Integration of ethnic minorities into society often is operationalized as participation in societal institutions. Examples are cultural, political and labor participation. On the basis of the theoretical concepts of social and cultural capital, it is hypothesized that greater parental participation in society will lead to a better educational position for the children. To test this hypothesis, descriptive and multilevel analyses were conducted using data from the Dutch cohort study Primary Education. The sample included 11,000 students from 600 primary schools. In the analyses, ethnic minority parents and their children were compared to native Dutch parents and their children. After controlling for parental socioeconomic and ethnic background, the results showed only an effect of cultural participation on language and math skills. No effects on such non-cognitive outcomes as social position, individual well-being, or self-confidence were found.
Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2007) AS Effects of immigrant parents’ partic...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Smit, F. (2007). Effects of immigrant parents’ participation in society on their children’s school performance. Acta Sociologica, 50(1), 39-56.
ISSN 0001-6993
DOI 10.1177/0001699307074882
This paper focuses on a cross-cultural comparative analysis between the characteristics of immigration policy in France and the United States. It shows how culture, religion and history influence immigration policy in both countries. It looks at current major issues and shifts in immigration policy in both countries and what measures governments in both countries are taking to address them.
The issue of immigrants, the refugee crisis and the destruction of the Islamic State are the biggest challenges of the Western powers of the 21st century. The issue of immigrants and their descendants will only be solved with their integration into societies where they live. The current refugee crisis will not be resolved unless with the reception by European countries and the United States of all who aspire to move away from areas of conflict where they came from. The United States and the European Union, responsible for the disorganization and devastation of the countries of the refugees, have a moral duty to assist them and house them at this juncture. The UN must also go out of their passivity and go to work with effectiveness to prevent the worsening of this humanitarian crisis. In turn, the annihilation of the Islamic State, which would make it possible to reduce the flow of refugees, should be accompanied by a major effort in promoting economic and social development of the Middle Eastern countries and in peace building, especially between Sunnis and Shiites and Palestinians and Israelis.
Multi-Culturalism and Banner Nationalism: Issues and PerspectiveDr. Dan EKONGWE
There are crisis of identity and politics of identity that is engulfing almost every independent state in the world. Across the literature it can be seen that in Europe the application of multiculturalism has been emphasized in Britain since 1968 to accommodate or facilitate immigrant communities and cultures and across Europe the political agenda has been similar even though with different modes of application. Across the US and Canada the concept of race, ethnicity and the politics of identity has affected every aspect of human endeavour; and this amplifies the difference in the application of the concept of multi-culturalism. In Africa the politics of identity, ethnicity and ‘tribalism’ affects every aspect of human activities and this is rather causing wars of identity and fragmentation of states. While African leaders have struggled to hold their societies together based on the spirit of nationalism, constitutionality of laws and manufactured ‘tribalism’ through administrative and political appointments, marginalization and favouritism has pushed less privileged communities to challenge the status quo. This has led to emerging lines of fragmentation based on ethno/cultural affiliations. In South Sudan, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zimbabwe and Kenya and Ethiopia, new political orientations and nationalism are emerging on new flag or what we describe here as banner nationalism. We suggest that it will take concerted sustainable development and inclusive politics to shut down the growth of politics of identity and a veritable application of a multicultural concept that accommodates different cultures into the whole infrastructure of societal reconstruction than one that is alarmist. We look at the different models and explain the intricacies of its application.
Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2007) AS Effects of immigrant parents’ partic...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Smit, F. (2007). Effects of immigrant parents’ participation in society on their children’s school performance. Acta Sociologica, 50(1), 39-56.
ISSN 0001-6993
DOI 10.1177/0001699307074882
This paper focuses on a cross-cultural comparative analysis between the characteristics of immigration policy in France and the United States. It shows how culture, religion and history influence immigration policy in both countries. It looks at current major issues and shifts in immigration policy in both countries and what measures governments in both countries are taking to address them.
The issue of immigrants, the refugee crisis and the destruction of the Islamic State are the biggest challenges of the Western powers of the 21st century. The issue of immigrants and their descendants will only be solved with their integration into societies where they live. The current refugee crisis will not be resolved unless with the reception by European countries and the United States of all who aspire to move away from areas of conflict where they came from. The United States and the European Union, responsible for the disorganization and devastation of the countries of the refugees, have a moral duty to assist them and house them at this juncture. The UN must also go out of their passivity and go to work with effectiveness to prevent the worsening of this humanitarian crisis. In turn, the annihilation of the Islamic State, which would make it possible to reduce the flow of refugees, should be accompanied by a major effort in promoting economic and social development of the Middle Eastern countries and in peace building, especially between Sunnis and Shiites and Palestinians and Israelis.
Multi-Culturalism and Banner Nationalism: Issues and PerspectiveDr. Dan EKONGWE
There are crisis of identity and politics of identity that is engulfing almost every independent state in the world. Across the literature it can be seen that in Europe the application of multiculturalism has been emphasized in Britain since 1968 to accommodate or facilitate immigrant communities and cultures and across Europe the political agenda has been similar even though with different modes of application. Across the US and Canada the concept of race, ethnicity and the politics of identity has affected every aspect of human endeavour; and this amplifies the difference in the application of the concept of multi-culturalism. In Africa the politics of identity, ethnicity and ‘tribalism’ affects every aspect of human activities and this is rather causing wars of identity and fragmentation of states. While African leaders have struggled to hold their societies together based on the spirit of nationalism, constitutionality of laws and manufactured ‘tribalism’ through administrative and political appointments, marginalization and favouritism has pushed less privileged communities to challenge the status quo. This has led to emerging lines of fragmentation based on ethno/cultural affiliations. In South Sudan, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Zimbabwe and Kenya and Ethiopia, new political orientations and nationalism are emerging on new flag or what we describe here as banner nationalism. We suggest that it will take concerted sustainable development and inclusive politics to shut down the growth of politics of identity and a veritable application of a multicultural concept that accommodates different cultures into the whole infrastructure of societal reconstruction than one that is alarmist. We look at the different models and explain the intricacies of its application.
We all know How this Subject International Relations is taking the world by storm.
So, I have tried to show the nature and Evolution of International Relations through Analytical View.
Deconstructing Global Movements of People: Implication for Collective Securit...AkashSharma618775
This review deconstructs a set of four aspects, namely immigration, global security and global borders. In
particular, we focus on issue one, the global immigration, in terms of its significance, challenges and implication.
Issue two, in terms of, motives for emigration, impact of emigration, challenges facing emigrants, and mitigation
measures to address the challenges. Issue three, global security, is addressed in terms of its importance as well as
global security challenges and strategy. Issue four, global borders, is addressed in terms of benefits of global
borders and shortcomings of global borders. The review suggests a linear connection among the three issues of
immigration, global security and global borders; these need to be analysed within the global context for global
peace and security to prevail and be consolidated. This analysis may be useful among scholars of international
relations and diplomacy as well as those engaged with international migration and refugee issues. The review
contributes to the bourgeoning understanding of international relations and diplomacy by underlining the
challenges and opportunities available to international immigrants as they intersperse with global borders that are
mapped by countless aspects of global security.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
International relations as a practice of interaction among states, and among state and non-state actors are thousands of years old
However, International Relations (IR) as an academic discipline studying these relations emerged as a specialized field after WW1.
Like every other academic discipline, International Relations (IR) has developed its own distinctive subject matter since its emergence
This presentation explains the scope and the subject matter of IR with the help of its five pillars- Aim, Actors, Agenda, Arena, and Actions
Urbanization and the Politics of Identity in Buea A Sociological Perspectiveijtsrd
Urbanization plays a distinct and important role in producing political relationships. Identity politics which is strongly linked to sense of belonging is an important dimension of political relationships in urban areas. This study examines the relationship between urbanization and the politics of identity in Buea. The research is a descriptive documentary research with data collected from secondary sources former studies and reports, newspapers, archival records and internet publications with few interviews. Data collection procedures included reading and note taking. Data was analyzed using thematic content analysis whereby concepts and ideas were grouped together under umbrella key words to appreciate the trends in them. The Instrumentalist Theory of Ethnicity was the framework that guided the study. The themes were geared towards outlining how ethnicity has been a tool of political control. Data was gathered from the different epochs that have marked urbanization in Buea, from the Native Authority to the present Buea Rural Council, demonstrating how this has influenced relationships between natives and non natives. Results show that, starting as a colonial town, and most especially with her changing status as the capital successively of German Cameroon, British Southern Cameroons, and West Cameroon, coupled with the fact that she has had to harbour several institutions, Buea has experienced rapid urbanization. It also reveals that, just as colonialism is responsible for rapid urbanization in Buea, it has constructed differences between “us” and the “other” aimed at protecting indigenous minorities. In essence, the thesis demonstrates how the transition of Buea from a rural to an urban settlement has led to several types of relations across identity division, especially between insiders and outsiders as well as among native segments as each strives to dominate the political milieu. Although the non natives are in a demographic majority, they occupy a minority position within the Council. Most especially, the recruitment policy of the Councilfavours natives, to the detriment of non natives. Land restitution and re alienation has ushered in a paradigm shift from tensions between natives and non natives to an era of peaceful co existence. Fanny Jose Mbua "Urbanization and the Politics of Identity in Buea: A Sociological Perspective" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33078.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33078/urbanization-and-the-politics-of-identity-in-buea-a-sociological-perspective/fanny-jose-mbua
FMO has adopted the definition of ‘forced migration’ promoted by the International Association for the Study of Forced Migration (IASFM) which describes it as ‘a general term that refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (those displaced by conflicts) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects.’ FMO views forced migration as a complex, wide-ranging and pervasive set of phenomena. The study of forced migration is multidisciplinary, international, and multisectoral, incorporating academic, practitioner, agency and local perspectives. FMO focuses on three separate, although sometimes simultaneous and inter-related, types of forced migration. These three types are categorized according to their causal factors: conflict, development policies and projects, and disasters.
Forced migration has accompanied persecution, as well as war, throughout human history but has only become a topic of serious study and discussion relatively recently. This increased attention is the result of greater ease of travel, allowing displaced persons to flee to nations far removed from their homes, the creation of an international legal structure of human rights, and the realizations that the destabilizing effects of forced migration, especially in parts of Africa, the Middle East, south and central Asia, ripple out well beyond the immediate region.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Geert Driessen (2012) ed Kassimeris Combating ethnic educational disadvantage...Driessen Research
Driessen, G. (2012). Combating ethnic educational disadvantage in the Netherlands. An analysis of policies and effects. In C. Kassimeris & M. Vryonides (eds.), The politics of education. Challenging multiculturalism (pp. 31-51). New York: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-88514-0
DOI 10.4324/9780203802519
We all know How this Subject International Relations is taking the world by storm.
So, I have tried to show the nature and Evolution of International Relations through Analytical View.
Deconstructing Global Movements of People: Implication for Collective Securit...AkashSharma618775
This review deconstructs a set of four aspects, namely immigration, global security and global borders. In
particular, we focus on issue one, the global immigration, in terms of its significance, challenges and implication.
Issue two, in terms of, motives for emigration, impact of emigration, challenges facing emigrants, and mitigation
measures to address the challenges. Issue three, global security, is addressed in terms of its importance as well as
global security challenges and strategy. Issue four, global borders, is addressed in terms of benefits of global
borders and shortcomings of global borders. The review suggests a linear connection among the three issues of
immigration, global security and global borders; these need to be analysed within the global context for global
peace and security to prevail and be consolidated. This analysis may be useful among scholars of international
relations and diplomacy as well as those engaged with international migration and refugee issues. The review
contributes to the bourgeoning understanding of international relations and diplomacy by underlining the
challenges and opportunities available to international immigrants as they intersperse with global borders that are
mapped by countless aspects of global security.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
International relations as a practice of interaction among states, and among state and non-state actors are thousands of years old
However, International Relations (IR) as an academic discipline studying these relations emerged as a specialized field after WW1.
Like every other academic discipline, International Relations (IR) has developed its own distinctive subject matter since its emergence
This presentation explains the scope and the subject matter of IR with the help of its five pillars- Aim, Actors, Agenda, Arena, and Actions
Urbanization and the Politics of Identity in Buea A Sociological Perspectiveijtsrd
Urbanization plays a distinct and important role in producing political relationships. Identity politics which is strongly linked to sense of belonging is an important dimension of political relationships in urban areas. This study examines the relationship between urbanization and the politics of identity in Buea. The research is a descriptive documentary research with data collected from secondary sources former studies and reports, newspapers, archival records and internet publications with few interviews. Data collection procedures included reading and note taking. Data was analyzed using thematic content analysis whereby concepts and ideas were grouped together under umbrella key words to appreciate the trends in them. The Instrumentalist Theory of Ethnicity was the framework that guided the study. The themes were geared towards outlining how ethnicity has been a tool of political control. Data was gathered from the different epochs that have marked urbanization in Buea, from the Native Authority to the present Buea Rural Council, demonstrating how this has influenced relationships between natives and non natives. Results show that, starting as a colonial town, and most especially with her changing status as the capital successively of German Cameroon, British Southern Cameroons, and West Cameroon, coupled with the fact that she has had to harbour several institutions, Buea has experienced rapid urbanization. It also reveals that, just as colonialism is responsible for rapid urbanization in Buea, it has constructed differences between “us” and the “other” aimed at protecting indigenous minorities. In essence, the thesis demonstrates how the transition of Buea from a rural to an urban settlement has led to several types of relations across identity division, especially between insiders and outsiders as well as among native segments as each strives to dominate the political milieu. Although the non natives are in a demographic majority, they occupy a minority position within the Council. Most especially, the recruitment policy of the Councilfavours natives, to the detriment of non natives. Land restitution and re alienation has ushered in a paradigm shift from tensions between natives and non natives to an era of peaceful co existence. Fanny Jose Mbua "Urbanization and the Politics of Identity in Buea: A Sociological Perspective" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33078.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/education/33078/urbanization-and-the-politics-of-identity-in-buea-a-sociological-perspective/fanny-jose-mbua
FMO has adopted the definition of ‘forced migration’ promoted by the International Association for the Study of Forced Migration (IASFM) which describes it as ‘a general term that refers to the movements of refugees and internally displaced people (those displaced by conflicts) as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear disasters, famine, or development projects.’ FMO views forced migration as a complex, wide-ranging and pervasive set of phenomena. The study of forced migration is multidisciplinary, international, and multisectoral, incorporating academic, practitioner, agency and local perspectives. FMO focuses on three separate, although sometimes simultaneous and inter-related, types of forced migration. These three types are categorized according to their causal factors: conflict, development policies and projects, and disasters.
