and vice- versa
 passenger or cargo to other emergency units ( medical/ ambulance type)
Air Canada, China post airlines, Europe Air post, Ups cargo are some of the airlines which
use the quick-change aircrafts. Now a day B737-300 QC is the aircraft used by the majority,
Also the B727QC, DC9QC were popular in the earlier days.
In this category itself it can be classified further in to 'Combi' and 'Converted Combi'. The
Combi is a multi- compartment aircraft that is being configured for carrying passengers and
freight together on the main deck whereas, converted combi aircrafts are the aircraft
models including combi models (converted or modified), rapid change, multiple-change and
even convertible freighters used exclusively for freight transport.
Table 4: The number of Combi, Converted Combi and Quick Change Aircraft
SL NO. Aircrafts Combi Converted
Combi
TOTAL
1 B737-200 38 9 47
2 B747-400 30 17 47
3 B747-200 0 41 41
4 B727-100 1 23 24
5 DC-9 0 21 21
6 B707-300 0 20 20
7 DC-10 0 16 16
8 B747-300 6 6 12
9 MD-11 0 7 7
10 B737-400 5 0 5
11 B727-200 0 1 1
12 A300 0 1 1
13 B737-700 1 0 1
TOTAL 81 162 243

21
Also, the Lufthansa Technick AG have developed quick-change VIP kits for Airbus and Boeing
aircrafts which helps the operator to re-configure the aircraft from passenger to VIP in a
short period of time according to a press release published by the Lufthansa Technik AG
company.
Some of the advantages of the quick-change aircrafts are-
 It has higher asset value
 Flexibility in network
 It can balance out demand in sectors
Some of the disadvantages of the quick-change aircrafts are-
 Even though the quick-change aircrafts takes around 30-55 minutes for re-
configuring itself, it consumes more than an hour totally on ground at airports.
 In some cases it may not be able maintain good flexibility in some routes because
whole aircraft is not a quick-change system.
 If the airports authorities impose restrictions on night operations especially the jet
aircrafts, then this might seriously affect the quick-change aircrafts as the scheduling
changes and that they may face a situation where there will be a clash between the
passenger and freight demand on that route.
Figure 5: Different Equipment Installed in Convertible and Quick-Change Aircraft
Source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith 1974 edition.
The above figure shows the difference between the all freighter aircrafts, the convertible
and the quick change aircrafts in which the quick change aircrafts had to add freight floor
equipment otherwise people pallets for changing it for passenger operations.

22
2.1.4 PURE FREIGHTERS/ ALL- CARGO CARRIERS AIRCRAFTS/ FREIGHTERS:
Another network system is for the all-cargo carriers or "Freighters" which are the aircrafts
that carry only cargo. The network of the freighters in which they are operated is less than
that of the passenger network depending on the demand of cargo in various parts of the
world but it has also developed much better and is growing over the years. Most of the
freighters are flown at the night and are being scheduled in accordance with the shippers
and also they have some restrictions in some airports due to the complaint of people living
near the airports. Freighter aircrafts are designed and produced in many different sizes and
configurations. An all-cargo aircraft deals only with the development in the freight market
whereas, the convertible aircrafts helps the operator to gain more revenue but at the same
time it was hard to maintain the aircraft as they are being roughly used both as passenger
and cargo carrying aircraft. The B747 has a powered handling system for providing main and
lower cargo hold service.
Table 5: Top 10 Most Popular Freighters
SL NO. AIRCRAFT TYPE TOTAL % UNCONVERTED
1 727-200 290 5
2 IL-76 288 100
3 747-400 259 75
4 MD-11 169 32
5 A300-600 157 71
6 B757-200 152 53
7 DC-8 147 60
8 B747-200 134 44
9 DC-10 125 11
10 DC-9 73 15
Total above 1794 51
Total Jet fleet 2541 48
Note: The above aircrafts are in operation or grounded.

23
Table 6: The Operational Parameters for Pure Freighter Specifications
SL NO. PARAMETER SUBTYPE DETERMINANTS
1 Performance 1. Payload  Economy of
scale in
Construction
 Origin and
destination of
markets
 Air freight
distribution
system
standards
 Volume of
Traffic
 Frequency
,
2. Range
3.Speed
2 Volume  Freight density,
Structural
constraints
3 Noise  Airport
Constraints
4 Access 1.Maximum
Piece size
 Consignment
Type
 Interface with
ground handling
system
 Designed
Handling rates
2.Sill Height
3.Position of
Door
5 Handling
system
installed
 Turnround
requirements
 Available
Ground facilities
at Airports
served
source: Book- Air freight operations, economics and marketing by Peter Smith. 1974 edition.
The above table shows the various operational parameters for the pure freighters such as
performance, volume, noise, access and handling systems installed on these aircrafts. In this
the noise of the aircraft is related with airport environmental issues. The parameter such as
the volume deals is affected by the structural constraints of an aircraft.

24
2.1.5 FREIGHTERS : Converted from passenger aircrafts
The aircrafts which are retired from passenger services are being converted into frieghter
aircrafts. After the retirement from passenger service for 18- 20 years then the aircrafts will
be converted into freighter and are then put into freighter service for another 15- 20 years.
Every passenger aircrafts do not have the qualities for converting it into a freighter aircraft
when taking into consideration the cargo door compatibility, cross-sections, cain heights
etc. The conversion process might take around 5-6 months in which the removal of cabin
fixtures, window blinds, seats, and other unnecessary passenger-oriented features will be
removed and alternation in the floor structures are caried out. Cargo doors and strong new
floor structues will be fitted with ball mats and roller tracks which helps for cargo loading
and unloading process.Window will also be removed and was replaced of that metal
covering to reduce fire risk and it also helps to prevent cargo from severe sunlight. Some of
the main factors that have to be taken into account during the conversion of a passenger
aircraft to a freighter aircraft are -
 Passenger aircraft price
 Price for conversion
 Technical features such as payload/range characteristics of conversion
 Prices for fuel
Mostly in these cases, the overall cost will be an important factor that have to be takencare
of very carefully because as the age of the aircraft is more, the wear and tear will also be
more. So as to convert it into a good freighter they may have to invest a big amount of
money but still the overall capital cost are relatively low.
For example Boeing commercial aviation services carryout passenger to freight
conversionsfor Douglas and Boeing aircraft models. From 34 tons (17tonnes) 757-200 to a
124ton (113tonnes)747-400 and anything in between them. Boeing also does conversions
for MD-80 through propietary data license. Another example is the Airbus (EADS-EFW)A310-
200, A300-600,A320. From EADS-EFW the A310-200F was the only converted aircraft
available and FedEx was the first company to introduce this in 1994. Not only that but also,
the launch customer for the Airbus/EADS Company converted A310-300F was FedEx.