Forced migration has accompanied persecution, as well as war, throughout human history but has only become a topic of serious study and discussion relatively recently. This increased attention is the result of greater ease of travel, allowing displaced persons to flee to nations far removed from their homes, the creation of an international legal structure of human rights, and the realizations that the destabilizing effects of forced migration, especially in parts of Africa, the Middle East, south and central Asia, ripple out well beyond the immediate region.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Geert Driessen (2012) ed Kassimeris Combating ethnic educational disadvantage...Driessen Research
Driessen, G. (2012). Combating ethnic educational disadvantage in the Netherlands. An analysis of policies and effects. In C. Kassimeris & M. Vryonides (eds.), The politics of education. Challenging multiculturalism (pp. 31-51). New York: Routledge.
ISBN 978-0-415-88514-0
DOI 10.4324/9780203802519
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2011) ES The effects of integration and gener...Driessen Research
In many Western countries the pressure exerted on immigrants to integrate has
become intense in recent years. Efforts to preserve their ethnic identity through
multicultural recognition has now been replaced by the requirements of active
civic participation and assimilation. Of course integration is considered important
not only for the immigrant parents but also for their children. The central question
in this article is whether there is a relationship between the degree of integration
of the immigrant parents and the generation of their children on the one hand and
the level of language and numeracy achievement of the children on the other. To
answer this question we use data collected in 2008 from the Dutch COOL5–18
cohort study. The information comes from more than 9000 immigrant and 16,000
indigenous children and their parents. The results show that as immigrant parents
are better integrated and their children are of later generations, the language and
numeracy skills of the children improve, though there remain large differences in
achievement between different ethnic groups.
Migrations and the Net: new virtual spaces to build a cultural identityeLearning Papers
Author: Linda J. Castañeda, Paz Prendes, Francisco Martínez-Sánchez.
This paper presents some of the reflections, projects and results around the topics of multiculturalism and migration attained by the Educational Technology Research Group at the University of Murcia, some of them integrated in the Interuniversity Cooperation programmes promoted by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation (AECI).
Geert Driessen (2005) ed Söhn From cure to curse.pdfDriessen Research
Driessen, G. (2005). From cure to curse: The rise and fall of bilingual education programs in the Netherlands. In J. Söhn (ed.), The effectiveness of bilingual school programs for immigrant children. WZB Discussion Paper SP IV 2005-601 (pp. 77-107). Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung.
The topic that I have chosen is economic policies that enable imm.docxssusera34210
The topic that I have chosen is “economic policies that enable immigrants to thrive”. Immigrants play an important role in the history of the world. Many of the current nations were formed by the successive waves of immigrants moving in and out of the country. Immigration has helped to form the foundation of nations, win wars, and drive counties to great prosperity. Immigration is currently a hot button issue, wars and falling regimes have led many to leave their countries to seek a better life in western countries. The treatment of these immigrants has been lukewarm at best. Countries should change their attitudes regarding how they deal with immigrants. By instituting the right policies, countries can leverage the skills and hard work of immigrants to propel the country to great heights of prosperity and cultural integration. I feel this topic is a pertinent one in addressing the current immigration crisis.
A lot of ink is spewed everyday on the economic merits or demerits of immigration. For the purposes of this topic, I have chosen two scholarly articles to provide insight and guidance. The first source is immigration economics by authors George and Borjas. The book explores economic themes in relation to economics. It examines the effect that immigrants have on their host country from an economical perspective. The book hopes to shape the discourse on immigration by diluting it to its core economic underpinnings that will enable legislators to clearly understand the issue and make better decisions (Borjas, George, 2014). The second source I will use is economic growth & immigration: bridging the demographic divide, written by the immigration policy center. It explores themes of immigration and the economic growth of a nation. As such, it is very relevant to the topic I have chosen and will provide valuable insight.
Scholarly articles should be used because they present the opinion and finding of authors who are much educated on the topic at hand. They allow successive students and authors on the topic to build upon the findings and advance the topic further. They also enlighten one and provide guidance in writing about the topic.
References
Borjas, George (2014). “Immigration Economics.” Cambridge, Harvard University Press.
“Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide” (2005) Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation.
J Popul Econ (2004) 17:133–155
DOI 10.1007/s00148-003-0143-4
Settlement policies and the economic success
of immigrants
Per-Anders Edin1, Peter Fredriksson1, Olof Åslund2
1 Department of Economics, Uppsala University, and Institute for Labour Market Policy
Evaluation (IFAU), Box 513, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden (Fax: þ46-18-4711478;
e-mail: {per-anders.edin; peter.fredriksson}@nek.uu.se)
2 Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation (IFAU), Box 513, SE-751 20 Uppsala, Sweden
(Fax: þ46-18-4717071; e-mail: [email protected])
Received: 18 January ...
Essay On Increase In Population. College essay: Population essayJessica Siewert
Population Growth Essay | Essay on Population Growth for Students and .... Essay on Population Growth and Its Effects in English. (PDF) Population and Economic Growth: A Review Essay. Is Human Population Growth A Problem Environmental Sciences Essay .... Increase In Population Essay Topics. Analytical Essay: Essay on over population. An essay on population growth. Essay about rapid population growth. Essay on Population | Population Essay for Students and Children in .... ⇉Human Population Growth Essay Essay Example | GraduateWay. ️ Paragraph on increasing population. Increasing population , Sample of .... College essay: Population essay. School Essay: Short essay on population. ⇉Population Growth around the world Essay Example | GraduateWay. How and why is population changing? - A-Level Geography - Marked by .... Essay on Population Growth and Its Effects in English - Make an Easy. Lesson 9.2 Activity: The Impact of Population Growth Essay. Essay on Population Explosion in 100 Words. Essay websites: Over population essay. World Population Problems | The Growth of World Population: Analysis of .... Calaméo - Population Control Essay: Reasons for Rising Population Growth. Essay on "population" in English | Write an essay on Population Growth .... Essay on increase in population - High Quality Essay Writing From Best .... Problems Related to Population Growth (500 Words) - PHDessay.com. In Essay on the Principle of Population | Labour Economics | Economies. Essay On Population: Writing Guide For Every Student. Ielts Essay Overpopulation. Essay websites: Essay on increase in population. HISTORY30067 - Population Growth Essay.pdf - The Impacts Of World .... Persuasive Essay: Essay on population growth. World Population Growth - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com.
Civic european cities in the age of national populismCity of Gdansk
In recent years Europe has been experiencing the wave of national populism and a clash between antagonistic forms of national identities within its societies. Currently, we can observe a clash between antagonistic forms of national identities (ethnic nationalism versus civic nationalism). All these issues are studied in a detail in the report titled “Civic European Cities in the Age of National Populism” written by Adam Balcer under the patronage of Gdańsk.
Similar to Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2008). Does Ethnic Minority Parents’ Integration in Society Affect their Children’s School Performance? (20)
Vergroening van het schoolplein. Vergroening is boomingFrederik Smit
Honderdduizenden kinderen in Nederland brengen dag in dag uit hun pauzetijd door op een kaal, grijs, versteend schoolplein. Bij warm weer is het er vaak te heet om buiten te spelen en bij hevige regenval staat het plein blank. Steeds meer scholen transformeren de buitenruimte rond scholen van ‘stenen woestijnen’ naar groene, natuurrijke, ‘gezonde oases’ voor spelen en leren in de bebouwde omgeving. En steeds vaker installeren scholen met een groen schoolplein ook een regenwateropvangsysteem, om een klimaatbestendige leefomgeving te creëren. Wat zijn de ervaringen om de omgeving van de school te vergroenen en van scholen die werken met een groen(blauw) schoolplein? Welke rol speelt de medezeggenschap?
Wat zijn succesfactoren optimaliseren Medezeggenschap?
Goed leiderschap en psychologische veiligheid
Hardnekkige knelpunten in het functioneren van de medezeggenschap
zijn dat directies en schoolbesturen de (g)mr te laat of soms helemaal
niet informeren waardoor een goede voorbereiding op de besluitvorming
niet mogelijk is. De professionaliteit van inspraakorganen te wensen
overlaat en dat (g)mr-leden hun kennis en ervaring niet optimaal inzetten
om als gelijkwaardige gesprekspartners met de schoolleiding of
het bestuur in gesprek te gaan. Goed leiderschap en psychologische
veiligheid creëren zijn succesfactoren voor het optimaliseren van medezeggenschap.
Hoe werkt dat in de praktijk? Frederik Smit
Klimaatverandering: eco op school. Actiegerichte participatie van leerlingen ...Frederik Smit
De aarde warmt op, oceanen slibben dicht met plastic, insecten en
vogels sterven in rap tempo uit. 70 procent van de kinderen en jongeren
in Nederland maakt zich zorgen om klimaatverandering: angst
en verdriet noemen zij hun meest voorkomende gevoelens; sommigen
liggen er letterlijk wakker van. Een recent Unicef-rapport wijst op
de grote impact van de fysieke omgeving op het welbevinden van
kinderen en jongeren en pleit ervoor dat ze kunnen participeren in
het beleid dat sterk inzet op een duurzame toekomst. Hoe kan het
onderwijs hier aan bijdragen?
Onderwijsinspectie: meer focus op basisvaardigheden. Vergroot vakinhoudelijke...Frederik Smit
Steeds meer leerlingen verlaten het onderwijs zonder dat zij goed kunnen lezen, schrijven en rekenen en dat percentage stijgt nog elk jaar. De Onderwijsinspectie concludeert in de Staat van het Onderwijs 2022 dat als scholen deze gestage achteruitgang willen keren, ze moeten focussen op de basisvaardigheden taal en rekenen. Ook moe- ten ze meer aandacht besteden aan burgerschapsvaardigheden. Drie experts op het gebied van onderwijskwaliteitsverbetering gaan in op de knelpunten voor bestuur en toezicht en de medezeggenschap.vVoor de (g)mr blijkt het lastig te zijn de basiskwaliteit te beoordelen en in te gaan tegen een enthousiaste bestuurder die weer een nieuwe methode introduceert.
Sociaal veiligheidsbeleid een papieren tijger? De school als werkplek van geb...Frederik Smit
Elke leerling moet zich vrij en veilig kunnen voelen op school. Het
moet een plek zijn waar ze zich kunnen ontwikkelen en ontdekken
wie ze zijn. De veiligheidsmonitor 2021 laat zien dat het vaak goed
gaat, maar er blijken ook nog altijd tienduizenden leerlingen te worden
gepest en lastiggevallen. De documentaire ‘Eindeloos gepest’
laat zien welke ultieme consequentie pesten en onveiligheid op
school kan hebben voor een leerling. Minister Wiersma wil daarom
een steviger aanpak van pesten en ander onwenselijk gedrag op
school. Wat zijn de ervaringen van scholen die werk hebben gemaakt
van sociale veiligheid?
Gelijke onderwijskansen een uitdaging? Laat leerlingen ontdekken wat ze écht ...Frederik Smit
Na tientallen jaren onderwijsachterstandenbeleid lijken portemonnee en diploma van ouders nog steeds bepalend voor het schoolniveau van hun kinderen. De veelgeprezen documentaireserie ‘Klassen’ toont dat sociale afkomst onverminderd van invloed is op de schoolloopbaan van kinderen, tussen scholen standsverschillen bestaan en de kansenongelijkheid in het onderwijs lijkt toe te nemen. Kabinet Rutte IV heeft kansengelijkheid op de agenda gezet en wil onder andere de vorming van brede brugklassen stimuleren om talenten beter te benutten, terwijl de Onderwijsraad adviseert om ook flexibel onderwijs op maat te geven. Wat zijn de ervaringen van scholen hiermee en wat is de rol van de medezeggenschap?
Onderwijs als een avontuurlijke reis. Hoe geef je ruim baan aan verwondering,...Frederik Smit
In het onderwijs gaat het niet alleen om het effectief vullen van een emmer met kennis, maar ook om te focussen op persoonsvorming. Waarom maken we van het onderwijs geen avontuurlijke reis waarvan de bestemming niet vooraf exact vastligt? Besteed op basisscholen meer aandacht aan vakgebieden als filosofie, bewegingsonderwijs en
culturele vorming. Maar is dit wel haalbaar gezien de toch al volle onderwijsprogramma’s met een sterk accent op de kernvakken taal en rekenen?