25
Table 7: Aircraft in Production, Development and Out of Production for the Boeing
SL NO. IN PRODUCTION IN DEVELOPMENT
(Boeing Converted
Freighter)
OUT OF
PRODUCTION
1 B737 Freighter (737-
700C)
B747-400 BCF B707-320C Freighter
2 B747-8 Freighter B767-300BCF B727-100/200
Freighter
3 B767 Freighter (767-
300)
MD-11BCF B737-200/-300 F
4 B777 Freighters - B747-200F/-200SF/-
100SF
5 - - B757-200F
6 - - DC-8F
7 - - DC-9F
8 - - DC-10F
9 - - MD-11F
source: http://www.boeing.com/boeing/commercial/startup/freighters.page?
Not only companies like Boeing and Airbus are authorised to do conversions but also other
companies like -
 AEI B737-200/300/400
 ALCOA-SIEB757-200
 IAI-Bedek B747-400, B767-200,B737-300
 Pemco (US)- B737-300/400
 Precisions Conversions (US) - B757-200
 Singapore Technologies- B757-200, MD-11
 TAECO (China)- MD80/90, B747-400
Sometimes aicraft manufacturers (OEM-original equipment manufacturers) themselves
provide conversions for their passenger aircrafts. There are also other non-OEM specialist
companies that carryout conversionsbut, they have to get the Supplimentary Type
Certificate (STC) from aeronautical authorities. A total number of 90 B727-200Fs were
operated by FedEx and they have given the contract to Singapore Technologies Aerospace
to convert 87 of the them to freighters. Generally speaking, the conversions are cheaper
when it is done by Non - OEM companies but at the same time it is risky when it deals with
product support and there is also apossibility of the STC holder to go bankrupt. Some
conversion specialists like GATX Airlog (B747-100/200), Hayes (B727), Rosenbaum (DC8)etc
have faced such situations where they had to go bankrupt.

26
Figure 6: Boeing Current Market Outlook On Conversions 2013
(Source : Boeing_Current_Market_Outlook_2014.pdf)
In the above figure it is given that out of 15,700 Boeing aircrafts removed 14,370aircrafts
are permenantly retired from service. Out of these 1,330 aircrafts are converted to
freighters and 840 new aircrafts are added to freighter fleet while 1,130 freighters are
removed and permenantly retired from from service making it a total number of 2730
freighter fleets in the 2033.

27
2.1.6 SHORT - /MEDIUM- HAUL AND LONG-HAUL AIRCRAFTS:
The aircraft B727 and its variants were meant for short haul services. The conversion started
in the early 1980's with the B727-100 and then the B727-200 UNTIL EARLY 2000'S. Normaly
the age of the aircraft that was to be converted was from the range 15-19 years for the
B727-100 series and 20-above 22years for the B727-200 series.The B727-100 was also
converted to 'combi' aircraft as well as a quick-change aircraft which could be reconfigured
as passenger as well as freighter carrier. These aircrafts were used in short haul services.
Later the B737-300 was also converted. Not only the short haul aircrafts, but also the Long
haul aircrafts have been converted to freighters. For example, the aircrafts such as B747-400
and also MD-11s were converted.
Table 8: Wide - Bodied Aircraft Conversions to freighters, 2004-2008
SL NO. AIRCRAFT INDICATIVE
PAYLOAD
(t)
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 TOTAL
2004 -
2008
1 A300 39 2 3 8 13 8 34
2 A310 29 5 9 6 5 5 30
3 DC-10 65 2 5 4 1 12
4 B767-300 38 4 13 7 8 8 40
5 MD-11 58 10 19 17 12 9 67
6 B747-200 112 2 2
7 B747-400 124 1 11 26 17 55
Source: Freighter Operations Guide, 2009
Book- Moving boxes by air by Peter S Morell 2011 edition.
The above table shows the conversions made for the wide-bodied aircrafts to freighter
aircrafts from the year 2004 to 2008 where a total of 67 MD 11 aircrafts were converted
into freighter aircrafts which is the highest compared to the others.
2.2 UNIT LOAD DEVICES:
Unit load devices (ULD) are the types of containers and pallets which are used in packing
freight as well as for mail and are carried on all types of aircrafts. The pallets are platforms
of standard dimensions on which goods are assembled and secured by using pallet nets and
straps before being loaded as unit onto a plane. It has a flat under surface to interface with
ball, roller or caser surfaces. The containers are the box-like devices in which a number of
packages are stored, protected and being handled as a single unit and the technique of
packing the products inside these containers are known as containerisation. They help the
airlines in maximising their capacity usage as well as to save time during the process of
loading and unloading. They are made of aluminium and various other composite materials
so as to make reduce the weight as much as possible. The expected life span of such a
container is ranging from 10-15 years if they are handled carefully. In order to maximise the
space and outcome, they are packed tightly as possible by well trained and skilled handlers.

28
Before loading onto an aircraft, the pallets will be covered with nets and plastic sheets. Then
on arrival at the destination, the unloading is carried out by the handlers at that airport. The
process of unloading cargo is generally termed as "Break-Bulk" by the industry. There are 6
basic types of containers used. They are -
 LD1 (covers half the width of the aircraft), with a capacity of 4.59 cubic metres.
 LD2 (half-width), 3.4 cubic metres.
 LD3 (half- width), 4.5cubic metres.
 LD6 (covers the full width of the aircraft), 8.9cubic metres.
 LD8 (full-width), 6.88 cubic metres.
 LD11 (full- width, rectangular), 7.16cubic metres
Out of the above mentioned types of containers, the LD3, LD6 and LD11 are designed for
aircrafts like MD-11, B777, B747, B 787, IL-86, IL-96 and L-1011 , also for the Airbus wide
body aircrafts.
The aircrafts like MD11, B747F, AN- 124 etc are the frequently used aircrafts to transport
outsized items such as helicopters, vehicles, locomotives, bridge sections etc. Such type of
items are loaded by using cranes, ramps and even by hand depending on the load and the
type of aircraft and are then tied to the main floors with the help of special heavy duty ties.
Depending on the types of products it is carrying, there are some codes used to identify
them.
They are-
 A - Certified aircraft container
 D - Non-certified container
 P - Certified aircraft pallet
 R - Thermal certified aircraft container
 H - Horse stall
 K - Cattle stall
 V - Automobile transport equipment
2.3 I.T. SYSTEMS AND GROUND HANDLING
Ground handling otherwise the shed handling process is the process in which the cargo is
taken or moved from the shipper to the warehouse. The handler has to make the cargo
ready for the shipment by arranging it either on pallets or onto containers (ULDs). After this,
they will be handed over to the ramp handlers and before that the customs clearance and
all the other such necessary documentations should be obtained. In case of the inbound
cargo, the process mentioned above will be conducted in the reverse order i.e., the cargo
will be handled and will be made ready for the consignee. For maintaining a good
relationship between the airlines and the company, it is important to maintain high level of

29
standards and for that, staffs should be trained properly and it should be continuously given
so as to meet the demands.
KPIs- is the key performance indicators which are used for monitoring the level of service
standard quality. These types of quality check programs are performed in some airports.
The duty of the ramp handler is to take the cargo from the ground handler and to load it
into the aircraft and in the case of inbound cargo, he/she should deliver the cargo to the
ground handler. According to the survey and research done by IATA, each air cargo
shipment carried, had at least 30 paper documents for it while it makes its way from the
shipper to the consigner, forwarder, handlers, terminal operators, airlines, ramp handlers as
well as the customs authorities. From the research and survey made by the IATA, they found
that annually, 7800 tonnes of documents were generated in the air cargo industry which is
surprisingly equal to the carrying capacity of 80 B 747 freighters. IATA managed to bring a
change for this system by developing systems such as Cargo 2000 (C2K) and e- freight which
is now a universal business tool used by several companies, making the task easier than it
was before.
E-AWBs (Electronic air waybills) are used nowadays by which the details and updates of the
special cargo carried such as the express shipments as well as the dangerous goods are
being recorded. According to the security procedures, the data of the cargo that is shipped
should be sent to the concerned authorities in the country as well as the customs
authorities in the destination and also the airlines. ICS (Import control system) is another
system developed by the customs department in Europe. The airlines are supposed to
submit ICS data to the customs. ICS deals with the House air waybills (HAWBs) whereas the
Export control systems (ECS) deals with the MAWBs (Master air waybills). The older system
of doing most of these manually through taking care of loads of documents were heavily
decreased with the help of these new systems and thus the work load is decreased and are
made more easier.
2.3.1 IATA e-freight:
IATA has developed the IATA e- freight system to make the process easier, accurate and
more reliable through developing electronic messaging system instead of dealing with
documentation and reduced paper works.
Benefits of e-freight include:
 Time management - With the help of e- freight transit times for the supply chain
were made faster. The shipment document can be send even before the cargo
reducing the time of end to end transport cycle by an average 24hrs
 More Accuracy - One- time electronic data entry at the origin helps to reduce the
amount of delays of shipments due to problems like inconsistent data entry and
other such documentation errors. There is a great way of keeping the important
documents in the system which helps to reduce the risk of misplacing documents.

30
 Regulatory compliance - All the International and local regulations relating to the
customs, civil aviation as well as other regulatory authorities are met by e-freight in
relation with the provision of electronic documents.
2.3.2 Cargo 2000 (C2K):
C2K has been developed for setting the quality standards for the air cargo supply chain so as
to improve the efficiency of this industry. The aim of C2K is to improve the customer service
and reduce costs for the participants by introducing a programme of agreed business and
automation standards which are able to be measured and to promote the quality of
performance. C2K developed its Master operating plan based on the customer research in
detail and it is also assisted by leading IT and Software companies. The number of processes
done individually in the air cargo supply chain were reduced from 40 to 19. Thus C2K is less
labour intensive and as a result of that it helps to reduce the amount of paper works needed
for the shipment. It also reduces the time required for irregularity checks such as the service
failures, manual track and trace procedures thus leading to a low service recovery cost.
There are 3 phases in which the C2K's quality management system are being implemented.
They are -
 Phase 1- It helps to manage the airport to airport movements, shipment tracking and
planning at the MAWB level. A plan will be automatically formed along with a
number of checkpoints by which each and every cargo shipments transported will be
measured as well as managed as soon as a booking is made.
 Phase2 - The door to door movement will be monitored and in this phase at HAWB
level, the shipment planning and tracking is done.
 Phase 3 - At this phase the shipment planning and tracking is managed at the
individual price level as well as tracking of documents. It helps to provide real time
management of the transportation channel for each pieces. It also helps to control
the information flow. The most important is the controlling of information in phase
3, because there will be limited need for paper or other such documentations so as
to bare the minimum level required by the law.
2.4 Factors that affect the air cargo aircraft operation:
After the recession, the International air trade is slightly ascending till now. The cost of
shipping by air along with the change in the final price of goods and the nature of the
International trade also changed. There are many factors that affect the air cargo industry as
well as some factors that have to be taken into account for improving the performance of
the air cargo supply chain. The aircraft type has an important role in the whole air freight
distribution system. The cargo aircraft should be designed in such a way that freight
processing can be done more easily and within a short period of time on the ground. Not
only that but also the technical performance of the aircraft should also be good. The
modern freight aircrafts are expensive to buy and operate. Even though the new aircrafts
are expensive, t will be having lots of new features and new technologies which will help to
improve the efficiency. Comparing to the other surface transport modes, the aircraft has

31
various other factors that have to be included such as the momentum, lift, drag, payload
capacity etc. Greater amount of power is required to move an aircraft because the
resistance or otherwise drag of an aircraft relative to its weight will be high. So as to move
this heavy vehicle carrying cargo, more fuel is consumed. While designing an aircraft, the
manufacturers have to be careful while dealing with the weight of the aircraft as well as fuel
efficiency. To reduce the weight of the aircraft, lightweight aluminium alloys are used. The
cargo aircrafts normally carry big amount of payloads so, the wing area will be also large
enough to give lift, resulting in cruising economy. Normally an aircraft moving in three
dimensions at high speed at high altitudes needs pressurisation equipment as well as other
sophisticated systems for controlling and guiding the aircraft. The cost of an aircraft can be
dependent upon the fundamental parameters of an aircraft like, the range, speed and
payload capacity. These parameters are all interconnected, thus the analysis will be done
base on this relationships other than looking at them individually. Technology is another
factor which helps to improve the performance of an aircraft and it is also being developed
and improved day by day by the manufacturers and designers. Not only the technology but
also, there are other certain external factors to be considered such as, the length and the
altitude of the runways as well as the air temperature. Because of the reduced density of
the air, fuel consumption will be more if the runway length is long. At the same time, if the
runway length is short there will be a reduction in the payload or in the range so as to make
a quick take-off. At higher temperature, less thrust is produced per kilogram by the fuel thus
resulting in the reduction of payloads carried which tend to provide revenue.
Figure 7: Runway Length-Range Graph
The above figure shows the linear relationship between payload and range. If the payload is
reduced, then the aircraft will be able to carry more fuel thus extending the range that can

32
be flown. It is based on the disposable load of the aircraft i.e., the residual waste that is left
after the subtraction of the empty operating weight from the maximum take-off weight is
known as the disposable weight. The volume of the cargo hold as well as the structural
limitations of the fuselage are the two factors that limit the maximum payload. So it would
not be possible to increase the revenue payload as the fuel requirements are reduced are
being reduced on the short sectors. The range depends on the fuel carried by the aircraft
and that the capacity of an aircraft's fuel tank will be of a fixed amount. The fuel consumed
by the aircraft will be more if the payload carried on that aircraft is also more thus resulting
in reducing the range of that aircraft. The freighter aircrafts are made more productive with
higher payloads which in turn gives lower direct operating costs per capacity tonne
kilometre.
2.4.1 DENSITY:
The maximum weight limit for an aircraft is given set by the balance and structural strength
of that aircraft. The ratio between the maximum structural payloads to that of the available
volume gives the density which should be achieved or else exceeded if that aircraft is to be
operated with a full weight of freight on-board. This is known as the aircraft's design
density. There are two types of density for the traffic that are the unladen and the laden
densities. When it is in the form of individual consignments, the traffic has unladen density
and when it is been prepared for carriage then, it has laden density. If the laden density is
less than that of the design density then, even before the weight limits of that aircraft will
be reached, the aircraft will become full and also unused volume will be there if the traffic
density is high.
Figure 8: Runway Payload-Freight Density Graph

33
The above graph shows the payload and freight density of an aircraft with respect to the
design density. After making allowance for the unusable space, the design density should be
related with the laden traffic density. Pricing would be done based on the volume and
weight.
2.4.2 BLOCK TIME AND RANGE:
Block time is the time taken to cover a particular sector. The block time will increase,
therefore less than proportionately with that of the increase in the range. The time taken
for take-off and the time taken for climbing to the optimum cruising altitude also, to
descend and land is fixed. The block time can be formulated as -
Block time, B= R/S+K
Where, B-Block time in hours
R- Range in Km
S- Maximum cruising speed in km/hour
K- Constant in hours giving the fixed time required to climb to and descend from cruising
altitude.
Figure 9: Block Speed-Range Graph
Block time has a significant role and is important because of its impact on the aircraft
productivity as well as direct operating costs per unit of output. Assuming that the payload
is unaffected, the productivity of the aircraft should improve as the block speed also
increase along with the range. Irrespective to the payloads and cruising speeds, the aircrafts
that are operating on long sectors are capable of producing more outputs per time period
than that of the aircrafts operated on short sectors due to the higher block speed. So, this is

34
an important factor that should be considered while dealing in the case of a short-range
aircraft's higher operating costs.
2.4.3 AIRCRAFT PRODUCTIVITY:
The direct operating costs can be set based on the annual productivity of an aircraft which is
calculated by multiplying the annual utilisation of the aircraft in hours and the aircraft
productivity in CTK (Capacity Tonne Kilometres or Capacity Tonne Miles). The productivity
output can be measured by comparing the payload and speed. The output in CTK per flying
hour can be achieved by multiplying the payload and block speed for any range. The
aircrafts with different speeds and payloads and speeds can be compared in this way.
Figure 10: Capacity Tonne Kilometres-Range Graph
In the above graph the maximum productivity is achieved along with high capacity tonne
kilometres per hour and then it starts to decline. The productivity of an aircraft per hour will
increase with higher range because of the initial stability of payload with increasing average
speed.