Cover Onderwijs als een avontuurlijke reis. Hoe geef je ruim baan aan verwond...Frederik Smit
In het onderwijs gaat het niet alleen om het effectief vullen van een emmer met kennis, maar ook om te focussen op persoonsvorming. Waarom maken we van het onderwijs geen avontuurlijke reis waarvan de bestemming niet vooraf exact vastligt? Besteed op basisscholen meer aandacht aan vakgebieden als filosofie, bewegingsonderwijs en
culturele vorming. Maar is dit wel haalbaar gezien de toch al volle onderwijsprogramma’s met een sterk accent op de kernvakken taal en rekenen?
De opmars van de schoolhond. Zorgt Charlie voor meer vrolijkheid en werkgeluk?Frederik Smit
De kans bestaat dat als je een school binnenloopt, een vrolijk kwispelende hond je begroet. Dat is helemaal niet zo gek, want steeds meer schooldirecteuren en soms ook leerkrachten nemen hun sociaal opgevoede hond mee naar school en dan gebeurt er iets magisch. Leerlingen en personeel worden geraakt en enthousiast door de onvoorwaardelijke blijheid, affectie, toegankelijkheid, intuïtie, slimheid en dankbaarheid van de viervoeter. Ze raken ervan overtuigd dat hun hond een positieve invloed heeft op het welzijn van leerlingen en personeel. En mogelijk ook op het gedrag, de motivatie of de leerprestaties van leerlingen. De kans is dan ook groot dat bestuur en medezeggenschapsraad instemmen met de ‘schoolhond’. Wat zijn de voorwaarden waaraan de schoolhond moet voldoen en welke ervaringen hebben scholen er al mee?
Cover De opmars van de schoolhond. Zorgt Charlie voor meer vrolijkheid en wer...Frederik Smit
De kans bestaat dat als je een school binnenloopt, een vrolijk kwispelende hond je begroet. Dat is helemaal niet zo gek, want steeds meer schooldirecteuren en soms ook leerkrachten nemen hun sociaal opgevoede hond mee naar school en dan gebeurt er iets magisch.
De opmars van de schoolhond. Zorgt Charlie voor meer vrolijkheid en werkgeluk?
MR magazine. Uitgever Wolters Kluwer.
Vertsterking van het onderwijs in burgerschap. Naar meer tegenmacht van leerl...Frederik Smit
Op 1 augustus 2021 is de Wet verduidelijking van de burgerschapsopdracht aan scholen in het funderend onderwijs ingevoerd. Met de aanscherping van de burgerschapswet is de opdracht aan scholen preciezer geformuleerd en steviger verankerd. Bovendien moeten schoolbesturen een duidelijke burgerschapsopdracht aan hun scholen communiceren en het bevoegd gezag heeft een zorgplicht voor de schoolcultuur. Zo moet het een stimulerende omgeving creëren waarbinnen leerlingen actief oefenen met de omgang met de basiswaarden van de democratische rechtsstaat en de mensenrechten. Wat houdt burgerschap in en hoe gaan scholen ermee om?
De bijlesindustrie. Kunnen we nog zonder? Frederik Smit
Bijles was ooit iets voor rijke ouders die extra aandacht regelden voor hun kinderen, omdat ze toch echt het vwo móesten halen. Tegenwoordig maakt ongeveer één op de drie middelbare scholieren en een op de vier basisschoolleerlingen in groep 8 gebruik van aanvullend onderwijs. Om de corona-achterstanden te bestrijden en het lerarentekort op te vangen, kunnen veel scholen niet meer om com- merciële instellingen heen. Ruim 30 miljoen coronasubsidie is al terechtgekomen bij commercieel onderwijs. De coronapandemie ver- sterkt de reeds ingezette trend om bijles- en huiswerkinstituten in de arm nemen om ook in de school structureel extra taken te verrichten.
Naar het nieuwe normaal. Hoe het onderwijs opkrabbelt uit de coronacrisisFrederik Smit
Het Nationaal Programma Onderwijs (NPO) is er voor herstel en ontwikkeling van het onderwijs na de coronacrisis. Elke school in het primair en voortgezet onderwijs krijgt per leerling € 701,16 voor een eigen schoolprogramma. De mr speelt een sleutelrol in het besluitvormingsproces bij het opstellen van een schoolprogramma en bij de controle over de besteding van de middelen. Obstakels op de weg terug naar fysiek onderwijs zonder restricties is de lage vaccinatiegraad van tieners en de matige kwaliteit van het binnenklimaat van schoolgebouwen. De verwachting is dat scholen voor voortgezet onderwijs het komend najaar een belangrijke besmettingsbron vormen voor infectierisico's met het coronavirus.
Naar meer democratische besluitvorming. 'Geef ouders zeggenschap in plaats va...Frederik Smit
De besluitvorming op scholen houdt te weinig rekening met de zeggenschap van met name leerlingen en hun ouders. Dat is een gevolg van gebrekkige wetgeving in het onderwijs, zo blijkt uit promotieon derzoek van jurist Gijsbert Leertouwer naar de bestuurlijk-juridische inrichting van scholen. De LAKS-monitor 2020 en de Staat van de Ouder van Ouders & Onderwijs 2021 laten zien dat de belangstelling van leerlingen en ouders voor medezeggenschap op een laag pitje staat door de werkdruk die leerlingen ervaren en de bescheidenheid van scholen om ouders bij het beleid te betrekken. Dit is in het algemeen zorgelijk, maar zeker op dit moment, omdat de rol van de mr belangrijk is bij het wegwerken van vertragingen en achterstanden bij leerlingen door corona. Hoe kun je ervoor zorgen dat de (mede)zeggenschap van leerlingen en ouders sterker wordt en wat is daarbij de rol van het personeel en de schoolleiding?
Miljardeninjectie in het onderwijs en sleutelrol medezeggenschapFrederik Smit
Het kabinet heeft op 17 februari 2021 het meerjarige Nationaal Programma Onderwijs gepresenteerd met een ongekend budget van 5,8 miljard euro voor het primair en voortgezet onderwijs. Dit bedrag is bedoeld voor het inhalen van vertragingen en het ondersteunen van leerlingen die het moeilijk hebben als gevolg van schoolsluitingen door corona. De mr moet het ‘schoolprogramma’ goedkeuren waarin de gekozen interventies, zoals gratis bijles aanbieden of een zomerschool opzetten, zijn opgenomen. Wat is de insteek van schoolbesturen en scholen? Zijn er genoeg handen in de klas om de maatregelen tot uitvoer te brengen?
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2008). Does Ethnic Minority Parents’ Integration in Society Affect their Children’s School Performance?
1. Does Ethnic Minority Parents’ Integration in Society Affect their
1
Children’s School Performance?
Geert Driessen
Frederik Smit
ITS – Institute for Applied Social Sciences,
Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands
Please address all correspondence to:
Dr Geert Driessen
ITS - Institute for Applied Social Sciences
Radboud University Nijmegen
P.O.Box 9048
6500 KJ Nijmegen
The Netherlands
E-mail: g.driessen@its.ru.nl
Web: www.geertdriessen.nl
Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting American Educational Research Association
New York City, March 24–28, 2008
2. Does Ethnic Minority Parents’ Integration in Society Affect their
2
Children’s School Performance?
Geert Driessen
Frederik Smit
ITS – Institute for Applied Social Sciences,
Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands
Integration of ethnic minorities into society often is operationalized as participation in
societal institutions. Examples are cultural, political and labor participation. On the basis of
the theoretical concepts of social and cultural capital, it is hypothesized that greater parental
participation in society will lead to a better educational position for the children. To test this
hypothesis, descriptive and multilevel analyses were conducted using data from the Dutch
cohort study Primary Education. The sample included 11,000 students from 600 primary
schools. In the analyses, ethnic minority parents and their children were compared to native
Dutch parents and their children. After controlling for parental socioeconomic and ethnic
background, the results showed only an effect of cultural participation on language and math
skills. No effects on such non-cognitive outcomes as social position, individual well-being, or
self-confidence were found.
KEYWORDS: minority parents; cultural capital; integration; school performance
Since the Second World War, most West European countries have been confronted with
an influx of large groups of immigrants. These immigrants differ in a number of respects
from not only the receiving society but also from each other. In general, three groups of
immigrants can be distinguished: immigrants from former colonies, labor immigrants, and
asylum seekers. Which categories migrate to which countries depends on the historical,
political, and economic contexts of both the country of departure and the country of receipt.
The manner in which the receiving countries react to the arrival of immigrants greatly varies
(Koopmans and Statham, 2000; van het Loo et al., 2001). And there are also major
differences in the manner in which immigrants deal with the expectations and demands of the
receiving society (Portes and Rumbaut, 1996; Zhou, 1997).
The manner in which immigrants seek and find their way within a receiving society has
been discussed using widely varying terms. Gradual shifts of emphasis can also be detected
in these discussions, which have their roots in the USA with its extended immigrant history
(cf. Alba and Nee, 1997; Gans, 1997; Rumbaut, 1997). One of the pioneers within this
domain, Gordon (1964), speaks of straight-line assimilation or different phases of
assimilation occurring in a more or less fixed pattern. The assimilation process is assumed to
be complete when the immigrant has been completely absorbed into the receiving society.
This straight-line vision of integration has been the target of considerable critique, however.
3. Berry (2003), for example, has called for greater differentiation, used the term ‘acculturation’
to refer to the process of seeking and finding one’s way within a receiving society, and
distinguished four possible strategies — assimilation, integration, marginalization, and
separation. The end result is different gradations of immigrant adaptation to the receiving
society. With respect to the preceding distinctions, the West European context strongly
differs from the USA context where an assimilation concept of integration predominates. In
Europe, a container concept of integration is typically employed. Relative to the concept of
assimilation, this means greater tolerance, pluralism, and respect for ethno-cultural
differences (Vermeulen and Penninx, 2000). No matter what the terms used to refer to the
process of seeking and finding one’s way, the governments of receiving countries generally
see a certain degree of adaptation as a sine quo non for the adequate functioning of both the
immigrant and the society as a whole. A point of contention, however, is the exact extent to
which such adaptation must occur (Lesthaeghe, 2000).
In the present article, the integration of immigrants within the Netherlands stands central.
An overview of the different groups of immigrants in the Netherlands and the policies
pursued with respect to their integration will be presented. As will be seen, a key notion
within such policy is that of participation. The assumption is that participation expands
societal opportunities for not only immigrants but also their children, and this assumption is
therefore tested with the aid of large-scale data. The results are reported in the following, and
a more extended discussion of the most important findings will conclude the article.
3
Immigrants and Integration Policy in the Netherlands
The Netherlands is an example of a West European country in which one can speak of
large-scale immigration for quite some time now. Depending on the definition used, the
percentage immigrants in the Netherlands varies from 7% to 19% of the total Dutch
population of 16,5 million. Application of the criterion ‘country of birth’ in 2007 showed the
largest non-Western immigrant groups to have the following origins: Antillean (130,000),
Surinamese (333,000), Turkish (369,000), and Moroccan (329,000) (CBS, 2007). The first
two groups consist of immigrants from former colonies. And as a result of their colonial ties
with the Netherlands, these two groups of immigrants are already familiar with the Dutch
language and culture. The latter two groups consist of mostly labor immigrants arriving in the
Netherlands in the 1960s and subsequent waves of immigration for purposes of family
reunification and family formation.1 One characteristic shared by the latter groups of
immigrants is their low level of education. Furthermore, their language and culture are very
different from the Dutch language and culture. And a distinction that has received increased
emphasis since the 9/11 catastrophe is that of religion: almost all of the Turkish and
Moroccan immigrants to the Netherlands are Muslim (Driessen, 2007). The remainder of the
immigrants in the Netherlands constitute a very heterogeneous group with respect to
language, culture, and religion. Among this group are labor immigrants from such
Mediterranean countries as Spain and Italy; Chinese people who have emigrated for
economic or political reasons; and asylum seekers coming from Eastern Europe, Africa, and
the Middle East.2
4. 4
Immigration is increasingly being viewed as a problem in the Netherlands, and a number
of different reasons for this can be cited. To start with, immigrants have become much more
visible during the past few decades as a result of not only their increasing numbers but also as
a result of primarily their outward characteristics and behavior. With respect to the latter, for
example, considerable media attention has been paid to the fact that immigrants are strongly
overrepresented within the domains of crime in general and particularly crime accompanied
by physical violence (Bovenkerk, 2002; Overdijk-Francis and Smeets, 1998). Another
contributor is the economic recession, which set in a few years ago, and growing recognition
of the fact that the current welfare state — which immigrants disproportionately rely upon —
cannot be maintained. In part because they are frequently lower educated, do not have
sufficient mastery of the Dutch language, and are most certainly discriminated against at
times, immigrants make a far greater use of such social services as unemployment, disability,
and welfare (Hagendoorn, Veenman and Vollebergh, 2003). The 9/11 incident has
undoubtedly been a catalyst for the increased negative view on immigration and shifted
attention from ethnicity as the main reason for this view to religion (also see Driessen and
Merry, 2006). A dramatic turnabout — in initially public opinion and later political thinking
— can be seen to have occurred as a result of the terrorist attacks in the USA. While it was
absolutely taboo to say anything negative about immigrants in the Netherlands prior to 9/11,
the populistic right-wing Dutch politician Pim Fortuijn articulated the feelings of
dissatisfaction shared by so many people in the Netherlands after the 9/11 attacks and
particularly the native Dutch population living in depressed urban areas and thus confronted
with the consequences of immigration on a daily basis.3 As a result of Fortuijn’s political
efforts, in fact, the incumbent (leftist) political establishment in the Netherlands has been
more or less done away with.