35
2.4.4 AIRCRAFT UTILISATION:
Aircraft utilisation is another import factor of the aircraft economics. A great amount of
time is required to maintain the aircraft as well as to load and prepare the aircraft between
each and every services. Unoccupied or available time is the amount of residual time that is
available after the activities such as loading, unloading etc. Utilisation is affected by the
length of the turnaround times as well as that of the frequency.
2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE FLYING TIME
The flying time normally depends on the factors such as the length of the sectors, amount of
traffic, speed and performance of an aircraft. The carrier will operate smaller fleets so as to
lower the unit costs and to maintain high utilisation per aircraft. Another factor that affect
the flying time is the number of frequency of service. Load factors will rise i there is lower
frequency, but at a point at which there is rise in the unit costs, then this lower frequency
may reduce utilisation.
2.5.1 Factor affecting turnaround time
Turnaround time can be defined as the length of the time between the end of one flight for
loading and unloading, refuelling as well as the maintenance done for the aircraft. The
turnaround frequencies depends on the length of the sectors in which the aircraft is being
operated i.e. the incidence of turnarounds per flying hour will be lower when the sector
length is long. The turnaround time depends upon two main factors such as -
 Replenishing and checking of the aircraft
 Removal and replacement of payloads.
The ground handling and ground support systems also have an important role in reducing
the turnaround time of the aircraft. Another threat to increased turnaround time is due to
any delays that occur for example if the aircrafts that stand on apron are full and
unscheduled maintenance works etc.
2.5.2 Factors affecting the maintenance time
The maintenance time of an aircraft depends on the factors like the availability of aircraft
components, maintenance policies adopted by carriers as well as regulations. If an airline is
having a very small number of fleets then, they will have to be more careful while
scheduling because, if any of the aircrafts are under maintenance then, there will be slight
reduction in the income even if they try to make up with putting other aircrafts on extra
services. A larger fleet size creates economy of scale in the maintenance methods, through
preventive maintenance, re-usage and rotation of the aircraft components. The
maintenance time taken per aircraft decreases with the size of the fleets. Major
maintenance will have to be done in the periods where there is little demand. The airlines
will be keen on keeping the aircrafts airworthy as much as possible so as to avoid regulatory
issues.

36
2.6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE MODAL CHOICE
Today the air freight industry is developing faster along with technology. The air cargo helps
to save a lot of time while shipping a product. For example, machine part, flowers and other
such items that are to be sent immediately to distant places, are being sent by air cargo. But
at the same time there are several factors that have to be taken into account while dealing
with the air cargo. They are -
 Delivery time
 Cost/Price
 Frequency
 Reliability
 Physical limitations
 Quality of service
 Security
2.6.1 Delivery time
The delivery time from the shipper's point of view is the time taken for collecting the
product from the factory and o deliver it to the corresponding consignee or distributor in
the country of destination. The air cargo has greater advantage when it deals with delivery
time when compared with the other modes of surfaces transports. But delays and late
pickups as well as customs clearance etc. at the destination airport would sometime
diminish this advantage. It is more advantageous in the longer routes rather than on the
shorter routes as there is less chance for influencing the delivery time of door to door
delivery services in the shorter routes.
2.6.2 Cost/Price
The cost of shipping by air includes the rate charged to the shipper along with other
associated charges for the documentation, demurrage clearance, handling, collecting and
delivery etc. The air freight rate depends upon the shipment size, density, type of
commodity, place to be sent etc. Usually the airliners will get low rates from the forwarders.
The cost of fuel also affect the total price for shipping a product by air.
2.6.3 Frequency
For emergency shipments, frequency of service as well as the length of the routes is an
advantage. But when comparing passenger services with cargo services, the passenger
services has more advantages. But at the same time when comparing air cargo with other
modes of transports such as shipping by ocean and also by trucks then, the air cargo has
more advantages in the case of number of frequencies in service which helps to reduce the
shipment time with daily services but, there will be a limit in the amount of cargo carried by
air than that of the other modes of shipping. With good frequency, the Just in time (JIT)
system helps to maintain the reputation of the air cargo industry with respect to the length

37
of the routes. Frequency has similar effects as that of the delivery time. The manufacturing
companies and other such factory units can utilise more if there is good frequency for the
air cargo because, they can send their products as well as plan according to that particular
pattern of services. But in some cases, the products will be delivered only after the factory is
shut. So even with transit time advantages in some occasions, unsuitable timings and delays
may become a problem.
2.6.4 Reliability
Reliability is the consistency required for achieving planned distribution of a product. It
helps to simplify the shippers planning and helps to attain lower inventory costs. If there is
less reliability, then there is a chance for the shipper to change the mode of transportation
itself. Consistency is one of the main factors that affects the mode of transport.
2.6.5 Physical limitations
The freighter aircrafts have a limit on the cargo to be carried especially, the size and weight
of the goods. Comparing to the other modes of transport especially by sea, road, and rail.
The nose or tail loading equipment’s as well as the upgrades in technology helps to reduce
the constraints but still the amount of goods that can be carried on board is less for
freighter compared to other modes of transport.
2.6.6 Quality of services
It is the factor that covers all the above mentioned factors. It is the level of standard service
provided by the airline. The airlines should be keen on maintaining high levels of quality
services so as to maintain a good relation with its customers. It shows the status of an
airline. It includes services like booking services, enquiries, call centres etc. Delay in
shipments and goods getting damaged will lead to diminish the level of quality of service
thus it has adverse effect on the reputation of that airline company. The introduction of
cargo 2000 (C2K) has helped to improve service and also to smoothen the documentation
works for the shipments. "Track and trace" system also helps the customers to locate their
goods which have been shipped.
2.6.7 Security of product
The security of the product is an important factor that have to be taken into account i the
air cargo distribution system. The protective packing and handling of these should be done
carefully. Theft, damage while handling, damage from environmental conditions, pilferage
etc. are some of the main types of factors that affect the security of the product. The system
of containerisation helps to reduce the amount of theft and damage of the products. But
comparing to the other modes of transportation, the air freight is more secure. One of the
reason is the shorter period of transit time and also that only a few people are authorised to
take care of the cargo. In many cases the air cargo shipment is being stolen either on its way
from or to the airport. Usually the valuable goods will be packed and placed at the centre of
the containers in freighters. The key issues regarding air cargo theft are
 lack of effective cargo theft reporting system

38
 need to upgrade the crime laws and prosecution
 The nature and importance of cargo crime is not clearly understood by neither the
government nor the air cargo industry.
2.7 ALL CARGO AIRLINE COSTS
There are basically two types of costs of operation. They are -
 Direct operating costs
 Indirect operating costs
2.7.1 Direct operating costs
The direct operating costs can be classified into
 Flight operations which includes the flight crew salary and expenses, fuel and oil
costs, equipment rental costs, hull insurance, third party insurance, miscellaneous
items.
 Direct maintenance which includes cost of direct maintenance labour, maintenance
materials, contract maintenance
 Depreciation which includes costs of flight equipment such as airframes, engines
equipment and spare parts
The insurance of aircraft is included in fixed cost of operation. Fuel and oil costs are included
in the direct operating costs. Comparing to the passenger airlines, the freighters have less
number of crew. Maintenance of the aircraft is required at certain intervals of time that too,
irrespective how long the aircraft has been flown as well as number of take-off and landings
made by it. The components of an aircraft has a life expectancy expressed in flying hours.
These kind of costs can also be related directly with the output produced.
Factors affecting direct operating costs
1. Factor input costs -
 Equipment including spaces like airframe, engines, ancillary equipments
 Labour (flight and maintenance)
 Fuel and oil
 Insurance
 Interest
2. Design characteristics of aircraft -
 Payload
 Range
 Speed
 Crew size
 Fuel and oil consumption

39
 Maintenance need
 Turnaround performance
3. Route structure and pattern of traffic
4. Managerial efficiency -
 Scheduling
 Maintenance efficiency
 Labour control
 Airline size
5. Management ad government policy -
 Depreciation
 Maintenance
 Regulations
2.7.2 Indirect operating costs
The indirect operating costs are the costs which are generated from the traffic and sales,
advertising etc. These costs are considered to be independent.
Indirect operating costs include -
 Indirect maintenance
 Ground equipment
 Passenger and cargo service
 Traffic and sales
 Advertising and public relations
 Administrative and general
The indirect operating costs cannot be directly linked to the aircraft operations. For
example, so as to reduce the labour costs by adding machines as there is a rise i the labour
costs, then also the labour becomes a fixed cost because a minimum number of manpower
is required to keep the machine systems running.
2.7.3 Fuel costs
The fuel cost have become an important factor of an airline's profitability. They also have
impact on the environmental issues related with an aircrafts like CO2 emission level. The fuel
and its other costs can be split into two main components such as fuel price and fuel
efficiency. The fuel price varies every time and for the airlines, it is the jet kerosene which is
bought and used in the aircrafts. The cost of delivery of fuel from airport o the aircrafts as
well as the cost of transport from the refinery are also included in fuel price. Some airports
even charge for the access to the ramps. Hedging is not always going to be successful as
there can be unpredicted change in the fuel costs. The fuel efficiency can be increased

40
through improved and good operational manoeuvres like maintaining lower cruising speed.
Improved and upgraded fuel efficient aircraft engines will also help to reduce the fuel costs.
Figure 11: Jet Fuel and Crude Oil Price
The above figure shows the fluctuations in the jet kerosene and crude oil price from the
year 2008 to 2014. The fuel price for both the jet kerosene and the Brent crude oil
decreased in 2009 but, it gradually increased afterwards and from 2011 the price for both of
these were in between $120 to $140b. But during the period between 2012 and 2013 there
was a small decrease in the prices of these to almost near $80b but, again gradually
increased after that. But the price of jet kerosene is predicted to be decreasing from 2014 to
$110b. The price of jet kerosene is always been higher than that of the Brent crude oil.

41
3. METHODOLOGY
This dissertation focuses mainly on the trends in aircraft designs and its impact on cargo-
oriented aircrafts.
This study uses secondary data for its analysis. This study also looks into the factors that
affect the air cargo overall performance. The technical data and specifications for various
cargo aircraft will be compiled and compared, providing an analysis of the different
characteristics of each individual plane.
This work views into the different types of cargo-aircrafts used in the past as well as present
especially, the aircrafts like MD-11, DC-8, and B-707 and A-300 series. A comparison will be
done based on their technical specifications and design. Not only that but also, it will look
into the future designs and innovations as well as the ground handling, IT and other
technologies used in cargo industry.
The analysis has been divided into 5 chapters which consists of separate chapters for each
aircrafts like the B707, DC 8, MD 11, A300 and a separate chapter about future freighters.
While comparing the aircrafts, four main characteristics like the general characteristics of
the aircrafts, the payload-range capability for each aircrafts, interior arrangement of cargo
and the turnaround time for each aircrafts are discussed.
The aircrafts compared mainly in this thesis are:
 Narrow bodied aircrafts such as B707 freighters and DC 8 freighter
 Wide-bodied aircrafts such as MD 11 freighters and A300 freighter series.
The analysis of each aircraft includes the general characteristics which consists of:
 Maximum ramp weight
 Maximum taxi weight (MTW)
 Maximum take-off weight (MTOW)
 Maximum landing weight (MLW)
 Maximum structural payload
 Maximum seating capacity
 Operating empty weight (OEW)
 Maximum cargo volume capacity
 Usable fuel capacity
 Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW)
The maximum take-off weight (MTOW) is the maximum amount of weight that can be
handled by an aircraft with respect to its structural strength and also according to the
requirements of airworthiness.
The maximum taxi weight (MTW) is the maximum amount of weight that can be taken by
an aircraft during taxiing with respect to the structural strength of that aircraft and also
according to the requirements of airworthiness.

42
The maximum landing (MLW) weight of an aircraft is the maximum weight limit that can be
handled by an aircraft for landing with respect to the structural strength of that aircraft and
also according to the requirements of airworthiness.
The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) can be defined as the maximum limit of operational
weight of an aircraft without considering the usable fuel carried on it.
The operational empty weight (OEW) is defined as the basic weight of an aircraft including
the weight of the crew, all unusable fuel and other propulsion agents, the weight of the
systems and equipment so as to operate an aircraft excluding the usable fuel and the
payload.
The maximum structural payload will achieved by subtracting the operational empty weight
(OEW) from the maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW).
The maximum seating capacity is the maximum number of passengers that an aircraft can
accommodate in it with respect to the certifications and regulations.
The maximum cargo volume capacity of an aircraft is the maximum available volume on an
aircraft for cargo.
The usable fuel is the amount of fuel that is available for propulsion of an aircraft..
All the above mentioned characteristics of each aircrafts are compared and studied in order
to understand the differences in technical specifications of each aircrafts. This will help the
researcher to handle the other challenges in this thesis, which are:
 Payload-range capability of each aircraft models
 Interior cargo arrangements and configurations
 Turnaround time for each freighter aircraft
Firstly, the payload-range for each aircraft models are analysed and a comparative
discussion is carried out in order to find the difference in the range for each aircraft with full
payload. The range of an aircraft is the total distance an aircraft is able to fly between take-
off and landing with the fuel carried by it in which the distance covered by the aircraft will
be shown in the terms of nautical miles or kilometres. The payload capacity is the load
carrying capacity of an aircraft in which the load may be passengers, cargo or other
equipment etc. It is denoted in unit of weight. This part of the research is based on finding
the maximum range an aircraft could achieve with full payload using the maximum fuel each
aircraft could consume. The payload-range comparison also considers the maximum take-
off weight and maximum zero fuel weight of the aircraft.
Secondly, the different types of aircraft interior cargo arrangements and configurations are
compared between each aircraft that is chosen for this thesis. This is done in terms of the
maximum number of cargo containers and pallets that could be accommodated in each
aircraft model.