Despite a long tradition of receiving immigrants, the concept of ‘integration’ was only
used in the formulation of policy with respect to ethnic minorities in the Netherlands at the
beginning of the 1980s. The relevant policy was aimed for quite some time at ‘integration
with maintenance of own culture’, but a recent shift has occurred towards policy with more
assimilatory characteristics.4 Whereas immigrants were previously accepted into the Dutch
welfare state with little or no discussion, an undeniable problematization of immigration and
hardening of policy has occurred over the past few years under the motto ‘compulsory
integration, own responsibility’.5 The recent government standpoint is that too much
emphasis has traditionally been placed upon acceptance of the differences between
immigrants and the native Dutch population. The presence of immigrants has typically been
viewed as a ‘value’ and as enriching the society in which we live. But, according to the recent
government, everything that is different need not always be of value. In other words, cultural
gaps cannot be bridged via the cultivation of own cultural identities.6 The unity of a society
must be found in what the citizens have in common, which is being citizens of one and the
same society. The objective of current integration policy is thus shared citizenship for
immigrants and native inhabitants. Such shared citizenship presupposes mastery of the Dutch
language and adherence to basic Dutch norms, with the latter including efforts to provide for
oneself, law abidance, recognition of the right of each individual to say what he or she thinks,
respect for the sexual preferences of others, and equality for men and women. Citizenship
5. 5
thus means a willingness to actively contribute to society and participate in all facets of
society (Tweede Kamer, 2003).
When conceptualized in such a manner, integration is operationalized as the individual
obligation to actively participate in a variety of societal domains (WRR, 2001). Engbersen
and Gabriëls (1995) distinguish the following domains: law, politics, labor, housing,
education, culture, and religion. In recent policy, the following domains have been
distinguished: political-judicial, social-economic, ethnic-cultural, and religious (Penninx and
Slijper, 1999). A division frequently used for research purposes is that between structural
integration, measured as the level of education attained and position on the job market, and
social-cultural integration, measured in terms of social contacts and participation in cultural
institutions (Vermeulen and Penninx, 1994; WRR, 2001). The latter dichotomy is
occasionally characterized as one between socio-economic versus cultural integration
(Hagendoorn, Veenman and Vollebergh, 2003). In addition, a division is also sometimes
made along the lines of participation versus orientation, informal participation versus
normative orientation, or concrete behavior versus attitudes (Uunk, 2002; Odé, 2002;
Dagevos and Veenman, 1996).
For the Dutch government, participation in education and the job market stand central. In
addition to these aspects of participation, the importance of social participation (e.g.,
membership in associations and clubs), political participation (e.g., the right to vote and have
a say), cultural participation (e.g., artistic and cultural expression), societal participation (e.g.,
volunteer work), and athletic participation as different means to achieve citizenship is also
often mentioned (van Boxtel, 1999, 2000; Tweede Kamer, 1998, 2003).7
Participation, Capital, and Educational Opportunity
Integration does not pertain to only the immigrants themselves (i.e., the first generation)
but also to their children (i.e., second and subsequent generations). To the extent that
immigrant parents are better integrated into Dutch society, the more favorable the chances of
integration and — in this connection — the educational and societal opportunities for their
children. And for this reason, current integration policy emphasizes the responsibility of
immigrant parents to support and promote the school careers of their children (Tweede
Kamer, 2003).
Viewed from such a perspective, participation can be construed as a form of ‘capital’ (cf.
Gordon, 1964). The expectations with respect to the consequences of parental participation
for the educational opportunities of their children can then be derived from the theoretical
notions of social and cultural capital as formulated by, among others, Bourdieu (1986),
Coleman (1990), Putnam (1995), and Sowell (1996). These notions were originally
formulated in conjunction with social-economic status (SES) but also contain a clearly ethnic
component (Driessen, 2001). Considered together, this means that both parents from lower
social-economic milieus and immigrant parents who also participate in various sectors of
society provide relatively greater social and cultural capital for their families and, in this
manner, positively influence the child-rearing situation, educational opportunities, and
societal opportunities of their children. An immigrant status generally coincides with a low
6. 6
SES. That is, the majority of the immigrants being spoken of here can be characterized as
having low levels of education, employment, and income (cf. Gowricharn, 2002; Muus,
2003). And on the basis of this information, it can be expected that the social-cultural capital
of participation is of particular importance for immigrants to improve their societal
opportunities.
A few concrete examples may elucidate the assumptions underlying the aforementioned
notions. Parents who regularly visit cultural manifestations — such as museums and concerts
—(i.e., display cultural participation) may tell their children about this and thereby expand
the experiences and interests of their children. Given that cultural participation is valued by
many schools, the interest prompted by the experiences of the parents can favorably influence
the school careers of children. This is of particular importance for immigrant children
because their cultures are often further from the mainstream (i.e., white middle class) culture
than the cultures of children from native Dutch lower social-economic environments.
Immigrant parents who have a job (i.e., display labor participation) come into greater contact
with native Dutch individuals than immigrant parents who do not have a job and are thus
limited to their own ethnic (language) circle of contacts. Given the need to communicate
using the Dutch language at work, moreover, the Dutch language skills of such immigrants
will improve and be reflected in their Dutch-language communication with their children at
home. Parents who participate in all kinds of organizations that are not specifically intended
for immigrants (i.e., display societal participation) build a network of relations, thereby insure
themselves of access to all kinds of information and gatekeepers, and can thus create more
favorable conditions for the educational opportunities of their children. From the preceding, it
can also be deduced that greater participation not only influences the child-rearing situation
within the family via the introduction of all kinds of cultural-societal experiences (i.e.,
cultural capital) but also outside the family via the building of a social network including the
family, school, and broader social connections (i.e., social capital).
Empirical research on the connections between social-ethnic background milieu and
participation is available for the Netherlands to varying degrees. In most cases, only one
aspect or a small number of the different aspects of participation constitute the topic of
analysis (RMO, 1998). Studies of the relations between background milieu and labor
participation show undeniably low labor participation for immigrants and the low educated
(Dagevos, Gijsberts and van Praag, 2003). Cultural participation similarly occurs much less
frequently among immigrants and the low educated (de Hart, 2002; Driessen, 2001).
Religious participation appears, in contrast, to occur more frequently among immigrants than
among the native population, which is often proposed to be connected to the secularization of
the native population and the marginal influence of modernization upon immigrants (Becker
and de Wit, 2000; Dagevos, 2001). Participation in club life and volunteer work is clearly less
frequent for immigrants than for the native population (de Hart, 2002; Penninx and Slijper,
1999; van Daal, 2001). The same holds for political participation (Fennema et al., 2000). It
should be added that certain more specific differences can be found to occur and relate to age,
generation, length of immigrant residence, and specific immigrant group.
Research on the relations between social-ethnic milieu, participation of parents, and the
educational positions of children is very limited (Driessen, Doesborgh and Claassen, 1999).
One relevant finding is that of Tesser and Mulder (1990) who found cultural participation —
7. operationalized as museum and concert attendance — to have virtually no effect on
educational achievement. Driessen (1993) also came to the conclusion that cultural
participation does not contribute anything beyond what background milieu contributes to the
explanation of achievement differences. Dijkstra and Veenstra (2000), however, reveal some
effects stemming from religious background defined in terms of church membership and
church attendance. Research on labor participation, operationalized in terms of having paid
work or not, is virtually unavailable. Within the research by Oomens, Driessen and Scheepers
(2003), however, no independent effects of labor participation were found. There is no
research to our knowledge on the effects of social, societal, or political participation on
educational results.
7
In sum, there is very little research in which immigrant background, participation, and
educational results are analyzed in conjunction with each other. In general, the analyses
consider only one or a few aspects of participation at a time. With the availability of recent
large-scale national figures, however, we hope to fill this gap. And in an initially exploratory
manner, we will therefore attempt to answer the following questions.
x What relations exist between aspects of parental participation and social-ethnic
background?
x What relations exist between parental participation and the cognitive and non-cognitive
educational outcomes of their children?
x To what extent can differences in the cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes
of children be explained by differences in the participation of their parents after social-ethnic
background has been taken into consideration?
On the basis of the theoretical notions pertaining to the role of ‘capital’, we expect parents
from lower social-economic milieus to generally participate less than parents from higher
social-economic milieus and immigrant parents to participate even less than the parents from
lower social-economic milieus. We further expect a stronger degree of parental participation
to be associated with a more favorable educational position for their children. Finally,
participation is expected to continue to have an effect on the educational position after social-ethnic
background has been taken into consideration. In answering these questions, we hope
to determine the extent of the empirical support for the position held by the current Dutch
government with respect to ‘participation as capital’.
Analyses of variance will be undertaken to answer the first two — descriptive —
questions. Multilevel regression analyses will be undertaken to answer the last — explanatory
— question.
Data and variables
Sample and Instruments
The present data stem from the cohort study Primary Education (Primair Onderwijs,
PRIMA). Within the PRIMA study, students have been followed since the 1994/95 school
year via the administration of various tests and questionnaires once every two years to the
students and their parents, teachers, and school directorates. In this national research, a total
8. 8
of about 60,000 students from kindergarten, grade 2, grade 4, and grade 6 from some 600
elementary schools or 10% of all Dutch elementary schools have been involved. For the
present article, use is made of the figures from the third PRIMA measurement point during
the school year 1998/99 (cf. Driessen, van Langen and Vierke, 2000; Driessen et al., 2003).
The PRIMA sample is characterized by an overrepresentation of schools with students
from disadvantaged social-ethnic circumstances. This was done intentionally in order to
enable conclusions with regard to the functioning of children from different categories of
low-educated immigrants. The analyses were aimed at the children in kindergarten, who were
about 6 years of age, and their parents. The expectation was that the role of the school would
be still rather limited for such young children while the influence of the home milieu (i.e.,
parental participation) would be greater. In such a manner, the effects of participation can be
better isolated. The sample thus contains data from 583 schools and a total of 10,680
students.
The information for the analyses came from four sources: a parent questionnaire to attain
information on the social-ethnic background and participation of the parents; language and
math tests to indicate the cognitive skills of the students; a teacher evaluation list to
determine the non-cognitive positions of students; and information provided by the schools
with regard to the parents. In the present analyses, the data from the parent questionnaire —
which was developed for the PRIMA study on the basis of an extensive literature review —
stand central.
Despite the fact that the parent questionnaire was circulated with an accompanying
Turkish and Arabic explanation, a number of parents did not return the questionnaire; the
response rate was 73%. Analyses have shown that one can indeed speak of selective non-response:
a relatively greater number of immigrant parents than native Dutch parents failed to
return the questionnaire. Given that the PRIMA study in general contains an
overrepresentation of immigrant groups, the final sample tends towards representativity
(Driessen and Doesborgh, 2003). It can also be noted that the aim of the present study was
not so much to generate representative statements but to explore associations.
Virtually all of the information on social-ethnic background and those aspects of
participation included in the analyses were available for both the mothers and the fathers. In
order to characterize the level of the family, however, the data from the father was initially
used; when such information was unavailable, as in a single-parent family, the data from the
mother was used.
Variables
Three types of variables were distinguished: family structural characteristics, aspects of
parental participation, and cognitive and non-cognitive outcome measures. In Figure 1, just
how we think the different variables relate to each other is outlined schematically. The
operationalizations of the variables are presented further below.
<< insert Figure 1 about here >>
9. Family Structural Characteristics
x Parental education
The following levels were distinguished: (1) elementary education; (2) vocational education;
(3) professional education; (4) college education.
x Parental ethnicity
Based on the country of birth, the following categories were distinguished: (1) Dutch; (2)
Surinamese or Antillean; (3) Turkish or Moroccan; (4) other.8
x Parental length of residence
For the descriptive analyses, the following categories were distinguished: (1) less than 10
years; (2) 10-19 years; (3) 20 or more years; (4) from birth. For the multilevel explanatory
analyses, only the first three categories were utilized.
Participation
x Labor participation
Parents were asked whether they had paid work for 12 or more hours per week.9 The
response categories were: yes (1) or no (0). For the descriptive analyses, this variable was
transformed into ‘the percentage parents with paid work’.
x Religious participation
Parents were asked how often they attended a religious meeting, such as a church, synagogue,
or mosque. The response categories were: (1) (virtually) never; (2) a few times a year; (3) one
to three times a month; (4) weekly or more often.
x Political participation
Two questions were posed with regard to passive political participation (i.e., voting
behavior). Whether the parents voted during the city council elections and whether they voted
during the parliamentary elections were the questions asked. The number of occasions on
which the parents voted was coded as: (0) no times; (1) one time; (2) two times.
x Societal participation
Parents were asked if they ever volunteered for an organization or a club, which could be in
their neighborhood or involve athletics, the environment, the school, human rights, politics,
or health issues. The response categories were: yes (1) or no (0). For the descriptive analyses,
this variable was transformed into ‘the percentage parents doing volunteer work’.
x Social participation
Parents were asked if they were involved in any associations or clubs, and a few examples
were provided. This could be: (a) athletic club; (b) music association, choir, music school; (c)
youth club; neighborhood center, hobby center; (d) club from the church or mosque; (e)
hobby, nature, or scouting club. The number of different associations and clubs in which the
parents are involved was counted and coded as follows: (1) none; (2) one; (3) two or more.
x Cultural participation
For cultural participation, the information from three subquestions was used — namely
whether the parents ever went to: (a) a concert, (b) a film, or (c) a museum. The responses
were then coded as follows: (1) never, (2) less than once a year, (3) once a year; (4) twice or
more a year.
9
10. Cognitive Outcome Measures
x Language skill
x Math skill
Language and math skills were measured using two standardized tests developed by the
National Institute for Educational Measurement (CITO) in the Netherlands. The tests provide
an indication of the level of preparatory language and math skill, and they consisted of 60 and
42 multiple-choice items, respectively. Their reliabilities (K-R 20) were found to be 0.96 and
0.90, respectively. With the aid of a calibration procedure based on Item Response Theory,
the test results were transposed into language and math scores along two separate one-dimensional
10
metric scales (Vierke, 1995).
Non-cognitive outcome measures
x Social position
x Self-confidence
x Individual well-being
These three characteristics were measured using the teacher evaluation list, which allows the
teacher to indicate the extent to which a number of statements apply to a particular student
along a scale of (1) ‘definitely untrue’ to (5) ‘definitely true’. Social position consists of four
items and was found to have a reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.84. Sample items are: ‘This
student is popular among classmates’ and ‘This student has few friends in the class’.
Individual well-being consists of three items and was found to have a reliability (Cronbach’s
alpha) of 0.79. Sample items are: ‘This student feels comfortable with me’ and ‘This student
does not feel comfortable at school’. Self-confidence consists of four items and was found to
have a reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.75. Sample items are: ‘This student is afraid and
anxious’ and ‘This student is easily upset’. Separate scale scores were next created by
averaging the various item scores. A low scale score for social position thus indicated a weak
social position and a high scale score indicated a strong social position and so forth.
Results
Descriptive analyses
In order to gain initial insight into the distributions of the different variables, we will first present
an overview of the relations between parental ethnicity and parental education below. Thereafter, the
relations of the family structural characteristics of parental ethnicity and parental education to parental
length of residence, the different aspects of participation, and the different cognitive and non-cognitive
outcome measures will be presented.
In Table 1, the relations between the predictor variables of parental ethnicity and parental
education are presented in the form of percentages.
<< insert Table 1 about here >>
11. 11
As can be seen, at most 3% of the Dutch parents had no more than an elementary
education while 47% of the Turkish and Moroccan parents had no more than an elementary
education. For the category of ‘other immigrant’, a fairly varied pattern of education was
found with a relatively large percentage lower educated parents (13%) but also a relatively
high percentage higher educated parents and even more parents with a professional education
(30%) than found for the Dutch group of parents. These findings clearly reflect the
heterogeneous composition of this category of parents.
In Table 2, an overview of parental ethnicity and parental education in relation to parental
length of residence, the six aspects of participation, and the cognitive and non-cognitive
outcome measures is presented. This is done in the terms of average percentages or scores
and the nominal-metric correlation coefficient eta per category of variable to be predicted.
Given the large number of students included in the analyses, the levels of significance
provide little information; almost everything is found to be significant using the usual levels
of significance. A better strategy is to inspect the effect sizes or, in other words, eta
coefficients (e.g., Thompson, 1998; Wainer and Robinson, 2003). To interpret these
coefficients, the criteria of Cohen (1988) were taken as a guideline: r=0.10 weak; r=0.30
medium; and r=0.50 strong.
<< insert Table 2 about here >>
When parental ethnicity and parental length of residence are compared, the results in
Table 2 show almost 50% of the Surinamese and Antillean parents to reside in the
Netherlands 20 or more years. For the Turkish and Moroccan group of parents, this
percentage is more than 33%. And for the category of other immigrant parents, the
percentage is more than 25%.
The relations of parental ethnicity to the different aspects of participation show large
differences with respect to labor participation. Almost 90% of the Dutch parents have paid
work while only about 50% of the immigrant parents report having paid work. With regard to
active religious participation, it is striking that the Dutch parents score extremely low while
Turkish and Moroccan parents score extremely high. Almost 60% of the Dutch parents
studied here never attend a religious meeting while almost 50% of the Turkish and Moroccan
parents visit a mosque on a weekly or more frequent basis. This finding is really not
surprising in light of the process of secularization set into motion in the Netherlands in the
1960s and the fact that most Turks and Moroccans are Muslim and still strong believers —
although generation differences can be found to occur (Becker and de Wit, 2000). With
regard to active political participation, a large difference exists between the Dutch parents,
who regularly vote in both local and parliamentary elections, and the three categories of
immigrant parents, who frequently do not vote at all. This latter finding is not completely
unexpected as different voting rights exist for non-Dutch individuals than for Dutch
individuals.10 A similar contrast between the Dutch parents and immigrant categories of
parents also occurs for societal participation measured in terms of volunteer work. The Dutch
parents perform more than twice the amount of volunteer work performed by immigrant
12. parents. With regard to social participation in the form of club membership, the differences
between the different ethnic groups were minimal. The Turkish and Moroccan parents
reported being a member of a club almost as frequently as the Dutch parents. With regard to
cultural participation, the observed differences are primarily caused by the fact that the Dutch
parents attend such events relatively often while the Turkish and Moroccan parents, in
particular, never do this.
12
For the correlations between parental ethnicity and the outcome measures, significant
differences are found for primarily language and math with the Dutch children scoring high
and the Turkish and Moroccan children scoring low. Only marginal differences were detected
for the non-cognitive outcome measures.
The relations between parental education and parental length of residence show the
differences to largely depend on the category of elementary education. From Table 1, we
know that a relatively large number of immigrant parents (i.e., parents with a relatively
shorter length of residence in the Netherlands) tend to fall within the category of individuals
with only elementary education.
The relations of parental education to the different aspects of participation show a clear
relation to exist for having paid work: To the extent that parents are higher educated, they
also tend to have paid work more often. Any differences with respect to religious
participation can be traced back to the category of elementary education with the lower
educated in the Netherlands being predominantly immigrants and thereby still quite religious.
With regard to political participation, it is clear that the higher the level of parental education,
the more frequently the parents vote. With respect to societal participation, a clearly positive
relation can be seen to exist with parental level of education. This does not hold, however, for
social participation, where only minimal differences are found with respect to the generally
limited participation in clubs. Finally, there is a strong relation with cultural participation:
The higher the parental level of education, the stronger the degree of cultural participation.
Just as for parental ethnicity, parental education also related positively to the language
and math skills of the children. The relations are not as strong as for parental ethnicity,
however. And while parental education shows no differences between language and math, the
eta’s for parental ethnicity show a considerably stronger relation for language than for math.
Just as for parental ethnicity, moreover, there are no appreciable relations to the non-cognitive
outcome measures.
In the following section, the explanatory analyses stand central. Multilevel analyses will
be undertaken for this purpose. And in preparation for these analyses, a few supplemental
analyses were also conducted. To start with, the results in Table 2 show almost all of the
Dutch parents to have a ‘from birth’ residence. In order to get a more reliable picture of the
independent effects of parental length of residence, only the immigrant groups will be used in
the subsequent analyses involving parental ethnicity in combination with parental length of
residence. A second point in need of further consideration involves the possible interactions
between parental ethnicity and parental education. In connection with this point, whether or
not parental ethnicity and parental education interact with the participation and outcome
variables was examined in addition to whether or not parental ethnicity and parental length of
residence interact with the participation and outcome variables. This was not found to be the
case with the exception of parental length of residence and labor participation, which
13. therefore can only be meaningfully interpreted within the immigrant groups. We also
computed the total and partial effects of the different aspects of participation on the outcome
measures. The analyses show no clear relations to the non-cognitive outcome measures and,
for this reason, we limit ourselves to only consideration of the cognitive outcome measures
(i.e., math and language skills) in the following.
13
Multilevel analyses
Up until now, the relations between the aspects of parental participation and outcome
measures have been analyzed bivariately using monolevel analysis techniques. In the present
research, however, two levels can actually be distinguished — namely, a student and school
level. In order to do justice to this level distinction, the presence of independent participation
effects on the outcome variables will be examined with the aid of multilevel analyses
(Snijders and Bosker, 1999) and — for this purpose — the MLn program (Rasbash and
Woodhouse, 1996). Two sorts of models (A and B) will be tested which differ in the
inclusion of the predictor ‘parental length of residence’ and — in relation to that predictor —
the ethnic groups studied.
In model A, parental ethnicity, parental education, participation, and their interaction are
entered in a number of steps. All four categories of parental ethnicity are used in these
analyses. In model B, parental length of residence is entered in the last step of the analyses
and only the three immigrant categories of parental ethnicity are used.
The multilevel analyses thus involve the testing of the following models:
x With the aid of model 0, just how the variance is distributed across the student and
school levels is examined.
x In model 1, parental ethnicity and parental education are added to model 0. Model A
involves ‘Dutch’ ethnicity as the reference group; model B involves ‘other’ ethnicity as
the reference group. In each case, parental education was included in the form of three
dichotomies with college education serving as the reference group.
x In model 2, the six participation variables are added to model 0. In contrast to the
descriptive analyses, the relevant relations are calculated with the other participation
variables held constant.
x In model 3, the six participation variables are added to model 1. In such a manner,
whether or not one can speak of an independent contribution of participation to the effect
sizes after control for parental ethnicity and parental education is examined.
x In model 4, the products of parental ethnicity and parental education and participation
are added to model 3. In such a manner, the contributions of the interactions between
parental ethnicity and participation and the interactions between parental education and
participation to the effect sizes can be determined.
x In model 5, in model B, parental length of residence is added to model 3 to determine
whether parental length of residence operates independent of parental ethnicity, parental
education, and participation.
The unstandardized regression coefficients (B) and accompanying standard errors (SE)
are reported in the tables. The degree to which the estimates differ significantly from 0 (sig.)
is also indicated. The degree of significance can be derived by calculating a z score, namely z
14. = B/SE. The exact meaning of just significant and more strongly significant in terms of z
scores depends on the number of units (here: schools) included in the analyses (cf. Cohen,
1988). For n < 120 schools, an effect is generally assumed to be just significant when the p
value < .10 and thus in keeping with a z value > 1.65. For n = 200 schools, just significant is
p < .05 or z > 1.96. For n = 500 schools, just significant is p < .001 or z > 3.29. Following
Bosker, Mulder and Glas (2001), we adopted the following criteria. The total sample included
583 schools, which means a z value of 3.6 to 4.8 for just significant effects and greater than
4.8 for stronger effects. The sample with only immigrant students includes a total of 395
schools, which means a z value greater than 2.98 for just significant effects and greater than
3.97 for stronger effects. In the tables, just significant effects are indicated with a * and
stronger effects with **.
14
The tables are constructed as follows. In the part of the tables labeled ‘variance
components’, the null model (model 0) indicates the distribution of the total variance in the
outcome measure across the student and school levels. For the models thereafter, the
percentages of the student and school variances explained by the predictor variables entered
at that point are presented. The explained variances for models 1 and 2 are calculated with
respect to model 0 and thus indicate how much parental ethnicity and parental education, on
the one hand, and the six participation variables, on the other hand, help explain the variance
in the outcome measure. Then, for model 3, the explanation provided by model 1 is
subtracted, so that under this model the additional explanation stands after the introduction of
parental ethnicity and parental education. The explained variance for model 4 is calculated
with respect to model 3, which indicates the influence of any interactions between parental
ethnicity and participation, on the one hand, and parental education and participation, on the
other hand. And the explained variance for model 5 is also calculated with respect to model 3,
which means that the effects of adding information on parental length of residence in addition
to the previously included parental ethnicity, parental education, and participation are
evaluated.
The values after Chi2/df are used to test whether one model significantly differs from
another. The reported Chi2 value is calculated by subtracting the Chi2 value of the model
being tested from the Chi2 value for the reference model. The difference between the two
Chi2 values is then divided by the difference in the degrees of freedom for the two models.
For the total sample of n=583 schools and df=1, a final value >13 indicates a just significant
difference; for df=6 (models 1, 2, 3, and 4), a final value >5 is needed; and for df=36 (model
4), a final value of >2 is needed. For the immigrant-only sample involving n=395 schools, the
required values are: >7.8 for df=1; >3.1 for df=6 (models 1, 2, 3, and 5); and >1.7 for df=36
(model 4).
In the following, the results of the analyses for the language and math skills of the
students are presented: first for the total sample and then for the immigrant-only sample.
<< insert Table 3 about here >>
15. 15
In Table 3, it can be seen that more than 80% of the variance in language skill occurs at
the level of the student and 20% at the level of the school for model 0.
The results for model 1 show strong effects of parental ethnicity and parental education.