43
Thirdly, the maximum turnaround time for each aircrafts is also compared with the specified
aircrafts. This thesis in respect to overall turnaround time, gives more importance to the re-
fuelling time, cargo loading and unloading operations.
These characteristics will then be examined, the key aspects that enable them to be
successful cargo carriers and those factors which have been critical to an aircraft's
unsuccessful utilisation as a cargo carrier will be identified. There is also an examination of
future design trends like the airships, ground effect aircrafts and the design of improved
aircrafts based on existing aircraft designs highlighting those features which have greater
scope for developing the air cargo industry in the future.

44
4. ANALYSIS
4.1 ANALYSIS OF B707
The design of Boeing 707 family of aircrafts were actually derived from the 707 prototype
(Boeing made model 367-80). B 707 was also developed from the Boeing model 367-80 and
all the other models of the B707 were derived basically from the B707-100 series. The other
models which were derived from the B707-100 series also maintained the same body
section as that of B707-100.
The B707 family were mainly of four categories. They are:
 707-100 series
 707-200 series
 707-300 series
 707-400 series
Out of these the -100 and the -200 series were mainly used in the domestic routes whereas,
most of the -300 and -400 series were used for inter-continental services. The B707-200 was
light and was able to carry less payload than that of the -100 series. It also had a different
engine and a different gross weight than that of the -100 series. B707-300 series were
mostly used for inter-continental services as mentioned before and because of that these
aircrafts had longer body, higher gross weight as well as greater wing-span with high-lift
trailing edge flaps.
The B707-300 series of airplanes have basically 3 types which are the B707-320, -320B and
the -320C. The B707-320, -320B are passenger airplanes and B707-320C was a
passenger/cargo convertible version and also had an all freighter version of it. Given below
is the total order and delivery summary of the model B707 published by the Boeing
company.
Table 9: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for B 707 Aircraft
707 model
summary
Through Feb 2015
Model Series Orders Deliveries Unfilled
707-120 56 56 -
707-320B 174 174 -
707-E3A 61 61 -
707-138 7 7 -

45
707-E3D 7 7 -
707-E6A 17 17 -
707-KE3 8 8 -
720-000 65 65 -
707-120B 72 72 -
707-220 5 5 -
707-420 37 37 -
707-138B 6 6
707-320C 337 337 -
720-000B 89 89 -
707-320 69 69 -
Total 1010 1010
Source: http://www.boeing.com/commercial/
From the above table we can understand that a total of 1010 B707 aircrafts were delivered.
Out of all, with a total of three hundred and thirty seven deliveries, the model B707-320C is
the highest. The second highest is the model B707-320B with a total of 174 deliveries. At the
same time, only 69 deliveries were made for the B707-320. The passenger/cargo convertible
model was more popular in the B707 family because of its great ability by which the airlines
was able to make a good revenue from both the passenger as well as the cargo. The B707s
are still used by the Spanish Air force, Colombian Air force etc., but not for passenger service
today. Some of the airlines which used the B707 were the Pan Am, Trans World Airlines,
Continental Airlines, British Airways etc. Other than models in the B707 family, B707-320
and -320C were the most popular ones not only because of their ability to gain more
revenue but also due to their performance characteristics.

46
Table 10: Engine Type used by the B707 Family Aircraft
Model Engine Type Vertical Tail height Maximum ramp
weight
(Metres) Kilogram
707-120B JT3D 12.7 117,100
707-220 JT4A 12.7 112,400
720** JT3C 12.62 104,400
720-B** JT3D 12.55 106,700
707-320 JT4A 12.85 143,500
707-420 R.CO-12 12.85 143,500
707-320B JT3D 12.83 148,900/152,500
707-320C JT3D 12.80 152,500
Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf
 Height is that the height above ground at OEW.
 Here the 720 and 720B are also shown because they are the derivatives of the 707-
100 series.
From the above table we can understand that most of the B707 models used the Pratt &
Whitney turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines. Another engine used in the B707-420 is the Rolls-
Royce Conway engine which were basically turbo-fan engines with bypass system. The
Model Engine
Type
Length Span Body
Overall
(Metres)
Fuselage
(Metres)
Wing
(Metres)
Tail
(Metres)
Height
(Metres)
Width
(Metres)
707-
120B
JT3D 44.22 42.32 39.88 13.21 4.33 3.76
707-
220
JT4A 44.20 42.32 39.88 12.20 4.33 3.76
720** JT3C 41.30 39.78 39.88 12.20 4.33 3.76
720-
B**
JT3D 41.68 39.78 39.88 13.21 4.33 3.76
707-
320
JT4A 46.61 44.35 43.40 13.94 4.33 3.76
707-
420
R.CO-
12
46.61 44.35 43.40 13.94 4.33 3.76
707-
320B
JT3D 46.61 44.35 43.42 13.94 4.33 3.76
707-
320C
JT3D 46.61 44.35 43.42 13.94 4.33 3.76

47
overall length for the 707-320B and the -320C was 46.61 metres with a wing-span of 43.42
metres each. The vertical tail height of the B707-320B is slightly higher than that of the -
320C and the maximum ramp weight is 152,500 kilograms each. The height and width of all
the models are same whereas the overall lengths for the 707-320,-320B,-320C,-420 were
46.61 metres and for the rest of the models it had slight variations. The 720 and the -720 B
had only slight variations with that of the B707 models and that these models were derived
from the design of B707-100 series.
4.1.1 General Characteristics of Model 707
Table 11: General Characteristics of Model 707
 *-International configuration
 **- Domestic configuration
 ***- Maximum take-0ff weight of 335,000 pounds is possible when using wet thrust.
Source-http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf
The maximum ramp weight for the models like B707-320B and -320C is 152,000 kilograms.
The maximum landing weight for the B707-320C is higher than that of the -320B but at the
same time the take-off weight for both the -320B and 320C are the same. The operating
empty weight for the -320C freighter (International) is less than that of the -320B. The zero
fuel weight and the usable fuel capacity for both the -320B and 320C are the same. The

48
maximum structural payload of the -320C is higher than that of the passenger models and
the maximum structural payload for the -320C freighter is 42,000 kilograms which is the
highest when compared to all the other B707 models mentioned above. When comparing
the maximum cargo capacity, it is clear that the freighter has the highest cargo capacity.
4.2 Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-
International
Figure 12: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320B Passenger-
International
The payload -range for long range step climb cruise for the B707-320B is shown above in
which it clearly notifies that the least take-off weight is 200,000 LB with 141 passengers and
baggage in which the range between 1,000 and 2,000 NMI and the highest range is in
between 5,000 and 6000 NMI with a usable fuel of 90,290 L.

49
4.2.1 Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-
International
Figure 13: Payload-Range for Long Range Step Climb Cruise of Model 707-320C Convertible-
International
Source-
http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf
The payload-range for the long range step climb cruise of B707-320C is shown in the above
graph in which the range of the -320C is in between 5000 and 6000 NMI with a maximum
take-off weight of 333,600 LB and the least range is between 1000 and 2000 NMI with a
take-off weight of 200,000LB. Here the aircraft carries 13 pallets along with 17,000 LB of
cargo carried on the lower deck ad it also has the maximum usable fuel of 90,290 L.