Compared to the reference category of Dutch, Turkish or Moroccan students score more than
25 points lower while the other two categories of immigrants score more than 15 points
lower. (The standard deviation for language skill for the total sample was 37.) Any effect of
parental education has been controlled for via simultaneous entry with parental ethnicity. The
effect of parental education when parental ethnicity is similarly controlled for is weaker than
the effect of parental ethnicity. Compared to the college educated, the children of parents
with no more than an elementary education score more than 17 points lower. Parental
ethnicity and parental education explain 6.4% of the student-level variance and 54% of the
school-level variance.
From the coefficients found for model 2, it can be deduced that virtually all of the aspects
of participation with the exception of social participation (i.e., participation in associations
and clubs) exert significant effects. As already noted, the contributions of the other five
aspects of participation are controlled for in the analyses for one particular aspect. In the
interpretation of these effects, one should note that that the different aspects of participation
involve varying numbers of categories. In this light, the effect of cultural participation can be
seen to be strongest: Children of parents who attend two or more cultural events a year score
an average of 15.6 points higher than children of parents who never attend such events. The
different aspects of participation explain 4.3% of the variance at the level of the student and
36.9% of the variance at the level of the school.
When the family structural characteristics of parental ethnicity and parental education are
entered simultaneously with the six aspects of participation, the effects of ethnicity and
education can be seen to slightly drop but remain strongly significant. For the aspects of
participation, however, only labor participation can be seen to remain weakly significant
while political and cultural participation remain strongly significant. Note that these results
reflect the influence of participation after parental ethnicity and parental education have been
controlled for. Compared to model 1, moreover, the amount of additional variance explained
by the aspects of participation is minimal: about 1% at the level of the student and 1% at the
level of the school.
When the interaction effects of parental ethnicity, on the one hand, and parental
education, on the other hand, with the different aspects of participation were tested in model
4 (i.e., E/E x P), none of the interactions proved significant. This means that the effects of the
various aspects of participation did not differ depending on the categories of parental
ethnicity or parental education.
<< insert Table 4 about here >>
Inspection of Table 4 shows the results with respect to math skill to be largely comparable
to the results with respect to language skill. The coefficients are somewhat smaller, which is
primarily due to a different distribution of the math scores. (The standard deviation for math
16. skill for the total sample was 17.) In the end, a minimal effect of cultural participation can be
seen to remain after parental ethnicity and parental education have been controlled for. The
amount of additional variance explained by the six aspects of participation considered
together, however, only amounts to about 1% of the variance at the level of the student and
1.5% at the level of the school. Note that this result indicates the joint influence of all six
aspects of participation or a virtually nonexistent effect, thus.
16
<< insert Table 5 about here >>
When the sample is limited to immigrant-only students, very similar — in so far as they
are comparable — results are found as for the total sample of students. Inspection of Table 5
shows the children of predominantly low educated and Turkish or Moroccan parents to score
particularly low with regard to language skill. Significant effects are initially found for labor,
religious, and cultural participation. After control for parental ethnicity, parental education,
and parental length of residence, however, only a weak independent effect of cultural
participation can be seen to remain. A single significant interaction effect is found, namely
for Turkish/Moroccan parental ethnicity and labor participation. This means that the effect of
labor participation for the category of Turkish and Moroccan parents is different than for the
reference category of other immigrant parents: The regression coefficient for labor
participation on language skill for Turkish and Moroccan students is about –1.0 while that for
the other immigrant students is 11.0. Finally, a significant independent but marginal effect of
parental length of residence is found: To the extent that immigrant parents have resided
longer in the Netherlands, the better the language skills of their children. This effect does not
mean much in absolute terms as it only explains an additional 1.9% of the variance at the
level of the student and an additional 0.9% of the variance at the level of the school.
<< insert Table 6 about here >>
As can be seen from Table 6, the math skill results for the sample of immigrant-only
students strongly resemble the language skill results for the same sample. Different aspects of
participation are nevertheless found to play a role in math versus language skills. Whereas
cultural participation appears to be the most important aspect of participation for language
skill in the end, labor participation — or whether the parents have paid work or not — is
found to be most important but only weakly significant for math skill in the end.
17. 17
Conclusions and Discussion
In this research, the influence of parental participation in various aspects of Dutch society
on the educational positions of their children was examined. The analyses included both
cognitive and non-cognitive outcome measures. The underlying assumption was that the
different aspects of participation distinguished here provide an indication of the degree of
integration and that greater parental integration in Dutch society will promote a more
favorable educational position.
The results showed a reasonably strong association to exist between parental ethnicity and
parental level of education. Native Dutch parents were highest educated, and Turkish and
Moroccan parents were lowest educated. Moderate to strong associations were also discerned
for parental ethnicity and parental education, on the one hand, and the different aspects of
participation and cognitive outcome measures, on the other hand. One can speak of two
dichotomies in connection with these differences: A dichotomy between Dutch versus
immigrant parents and a dichotomy between higher versus lower educated parents. With
respect to the non-cognitive outcome measures, no differences were observed with respect to
parental ethnicity or parental education.
The analyses of the relations between the different aspects of participation and the various
outcome measures revealed no connections to the non-cognitive measures. Participation of
the parents does not appear to correlate with the social position of their children in the school
class, their children’s well-being, or their children’s self-confidence. Clear connections were,
however, found between parental participation and both the language and math skills of their
children. In the relevant analyses for the total sample, strong effects of the different aspects
of participation with the exception of social participation (i.e., participation in associations
and clubs) are initially found. When ethnic and educational background are taken into
consideration, however, only a strong effect of political and cultural participation (i.e., voting
behavior and attendance of cultural events) on language skill remains. For math skill, only a
strong effect of cultural participation and weak effects of labor, political, and societal
participation (i.e., paid work, voting, and volunteer work) remain. In the relevant analyses for
the immigrant-only sample, only a weak effect of cultural participation remains for language
skill and a weak effect of labor participation remains for math skill.
In light of the aforementioned effects, a few methodological comments are now called
for. Information from the parents with regard to their participation in six different domains of
Dutch society was used in the present analyses. For concrete formulation of the questions
with regard to the different aspects of participation, the usual research procedures were
followed (e.g., Dijkstra and Veenstra, 2000; Engbertsen and Gabriëls, 1995; van Daal, 2001).
Fairly ‘flat’ operationalizations were used, however. In follow-up research, greater
differentiation within the questions and more qualitative indicators should be sought (cf.
Dagevos, 2001). With respect to social participation in particular, greater refinement is
necessary. It is possible that not so much membership in an association or club but
membership in an immigrant versus Dutch club is of particular relevance for social capital
(de Hart, 2002). Stated more concretely: Whether one is a member of an immigrant-only
soccer club or a Mosque appears to be less relevant than whether one comes into contact with
Dutch individuals and their typically higher SES values and interests or not.
18. 18
The present results show clear correlations to exist for the cognitive but not the non-cognitive
indicators of educational position. The question is how this finding is best
explained. Does the absence of non-cognitive correlations stem from the instrument
employed or are such relations simply nonexistent? A student with considerable cultural
capital can be expected to feel more at home at school (i.e., experience greater well-being),
have greater self-confidence, and — as a result — achieve better at most schools where there
is a standard middle-class culture and appreciation of such cultural capital aspects (cf.
Olneck, 2000).
With regard to the different aspects of participation, a rough distinction can be made
between the social and cultural sides of integration. This distinction parallels the distinction
between social capital and cultural capital. The finding of relations between cultural
participation but not social participation may pertain to the age of the students studied here.
The students were quite young, which means that the influence of social networks may not as
yet be very relevant.11 Cultural capital, in contrast, may already be relevant as the child
already comes into contact with this via the parents within the home situation at a very early
age.
The present results showed one aspect of participation to continually play a dominant role
in the explanation of differences in math and language skills, namely ‘high brow’ cultural
participation. The regular attendance of concerts, films, and museums by parents is
consistently found to be associated with the cognitive skills of their children. It should be
noted within this context that these findings refer to the independent influence of cultural
participation after the influences of parental ethnicity, parental education, and parental length
of residence have been taken into account. It should also be emphasized that these effects are
found to occur in a very early stage of the educational careers of children — that is, already
in the kindergarten years.
The aforementioned findings appear to confirm the cultural capital thesis of Bourdieu
(1986). According to this thesis, social inequality is reproduced generation after generation
via culture transmission. According to the present results, moreover, cultural capital is
divided along not only milieu but also ethnic lines. Given the interwoven nature of milieu and
ethnicity, this means that predominantly low educated Turkish and Moroccan parents rarely
or never attend the aforementioned cultural events. And according to the Dutch Secretary of
Culture (MinOCW, 1999, 2000), this has recently been shown to indeed be the case. To
promote the cultural participation of particularly these groups of immigrants in the form of
not only theatre, concert, and museum attendance but also in the form of library use, an
action plan has been formulated to expand the accessibility of such institutions. At the same
time, more sustainable relations between schools and cultural institutions are being sought in
order to foster greater attention to culture within the curriculum. The hope is that such
activities will help reduce the educational delays found for, among others, the aforementioned
groups in the long run.12
In conclusion, we would like to return to the expectation voiced by the Dutch government
with regard to integration, namely that participation in various domains of society can be
expected to favorably influence the societal opportunities of immigrants and their children.
To start with, our analyses revealed major differences in the extent of participation across
different groups of immigrants. In policy papers, however, the government adheres to ‘the
19. principle of proportionality’ without a clear indication of how this principle should be
operationalized. This is troublesome when it comes to the implementation and evaluation of
policy and also complicates the interpretation of the present findings. It is already known that
integration proceeds in phases and that the degree of integration can differ per domain. In this
connection, one often speaks of partial integration, delayed acculturation, differentiated
integration, segmented assimilation, bumpy-line assimilation, heteropraxis, or hybridization.
At the same time, it is clear that a strong orientation towards one’s own group need not stand
in the way of social mobility and a favorable societal position (e.g., Lesthaeghe, 2000;
Vermeulen and Penninx, 2000; WRR, 2001; Zhou, 1997). In other words, a more detailed
and differentiated government vision of integration and participation is called for. The
present findings show the assumption with regard to the chances of immigrant children to
receive only partial confirmation. Not only was the number of — what can be considered
relevant — participation effects found to be very small; the percentage of the variance in the
language and math skills explained by participation was minimal. This means that
expectations have been stretched too high and that greater realism is called for.
In this paper we have focused on the Dutch situation. Our analyses showed that in the
Netherlands the effect of minority parents’ societal participation on their children’s school
performance is very limited. The question is whether this finding can be generalized to other
European countries.
19
In the introduction we have already pointed to the fact that the way receiving
countries react to the arrival of immigrants varies greatly (Entzinger, 2000). Although
European Union immigrant policies are in principle communitarian policies (i.e., policies of
the whole community), integration policies are not: national authorities make their sovereign
decision on policies in this domain. This means that the convergence in immigrant policies
which has occurred during recent decades is accompanied by a diversity of integration
policies. In general, integration policies at a national level have been developed late, or not at
all, Sweden and the Netherlands being exceptions. If such policies were formulated, this was
often done as a reaction to crisis situations, i.e., ad hoc, reactive and control oriented, and
with piecemeal results. Basically, two orientations can be discerned. On the one hand, UK,
Dutch and Swedish policies in the 1980s and 1990s have presented themselves as
multiculturalist or pluralist. These policies presuppose not only political inclusion and
equality in the socioeconomic domain, but also aim at cultural and religious equity. On the
other hand, French, German and Austrian policies--insofar as they have been formulated at
all--have traditionally been associated with assimilationism. This implies that the state and
society are considered as given and immigrants are required to adapt to that society, at least
to its public institutions (Penninx, 2005). Following events like ‘9/11’, however, a tendency
towards convergence is observable in the domain of integration policies as well--though not
to the same extent with regard to its various dimensions (e.g., legal-political, socioeconomic
and cultural-religious). The entire Western world now faces a growing influence of right-wing,
conservative and nationalist movements; especially in countries such as Belgium and
France anti-immigrant parties have a large following (Prins & Slijper, 2002). As a
consequence, in public debates and parliaments a call for assimilation as opposed to
multiculturalism and diversity is increasingly being made (also see Brubaker, 2001).
20. Because of this variation in integration policies and national contexts it is very difficult to
determine whether findings from one society can be generalized to another. A major problem
of course is the fact that insofar as policies with regard to integration have been formulated,
the goals of these policies are mostly ambiguous and not operationalized in concrete
measurable terms. Undoubtedly, this is one reason why remarkably few systematic studies on
the effectiveness and efficiency of immigration-related policies have been conducted. The
analyses that have been performed suggest that the increased expenditures in this field have
not produced a commensurate improvement in performance (van ‘t Loo et al., 2001).
20
The above pertains to the integration in terms of participation of first generation
immigrants. The present article focuses on effects of the first generation’s participation on the
school performance of their children, i.e. the second generation. With regard to this aspect
surprisingly little research has been conducted. The available studies concentrate on the
relation between parental ethnicity/race, educational level and labour market and cultural
participation on the one hand and their children’s school achievement on the other (e.g.,
Driessen, 2001; Gillborn and Gipps, 1996; Jencks and Mayer, 1990). Dimensions like
religious, societal, social and political participation have--to our knowledge--not yet been
included in such analyses, not separately and certainly not in conjunction to each other.
Therefore, what would be helpful is the development of measures for integration that can
be used across countries and also across generations of immigrants. Monitoring integration
processes in different countries could lead to identifying best practices of integration (cf.
Entzinger and Biezeveld, 2003). It is clear that significant knowledge gaps still remain and
that many of the findings fail to be introduced into the policy debate in a systematic way and
in relation to each other (Entzinger, 2000; van ‘t Loo et al., 2001). It is also important to
realize that processes of integration of immigrants are long term by nature (Penninx, 2005).
REFERENCE LIST
Alba, R., & Nee, V. (1997). Rethinking Assimilation Theory for a New Era of Immigration,
International Migration Review, 31, 826-874.
Becker, J., & de Wit, J. (2000). Secularisatie in de Jaren Negentig. Kerklidmaatschap,
Veranderingen in Opvattingen en een Prognose. Den Haag: SCP.
Berry, J. (2003) Conceptual Approaches to Acculturation. In K. Chun, P. Balls Organista and
G. Marín (Eds.), Acculturation. Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied
Research (pp. 17-37). Washington, DC: APA.
Bosker, R., Mulder, L., & Glas, C. (2001). Naar een Nieuwe Gewichtenregeling? Den Haag:
Onderwijsraad.
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and
Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). New York: Greenwood Press.
Bovenkerk, F. (2002). Essay over Oorzaken van Allochtone Misdaad. In J. Lucassen and A.
de Ruijter (Eds.), Nederland Multicultureel en Pluriform? Een aantal Conceptuele
Studies (pp. 209-245). Amsterdam: Aksant.
21. Brubaker, R. (2001). The Return of Assimilation? Changing Perspectives on Immigration and
21
its Sequels in France, Germany, and the United States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24,
531-548.
CBS (2007). www.statline.nl; accessed 16/11/07.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Coleman, J. (1998). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of
Sociology 94, s95-s120.
Dagevos, J. (2001). Perspectief op Integratie. Over de Sociaal-Culturele en Structurele
Integratie van Etnische Minderheden in Nederland. Den Haag: WRR.
Dagevos, J., & Veenman, J. (1996). Sociale Netwerken en Hun Functionaliteit. In J.
Veenman (Ed.), Keren de Kansen? De Tweede-Generatie Allochtonen in Nederland
(pp. 81-103). Assen; Van Gorcum.
Dagevos, J., Gijsberts, M., & van Praag, C. (Eds.) (2003). Rapportage Minderheden 2003.
Onderwijs, Arbeid en Sociaal-Culturele Integratie. Den Haag: SCP.
de Hart, J. (Ed.) (2002). Zekere Banden. Sociale Cohesie, Leefbaarheid en Veiligheid. Den
Haag: SCP.
Dijkstra, A., & Veenstra, R. (2000). Functionele Gemeenschappen, Godsdienstigheid en
Prestaties in het Voortgezet Onderwijs. Mens & Maatschappij, 75, 129-150.
Driessen, G. (2001). Ethnicity, Forms of Capital, and Educational Achievement.
International Review of Education, 47, 513-537.
Driessen, G. (2007). Trends in Religious Affiliation of Parents of Primary School Children in
the Netherlands in the Period 1995-2005. Exploration of Correlation with Sex, Ethnicity
and Socio-economic Background. Journal of Empirical Theology, 20, 232-249.
Driessen, G., & Doesborgh, J. (2003). Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie en Cognitieve en
Niet-Cognitieve Competenties van Jonge Kinderen. Nijmegen: ITS.
Driessen, G., van Langen, A., & Vierke, H. (2000). Basisonderwijs: Veldwerkverslag,
Leerlinggegevens en Oudervragenlijsten. Basisrapportage PRIMA-Cohortonderzoek.
Derde Meting 1998/99. Nijmegen: ITS.
Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2006). Islamic Schools in the Netherlands: Expansion or
Marginalization? Interchange, 37, 201-223.
Driessen, G., Doesborgh. J., Ledoux, G., van der Veen, I., & Vergeer. M. (2003). Sociale
Integratie in het Primair Onderwijs. Een Studie naar de Relatie tussen de Sociale,
Etnische, Religieuze en Cognitieve Schoolcompositie en de Cognitieve en Niet-
Cognitieve Positie van Verschillende Groepen Leerlingen. Nijmegen/Amsterdam:
ITS/SCO-Kohnstamm Instituut.
Engbersen, G., & Gabriëls, R. (Eds) (1995). Sferen van Integratie. Naar een Gedifferentieerd
Allochtonenbeleid. Amsterdam/Meppel: Boom.
Entzinger, H. (2000). The Dynamics of Integration Policies: A Multidimensional Model. In
R. Koopmans and P. Statham (Eds.), Challenging Immigration and Ethnic Relations
Politics: Comparative European Perspectives (pp. 97-118). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Entzinger, H., & Biezeveld, R. (2003). Benchmarking in Immigrant Integration. Rotterdam:
Erasmus University.
22. Fennema, M., Tillie, J., van Heelsum, A., Berger, M., & Wolff, R. (2000). Sociaal Kapitaal
22
en Politieke Participatie van Etnische Minderheden. Amsterdam: IMES.
Gans, H. (1997). Toward a Reconciliation of “Assimilation” and “Pluralism”: The Interplay
of Acculturation and Ethnic Retention. International Migration Review, 31, 875-892.
Gillborn, D., & Gipps, C. (1996). Recent Research on the Achievement of Ethnic Minority
Pupils. London: OFSTED.
Gorard, S., Rees, G., & Salisbury, J. (1999). Reappraising the Apparent Underachievement of
Boys at School. Gender and Education, 11, 441-454.
Gordon, M. (1964). Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National
Origins. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gowricharn, R. (2002). Integration and Social Cohesion: The Case of the Netherlands.
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 28, 259-273.
Hagendoorn, L., Veenman, J., & Vollebergh, W. (2003). Cultural Orientation and Socio-
Economic Integration of Immigrants in the Netherlands. In L. Hagendoorn, J. Veenman
and W. Vollebergh (Eds.), Integrating Immigrants in the Netherlands. Cultural versus
Socio-Economic Integration (pp. 1-15). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Hooghiemstra, E. (2003). Trouwen over de Grens. Achtergronden van Partnerkeuze van
Turken en Marokkanen in Nederland. Den Haag: SCP.
Jencks, C., & Mayer, S. (1990). The Social Consequences of Growing up in a Poor
Neighborhood. In L. Lynn jr. and M. McGeary (Eds.), Inner-city Poverty in the United
States (pp. 111-186). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Koopmans, R., & Statham, P. (Eds.) (2000). Challenging Immigration and Ethnic Relations
Politics: Comparative European Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lesthaeghe, R. (Ed.) (2000). Communities and Generations. Turkish and Moroccan
Populations in Belgium. Brussels: VUB University Press.
Lubienski, S. (2003). Celebrating Diversity and Denying Disparities: A Critical Assessment,
Educational Researcher, 32, 30-38.
MinBiZa (1998). Verkiezingen. Kiezen en Gekozen Worden. Den Haag: Ministerie van
Binnenlandse Zaken.
MinJus (2004). Jaarnota Integratiebeleid 2004. Den Haag: Ministerie van Jusititie.
MinOCW (1999). Ruim Baan voor Culturele Diversiteit. Zoetermeer: Ministerie van
Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschappen.
MinOCW (2000). Actieplan Cultuurbereik. Zoetermeer: Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur
en Wetenschappen.
Muus, P. (2003). An International Comparison of Migration and Immigrant Policy with
Respect to Immigrants from Turkey and their Participation in the Labour Market. In L.
Hagendoorn, J. Veenman and W. Vollebergh (Eds.), Integrating Immigrants in the
Netherlands. Cultural versus Socio-Economic Integration (pp. 17-40). Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Odé, A. (2002). Ethnic-Cultural and Socio-Economic Integration in the Netherlands. A
Comparative Study of Mediterranean and Caribbean Minority Groups. Assen: Van
Gorcum.
Olneck, M. (2000). Can Multicultural Education Change What Counts as Cultural Capital?
American Educational Research Journal, 37, 317-348.
23. 23
Oomens, S., Driessen, G., & Scheepers, P. (2003). Integratie van Allochtone Ouders en
Onderwijsprestaties van hun Kinderen: Enkele Allochtone Groepen Vergeleken.
Tijdschrift voor Sociologie, 24, 289-311.
Overdijk-Francis, J., & Smeets, H. (Eds.) (1998). Criminaliteit en Integratie van Etnische
Minderheden. Houten: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum.
Penninx, R. (2005). Integration of Migrants: Economic, Social, Cultural and Political
Dimensions. In M. Macura, A. McDonald and W. Haug (Eds.), The New Demographic
Regime. Population Challenges and Policy Responses (pp. 137-151). Geneva: United
Nations.
Penninx, R., & Slijper, B. (1999). Voor Elkaar? Integratie, Vrijwilligerswerk en Organisaties
van Migranten. Amsterdam: IMES.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. (1996). Immigrant America: A Portrait. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press.
Prins, B., & Slijper, B. (2002). Multicultural Society Under Attack: Introduction. Journal of
International Migration and Integration, 3, 313-328.
Putnam, R. (1995). Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of
Democracy, 6, 65-78.
Rasbash, J., & Woodhouse, G. (1996). MLn Command Reference. Version 1.0a. London:
University of London.
RMO (1998). Integratie in Perspectief. Integratie van Bijzondere Groepen en van Personen
uit Etnische Groeperingen in het Bijzonder. Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers.
Rumbaut, R. (1997). Assimilation and its Discontents: Between Rhetoric and Reality.
International Migration Review, 31, 923-960.
Snijders, T., & Bosker, R. (1999). Multilevel Analysis. An Introduction to Basic and
Advanced Multilevel Modeling. London: Sage.
Sowell, T. (1996). Migrations and Cultures. A World View. New York: Basic Books.
Tesser, P., & Mulder, L. (1990). Cultureel Kapitaal en Schoolprestaties. In C. Klaassen and
P. Jungbluth (Eds.), OnderwijsResearchDagen 1990. Onderwijs en Samenleving (pp.
39-51). Nijmegen: ITS.
Thompson, B. (1998). Five Methodology Errors in Educational Research: The Pantheon of
Statistical Significance and Other Faux Pas. Invited address AERA annual meeting,
San Diego, US, April 15, 1998.
Tweede Kamer (1998). Integratiebeleid 1999-2000. Kansen Krijgen, Kansen Pakken. Tweede
Kamer der Staten-Generaal. Vergaderjaar 1998-1999, 26333, nrs. 1-2. ’s-Gravenhage:
Sdu Uitgevers.
Tweede Kamer (2003). Rapportage Integratiebeleid Etnische Minderheden. Tweede Kamer
der Staten-Generaal. Vergaderjaar 2003-2004, 29203, nrs. 1-2. ‘s-Gravenhage: Sdu
Uitgevers.
Uunk, W. (2003). The Cultural Integration of Immigrants in the Netherlands: A Description
and Explanation of Modern Attitudes of Turks, Moroccans, Surinamese, Antilleans and
the Indigenous Population. In L. Hagendoorn, J. Veenman and W. Vollebergh (Eds.),
Integrating Immigrants in the Netherlands. Cultural versus Socio-Economic Integration
(pp. 199-233). Aldershot: Ashgate.
24. 24
van Boxtel, R. (1999). Godsdienst en Levensovertuiging in Relatie tot het Integratiebeleid
Etnische Minderheden. ’s-Gravenhage: Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en
Koninkrijksrelaties.
van Daal, J. (2001). Het Middenveld als Smeltkroes ? Verschuivingen in Deelname aan
Verenigingsleven en Vrijwilligerswerk in Multicultureel Rotterdam. Utrecht: Verwey-
Jonker Instituut.
van het Loo, M, de Spiegeleire, S., Lindstrom, G., Kahan, J., & Vernez, G. (2001). A
Comparison of American and Dutch Immigration and Integration Experiences. What
Lessons Can Be Learned? The Hague: WRR.
Vermeulen, H., & Penninx, R. (Eds.) (2000). Immigrant Integration: The Dutch Case.
Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.
Vierke, H. (1995). De PRIMA-Toetsen Gekalibreerd. Nijmegen: ITS.
Wainer, H., & Robinson, D. (2003). Shaping up the Practice of Null Hypothesis Significance
Testing. Educational Researcher, 32, 22-30.
WRR (2001). Nederland als Immigratiesamenleving. Den Haag: Sdu Uitgevers.
Zhou, M. (1997). Segmented Assimilation: Issues, Controversie, and Recent Research on the
New Second Generation. International Migration Review, 31,975-1008.
AUTHOR NOTES
Geert Driessen received his PhD on a study into the educational position of ethnic minority
students. He is a senior educational researcher at the Institute for Applied Social Sciences
(ITS) of Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands. His research interests include ethnic
and social inequality in education, parental participation in education, pre and early school
education, first and second language acquisition, minority language and culture teaching,
religion, denomination and education, and Islamic schools.
Frederik Smit received his PhD on a study into the role of parents in primary education. He is
a senior educational researcher at the Institute for Applied Social Sciences (ITS) of Radboud
University Nijmegen, the Netherlands. He has published in the areas of parental involvement
in education, culture differences in education, participation in decision-making by teachers,
parents and students.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Jan Doesborgh for his help with the statistical analyses. The
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) is gratefully acknowledged for
funding the project on which this paper is based. The research was supported by grant # 411-
20-005 from NWO’s Social Science Research Council.