50
4.3 Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C
Figure 14: Interior Arrangement of Cargo/Passenger Model 707-320C
Sourcehttp://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf
Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of B707-320C in which it is
able to accommodate up to 7 pallets 88x108 (223BY 274CM) in a mixed passenger/cargo
arrangement and in an all-cargo mode it is able to carry up to 13 pallets 88 BY 125 IN.
(223BY 318 CM).
Figure 15: Different Type of Mixed Class Configurations of B707-320C
In the all-cargo mode, the total cargo volumes including the lower cargo compartments is
7,630 CU FT (216.08 CUM).

51
4.4 Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo
Figure 16: Terminal Operations - Turnaround station for model 707-320C- All cargo
Source- http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/707.pdf
The turnaround time for the -320C is shown above in which it clearly shows that it could
take a total turnaround time of 55 to 60 minutes for a B 707-320C-Freighter. The loading
and unloading process consumes more time out of all. The fuelling process for the -320C
takes 10 to 20 minutes approximately.

52
5. ANALYSIS OF DC-8
The DC-8 or otherwise, Mc Donnell Douglas DC-8 is a narrow body jet airliner with four
engines. The DC-8s entered into service along with Delta Airlines as well as the United
Airlines on September 18th, 1959. It was able to attain speed more than 930km/hr
(600MPH). More than 300 DC-8s were in service during 1995, which made more than 340
scheduled flights per day. According to the aviation week intelligence database in January
2013, it reported that there were 36 DC 8s in service worldwide. The company had built 263
number of series 60 aircrafts and out of that around 110 of the aircrafts were converted into
series 70. The DC 8s had many variants including the super sixties and the super seventies.
Pratt & Whitney engines such as the JT3D-7 and JT3D-3/B turbo fan engines were used in
the Dc -8s. Lufthansa Cargo also operated DC 8s earlier and has now retired all their DC
8s.The DC-8 family includes models like-
 series 10
 series 20
 series 30
 DC 8-43 (series 40)
 DC 8-55
 DC 8-61
 DC 8-62
 DC 8-63
 DC 8-71
 DC 8-72
 DC 8-73
 DC 8-55F
 DC 8-61F
 DC 8-62F
 DC 8-63F
 DC 8-71F
 DC 8-72F
 DC 8-73F

53
Table 12: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for DC 8 Aircraft
DC-8 Model
Summary
Through Feb 2015
DC-8-50F 15 15 -
DC-8-40 32 32 -
DC-8-10 26 26 -
DC-8-50 89 89 -
DC-8-50C 39 39 -
DC-8-61 78 78 -
DC-8-63F 7 7 -
DC-8-61C 10 10 -
DC-8-62 51 51 -
DC-8-20 36 36 -
DC-8-62F 6 6 -
DC-8-63 47 47 -
DC-8-30 57 57 -
DC-8-62C 10 10 -
DC-8-63CF 53 53 -
Total 556 556 -
Source- http://www.boeing.com/commercial/

54
A total of five hundred and fifty six DC8s were delivered and out of that ten DC 8-62Cs and
fifty three DC 8-63Cs were delivered. The highest number of aircrafts delivered in the DC 8
family were the DC 8-50s with 89 deliveries and the second highest was the model DC 8-61s
with 78 deliveries. The DC 8's used Pratt & Whitney JT3D engines most of the aircrafts but
the 40 series had Rolls-Royce engines.
5.1 General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F
Table 13: General Airplane Characteristics Models DC 8-43,-55,-55F
Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/dc8.pdf
The above table shows the airplane characteristics of models like DC 8-43,-55,-55F. In this,
the -55F was the freighter version which had the same maximum take-off weights as that of
the DC 8-55 and a cargo volume of 9020 CU FT which was greater than that of the DC 8-55
with 1390 CU FT. The operating empty weight for the -55F was less than that of the DC 8-55.
But at the same time the maximum payload that would be carried by the 55F was almost
double that of DC-55 also, the maximum design fuel weight of the -55F was greater than the
DC-55 as it was meant to carry cargo on-board.

55
5.1.2 General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F
Figure 17: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-61, -61F, -62, -62F
Here the airplane characteristics of models such as the DC 8-61, -61CF, -62, -62F are shown
in which, when comparing the -61 F and the -62F we will be able to understand that the
maximum take-off weight was more for the DC-62CF than that of the -61CF but the
maximum design zero fuel weight and the operating empty weight for the -61CF was slightly
more than that of the -62CF. The maximum payload carried by the -62CF was more than
that of the -61CF but at the same time, the maximum cargo volume of the -61CF was higher
than that of the -62CF.

56
5.1.3 General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F
Figure 18: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-63, -63F
The maximum take-off weight for the -63F is slightly higher than that of the -62F. The -63F
and -73F have the same maximum cargo volume of 12,830 LB. The maximum payload
carried by the -63F is higher than that of both the -62F, -71F, -72F -73F. The amount of
usable fuel carried was same for -62F, -63F, -72F and -73F.

57
5.1.4 Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F
Figure 19: General Characteristics of Models DC 8-71,-71F,-73,-73F
The super seventies of DC-8 family had used the CFM56-2 high-bypass engines. These
models were actually designed based on the DC-61,-62 and the -63s. The operating empty
weight of the -73F is higher than that of the models like -72F and the -63F. The maximum
cargo volume of the -72f was the same as that of -61F with 12,171 LB. The DC 8-71 CF, -71
AF, -73 CF and -73 AF were able to carry up to 18 cargo pallets and the models like DC 8- 72
F, - 72 AF were able to carry only 14 cargo pallets.

58
5.2 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters
Figure 20: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-54 Freighters
Source-http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/startup/pdf/freighters/DC-
8F_payload.pdf
From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 54 freighters used the Pratt
&Whitney JT3D-3B engines and that the maximum range lies between 3,000 and 4,000 NMI.
The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 101,600 kg (224,000 LB). The maximum take-off
weight for both of these aircrafts are 142,880 kg each. The DC 8-54 AF has a range in
between 4,000 to 4,500 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-54 CF is between 5,000 to 5,800
NMI which higher when compared with the other because of its increased fuel capacity.
5.2.1 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-55 Freighters
Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/startup/pdf/freighters/DC-
8F_payload.pdf

59
From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 55 freighters also used the Pratt
&Whitney JT3D-3B engines. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 101,600 kg (224,000
LB). The DC 8-55 CF has a range in between 4,100 to 4,500 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-
55 AF is between 5,200 to 5,800 NMI which higher when compared with the other because
of its increased fuel capacity. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are
147,420 kg each which is higher than that of DC 8-54 freighters.
8F_payload.pdf
&Whitney JT3D-3B engines. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 104,320 kg (230,000
LB). The DC 8-62 freighters have a range in between 5,500 to 6,000 NMI whereas the range
of DC 8-62 AF is slightly higher range than the other even though both of the aircrafts have
the same fuel capacity of 94,635 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts
are 151,955 kg each which is higher than both the DC 8-54, -53 freighters.

60
5.2.3 Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters
Figure 23: Payload-Range Capability for DC 8-61/71 Freighters
8F_payload.pdf
&Whitney JT3D-3B engines and the -71 freighters used the CFM56-2C1 engines. The
maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 106,140 kg (234,000 LB). The DC 8-61 CF has a range
in between 4,500 to 5,400 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-71 CF is between 5,500 to 6,500
NMI which is higher than the other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel
capacity of 89,865 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 148,775
kg each which is higher than both the DC 8-54, -53 freighters.