25. 25
NOTES
1 Some 75% of Turkish and Moroccan young people have a partner come over from the
country of origin (Hooghiemstra, 2003). While the total number of such marriage
immigrants was 11,000 in 1995, the total in 2002 was 21,000. This form of immigration
has undergone severe criticism because the integration process must be repeated from
ground zero in such cases (WRR, 2001). Immigrants with little or no education, no
mastery of the Dutch language, and unfamiliarity with the Western culture are most
typically involved. This situation has, according to the government, not only adverse
consequences for the marriage immigrants but also for any children they may have.
Since 2006, the government has imposed severe restrictions on these so-called ‘import
marriages’ (Driessen & Merry, 2006). As a consequence, since then less and less
Turkish and Moroccan youngsters in the Netherlands have been marrying brides and
bridegrooms fro Turkey and Morroco.
2 The number of asylum seekers has drastically decreased over the past few years. While
there were 39,000 requests for asylum in 1999, this number was 13,000 in 2003.
3 Fortuijn was murdered before coming fully into power.
4 Independent of 9/11, one can also speak of a changed outlook on migration. As
Brubaker (2001) has observed, after the blossoming of differentialist integration
policies in the 1980s and 1990s in all Western countries of immigration, signs of a
modest return to assimilation appeared. According to Brubaker, however, it is no longer
the old, analytically discredited, and politically disreputable ‘assimilationist’
understanding of assimilation but a more analytically complex and normatively
defensible understanding that is being promoted.
5 According to David Pinto, who is himself an immigrant, this trend went so far in the
Netherlands that the government basically deprived immigrants of all initiative and all
responsibility or — in the words of Pinto — ‘cuddled them to death’.
6 An interesting parallel to social class differences and their explanation lies here.
According to Lubienski (2003), one can speak of a revival of genetic and cultural deficit
theory in the USA via a difference vision and following a period in which the deficit
approach to social inequality predominated. The Dutch government has also apparently
broken the taboo associated with speaking of differences as deficits.
7 It should be noted that the degree of participation needed to be indicative of integration
is typically not specified in the form of a criterion. Such commonly used adjectives as
‘fully’, ‘proportionally’, or ‘equal’ provide little help in light of the lack of a clear and
unequivocal reference point. The WWR (2001), which is an important advisory body
for the Dutch government, suggests — in this connection — that ‘the principle of
proportionality’ (all ethnic groups should participate to the same extent in all domains
of Dutch society) as the objective of policy is simply a phantom. In light of the fact that
immigration is a dynamic process, new immigrants with delays and disadvantages will
continue to arrive and differences will thus continue to exist.
8 Surinamese and Antillean immigrants represent those coming from former colonies.
Turkish and Moroccan immigrants represent the group of labor immigrants. The
category of ‘other’ is fairly heterogeneous with respect to not only country of origin but
26. also parental level of education. In light of the varying and sometimes small numbers of
immigrants coming from the other countries of origin and particularly in relation to the
first three categories of parental ethnicity, further division of the category of ‘other’ was
not undertaken.
9 According to the official definition of labor participation, individuals with a job of less
26
than 12 paid hours a week do not work.
10 Non-Dutch residents cannot vote in the elections for the Lower House of Parliament.
When they are citizens from a member country of the European Union, they can vote in
the elections for the Municipality Council. When they are not citizens of a EU member
country, they must have resided in the Netherlands for five years without interruption to
be able to vote in these elections (MinBiZa, 1998).
11 Social capital may nevertheless be relevant for the choice of elementary school. In the
Netherlands, parents are free to choose — among other things — the school for their
child to attend.
12 The extent to which such policy will be maintained is unclear. The current government
wants to pursue the most general policy possible. This means that policy specifically
aimed at immigrants has been placed under considerable pressure. Immigrant Language
and Culture Teaching, which is a form of bilingual education, has been done away with,
for example, and the subsidies for various immigrant organizations have been
withdrawn as no longer serving the general interest or not aimed at integration.
27. 27
Family structural
x parental ethnicity
x parental education
x parental length of
residence
Aspects of participation
x labor
x religious
x political
x societal
x social
x cultural
Cognitive outcome measures
x language skill
x math skill
Non-cognitive outcome measures
x social position
x self-confidence
x well-being
FIGURE 1. Assumed relations between family structural characteristics, aspects of participation, and
outcome measures
28. 28
TABLE 1
Relations between parental ethnicity and parental education (in %)
Ethnicity
Education Dutch Sur/Ant Trk/Mor Other Total
Elementary 3 10 47 17 11
Vocational 24 27 18 13 23
Professional 47 54 29 40 44
College 26 9 5 30 22
n=100% 7,797 431 1,651 801 10,680
Note: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk=Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant.
29. TABLE 2
Relations of parental ethnicity and parental education to parental length of residence, participation,
and outcome measures (average scores)
29
Family structural characteristics
Ethnicity Education Total
Dutch Sur/Ant Trk/Mor Other eta Elem Voc Prof Col eta
Length of residence
% <10 years 0 21 19 48 0.52 18 4 6 8 0.14 8
% 10-19 years 0 32 47 26 0.58 36 8 9 4 0.30 11
% t20 years 2 48 34 26 0.48 27 11 8 6 0.20 10
% from birth 98 0 0 0 0.96 20 77 77 81 0.41 71
Participation
Labor
% paid work 87 54 49 52 0.38 41 75 81 89 0.32 77
Religious
% (practically) never 58 36 15 45 0.31 28 57 50 50 0.16 49
% few times a year 24 44 17 25 0.11 18 22 26 25 0.06 24
% 1-3 times a month 9 13 20 13 0.12 17 9 11 13 0.07 11
% t1 times a week 9 7 48 16 0.39 37 12 13 12 0.21 15
Political
% no times 21 45 43 58 0.28 49 39 25 12 0.26 28
% one time 12 17 26 17 0.14 26 17 14 10 0.12 15
% two times 67 38 30 25 0.33 25 44 61 78 0.32 57
Societal
% volunteer work 28 12 12 14 0.16 7 17 25 36 0.20 24
Social
% 0 48 63 48 65 0.10 59 57 48 43 0.12 50
% 1 47 32 42 30 0.11 37 39 47 49 0.09 44
% t2 5 5 9 5 0.06 4 4 6 8 0.06 6
Cultural
% never 14 15 73 24 0.49 67 30 18 7 0.41 24
% <1 a year 42 60 18 47 0.20 27 50 46 23 0.22 40
% 1 a year 30 16 8 21 0.19 4 16 26 44 0.28 25
% t2 a year 13 9 1 9 0.14 1 4 9 26 0.28 11
Effect measures
Language 987 967 952 969 0.36 955 975 982 991 0.28 979
Math 57 50 47 52 0.28 47 53 55 59 0.26 55
Social position 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7 0.12 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.9 0.11 3.8
Self-confidence 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 0.02 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.6 0.06 3.6
Well-being 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.05 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 0.06 4.1
Note: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk: Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant;
Elem=Elementary; Voc=vocational; Prof=professional; Col=college.
30. 30
TABLE 3
Results of multilevel analyses with language skill, total sample
Model
0 1 2 3 4
B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig.
Regression coefficients
Ethnicitya
Sur/Ant -15.7 1.7 ** -13.3 1.8 **
Trk/Mor -25.4 1.1 ** -21.4 1.3 **
Other -15.7 1.3 ** -12.1 1.3 **
Educationb
Elementary -17.1 1.3 ** -12.1 1.4 **
Vocational -12.8 1.0 ** -9.0 1.0 **
Professional -6.7 0.8 ** -4.5 0.9 **
Participation
Labor 6.9 0.8 ** 3.7 0.8 *
Religious -3.2 0.3 ** -0.7 0.4
Political 3.6 0.4 ** 2.0 0.4 **
Societal 4.2 0.8 ** 2.3 0.8
Social 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.5
Cultural 5.2 0.4 ** 2.4 0.4 **
Interactions E/E x P
Variance components
Student level (%) 80.9 6.4 4.3 +0.9 +0.7
School level (%) 19.1 54.0 36.9 +1.1 +1.3
Chi2/df 164 ** 108 ** 19 * 2 ns
Notes: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk=Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant.
Interactions E/E x P: interactions of parental ethnicity x aspects of participation and interactions of parental
education x aspects of participation.
Reference category a Dutch; b college education.
B=unstandardized regression coefficients; SE=standard errors; sig.=significance: *just significant, **strongly
significant, ns=not significant.
31. 31
TABLE 4
Results of multilevel analyses with math skills, total sample
Model
0 1 2 3 4
B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig.
Regression coefficients
Ethnicitya
Sur/Ant -5.4 0.7 ** -4.6 0.7 **
Trk/Mor -6.7 0.4 ** -5.5 0.5 **
Other -4.6 0.5 ** -3.3 0.5 **
Educationb
Elementary -7.4 0.5 ** -5.4 0.5 **
Vocational -5.4 0.4 ** -3.8 0.4 **
Professional -3.3 0.3 ** -2.4 0.3 **
Participation
Labor 2.5 0.3 ** 1.4 0.3 *
Religious -0.7 0.1 ** 0.0 0.1
Political 1.2 0.2 ** 0.7 0.2 *
Societal 1.7 0.3 ** 1.1 0.3 *
Social 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.2
Cultural 1.9 0.1 ** 1.0 0.2 **
Interactions E/E x P
Variance components
Student level (%) 80.8 5.2 3.9 +1.1 +0.2
School level (%) 19.2 35.1 27.4 +1.5 +0.0
Chi2/df 120 ** 90 ** 22 ** 3 *
Notes: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk=Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant.
Interactions E/E x P: interactions of parental ethnicity x aspects of participation and interactions of parental
education x aspects of participation.
Reference category: a Dutch; b college education.
B=unstandardized regression coefficients; SE=standard errors; sig.=significance: *just significant, **strongly
significant.
32. 32
TABLE 5
Results of multilevel analyses language, immigrant-only sample
Model
0 1 2 3 4 5
B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig. B SE sig.
Regression
coefficients
Ethnicitya
Sur/Ant 0.0 1.9 -1.1 1.9 -2.4 1.9
Trk/Mor -10.7 1.5 ** -8.4 1.6 ** -9.5 1.6 **
Educationb
Elementary -13.1 2.0 ** -9.4 2.2 ** -10.8 2.2 **
Vocational -8.7 2.2 * -6.2 2.2 -8.1 2.2 *
Professional -5.7 1.9 * -4.3 1.9 -5.5 1.9
Participation
Labor 3.5 1.2 * 3.1 1.2 2.9 1.2
Religious -2.8 0.5 ** -1.6 0.5 * -1.4 0.5
Political 1.3 0.7 1.6 0.7 0.9 0.7
Societal 0.8 1.8 -0.3 1.8 -0.6 1.8
Social -0.8 1.0 -0.5 1.0 -0.7 1.0
Cultural 5.8 0.7 ** 3.0 0.8 * 3.0 0.8 *
Interactions
E/E x P
Trk/Mor x labor
-12.8 2.9 **
participation
Length of
residence
2.1 0.4 **
Variance
components
Student level (%) 83.2 3.5 2.8 +1.0 +2.3 +1.9
School level (%) 16.8 32.2 29.9 +5.4 +4.4 +0.9
Chi2/df 33 ** 23 ** 7 * 3 * 30 **
Notes: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk=Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant.
Interactions E/E x P: interactions of parental ethnicity x aspects of participation and interactions of parental
education x aspects of participation.
Reference category: a other immigrant; b college education.
B=unstandardized regression coefficients; SE=standard errors; sig.=significance: *just significant, **strongly
significant.
33. 33
TABLE 6
Results of multilevel analyses math, immigrant-only sample
Model
0 1 2 3 4 5
B SE sig
.
B SE sig.
B SE sig.
B SE sig
.
B SE sig.
Regression
coefficients
Ethnicitya
Sur/Ant -1.2 0.7 -1.4 0.7 -1.7 0.7
Trk/Mor -2.8 0.5 ** -2.6 0.6 ** -2.8 0.6 **
Educationb
Elementary -4.7 0.7 ** -3.6 0.8 ** -3.9 0.8 **
Vocational -2.4 0.8 * -1.6 0.8 -2.1 0.8
Professional -2.3 0.7 * -1.9 0.7 -2.1 0.7 *
Participation
Labor 1.8 0.4 ** 1.6 0.4 * 1.6 0.4 *
Religious -0.5 0.2 -0.2 0.2 -0.1 0.2
Political 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3
Societal 1.5 0.6 1.0 0.6 1.0 0.6
Social -0.2 0.4 -0.1 0.4 -0.1 0.4
Cultural 1.5 0.3 ** 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.3
Interactions
E/E x P
Length of
0.5 0.1 *
residence
Variance
components
Student level (%) 81.9 3.0 1.9 +0.7 +3.0 +0.2
School level (%) 18.1 14.2 15.6 +4.2 +0.0 +1.4
Chi2/df 22 ** 14 * 5 * 3 * 10 *
Notes: Sur=Surinamese; Ant=Antillean; Trk=Turkish; Mor=Moroccan; Other=other immigrant.
Interactions E/E x P: interactions of parental ethnicity x aspects of participation and interactions of parental
education x aspects of participation.
Reference category: a other immigrant; b college education.
B=unstandardized regression coefficients; SE=standard errors; sig.=significance: *just significant, **strongly
significant.