61
8F_payload.pdf
From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 63 freighters used the Pratt
&Whitney JT3D-7 engines. The DC 8-63 CF were the ones with high demand. The maximum
zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 118,385 kg (261,000 LB). The DC 8-63 freighters have a range in
between 5,000 to 6,000 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-63 AF is slightly higher than the
other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel capacity of 94,635 L. The
maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 161,025 kg each which is higher
than the DC 8-54, -53, -61/-71, -62 freighters.

62
8F_payload.pdf
From the above figure we can understand that the DC 8- 73 freighters used the CFM56-2
engines. The maximum range lies between 4,000 and 5,000 NMI. The DC 8-73 freighters
have a range in between 6,000 to 7,000 NMI whereas the range of DC 8-73 AF which is
slightly higher than the other even though both of the aircrafts have the same fuel capacity
of 94,635 L. The maximum take-off weight for both of these aircrafts are 161,025 kg each
which is higher than the DC 8-54, -53, -61/-71, -62 freighters.

63
5.3 Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F
Figure 26: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-62F, -72F
Shown above is the interior arrangement of DC 8-62F, -72F in which it is able to
accommodate up to 14 pallets totally on a full freighter mode. The total cargo capacity of
these models are 7,971.8 CU FT including the lower deck cargo. The DC 8-72 CF could also
carry 4 cargo pallets along with up to 106 passengers in a mixed arrangement with both
cargo and passengers.
5.3.1 Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F
Figure27: Interior Cargo Arrangement of Models DC 8-63F, -73F

64
Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of DC 8-63F,-73F in which it is
able to accommodate up to 18 pallets totally on a on a full freighter mode. The total cargo
capacity of these models are 10,671.2 CU FT including the lower deck cargo. The DC 8-73 CF
could also carry 4 cargo pallets along with up to 189 passengers in a mixed arrangement
with both cargo and passengers.
5.4 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72
Figure 28: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-62,-72
The turnaround time for the DC 8-62,-72 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it
could take a total turnaround time of 30 to 35 minutes for these models. The loading and
unloading process consumes more time out of all with loading will take up to 15 to 30
minutes and unloading could take up to 15 minutes. The fuelling process for these takes up
to 25 minutes approximately.

65
5.4.1 Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73
Figure 29: Terminal Operations, Turn-around stations for models DC 8-63,-73
The turnaround time for the DC 8-63,-73 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it
could take a total turnaround time of 40 to 45 minutes for these models. The loading and
unloading process consumes more time out of all with loading will take up to 20 to 40
minutes and unloading could take up to 20 minutes. The fuelling process for these takes up
to 25 minutes approximately.

66
6. ANALYSIS OF MD-11
Mc Donnell Douglas MD-11 series is a wide-bodied jet airliner with tri-jet engines. Two out
of the three engines are fixed underneath both the wings and another engines is fixed under
the vertical stabilizer. It has similar capabilities as that of the B777 freighters and is ideal for
medium as well as long haul operations. The MD-11 family includes the models like-
 MD-11
 MD-11C (Combi)
 MD-11CF (Convertible freighter)
 MD-11ER (Extended range)
 MD-11F (All freighter)
 MD-11 BCF (Boeing converted freighter)
Table 14: The Total Number of Orders and Deliveries for MD 11 Aircraft
MD-11 Model
summary
Through Feb 2015
MD-11-ER 5 5 -
MD-11 131 131 -
MD-11-F 59 59 -
MD-11-C 5 5 -
Total 200 200 -
Source- http://www.boeing.com/commercial/
From the above table we can understand that a total of 200 aircrafts were delivered. Out of
all, with a total of one hundred and thirty one deliveries, the model MD 11 is the highest of
all. The second highest is the model MD-11-F with a total of 59 deliveries. At the same time,
only 5 deliveries were made for the MD-11-ER. The MD-11-F model was more popular in the
because of its great ability by which the airlines was able to make a good revenue from the
cargo carried and because of its fuel efficiency. The MD 11-F and MD 11-BCF are still used by
some cargo airlines such as Fed Ex, Lufthansa etc.

67
6.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines
Figure 30: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with GE Engines
Source: http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/airports/acaps/md11.pdf
The above given table shows the general characteristics of MD 11 aircrafts with GE engines.
The maximum landing weight for the freighter and convertible freighter are the same and
are higher than that of the others, but at the same time the take-off weight of MD-11-ER is
highest of all. Not only that but also the operating empty weight for the MD-11-ER is higher
than that of all the others. The maximum design zero fuel weight for the convertible
freighter and the all freighter are same and the maximum usable fuel capacity for MD-11-ER
is the highest. The maximum payload of the all freighter version is higher than that of the
convertible freighter version and the maximum payload for the all freighter version is
91,962 kilograms which is the highest when compared to all the other models mentioned
above. When comparing the maximum cargo capacity, it is clear that the freighter has the
highest cargo capacity out of all.

68
6.1.1 General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines
Figure 31: General Airplane Characteristics of Model MD-11 with Pratt & Whitney Engines
The above given table shows the general characteristics of MD 11 aircrafts with Pratt &
Whitney engines. In these models with P & W engines also, the maximum landing weight for
the freighter and convertible freighter are the same and are higher than that of the others,
but at the same time the take-off weight of MD-11-ER is highest of all with 630,500 LB. Not
only that but also the operating empty weight for the MD-11-ER is higher than that of all the
others. The maximum design zero fuel weight for the convertible freighter and the all
freighter are same and the maximum usable fuel capacity for MD-11-ER is the highest with
41,615 L. The maximum payload of the all freighter version is also higher than that of the
convertible freighter version and the maximum payload for the all freighter version is
91,962 kilograms as that of the MD 11 aircrafts with GE engines which is the highest when
compared to all the other models mentioned above. When comparing the maximum cargo
capacity, it is clear that in this case also, the all freighter version has the highest cargo
capacity out of all.

69
6.2 Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines
Figure 32: Payload-Range of MD-11CF with GE Engines
Source: http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm
From the above figure we can understand that the maximum range lies between 7,000 and
8,200 NMI. The maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is 209,246 kg (461,300 LB) for the MD
11 ER and 204,800 kg for MD 11 F. Both of the aircrafts have the around the same amount
of fuel capacity of 146,169 L. The maximum take-off weight for ER is slightly higher than the
MD 11 F.

70
6.3 Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF
Figure 33: Interior Cargo Arrangement of models MD 11-F/CF
Shown above are the different types of interior arrangements of MD 11-F/CF in which it is
able to accommodate up to 26 pallets totally on a on a full freighter mode.
Figure 34: Lower Cargo Deck Arrangement of MD-11
Source: http://www.brinkley.cc/AC/mdf.htm
The above shown figure is the lower deck cargo arrangement in MD 11 F/CF

71
6.4 Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11
Figure 35: Terminal operations-Turnaround Stations for Model MD-11
The turnaround time for the MD 11 is shown above in which it clearly shows that it could
take a total turnaround time of 51.4 minutes for these models. The forward container
loading and unloading process consumes more time which takes up to 15 to 25 minutes and
the bulk cargo loading and unloading takes up to 20 minutes long. The fuelling process for
these takes up to 25 minutes approximately.

Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts

Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (11)

Similar to Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts

Similar to Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Aircraft design trends and their impact on air cargo oriented aircrafts