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Adhoc wireless networks and its issues

The document provides an overview of ad hoc wireless networks, detailing their characteristics, routing protocols, and various issues affecting their design and performance. It highlights the infrastructureless nature of these networks, the importance of routing and medium access control protocols, and challenges like scalability, security, and quality of service. Additionally, the document discusses the elements of ad hoc networks, including their applications, energy management, and implications of node mobility.

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EC 8702- AD-HOC AND WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK JAI SHRIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, TIRUPUR Prepared by, Ms.S.Menaga,AP/ECE Ms.J.Paruvathavardhini,AP/ECE
UNIT-I AD-HOC NETWORKS-INTRODUCTION & ROUTING PROTOCOLS CONTENTS  Introduction-Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Issues in Ad hoc wireless networks
INTRODUCTION-AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS Ad hoc Networks A Basic Service Set without an Access Point is called an ad hoc network/Infrastruceless network. A Basic Service Set without an Access Point is called an infrastructure network. -BS/AP Infrastructure –BSS with AP Ad hoc–BSS without AP
WIRELESS AD HOC NETWORKS  Ad hoc Networks - Temporary network composed of mobile hosts that communicate with other nodes through wireless medium.  Infrastructureless network(no Access point(AP) and Base Station (BS))  Each node acts as a router for multi-hop routing.  Self-organizing network without any fixed infrastructure.  Started from University of Hawaii – invented ALOHA net in 1970  Develop Ethernet by Robert Metcalfe and PRNet by DARPA in 1970  Cooperative nodes (wireless)  Each node decode-and-forward packets for other nodes  Multi-hop packet forwarding through wireless links  Proactive/reactive/hybrid routing protocols  Most works based on CSMA/CA to solve the interference problem  IEEE 802.11 MAC
CELLULAR AND AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
CELLULAR VS ADHOC WIRELESS NETWORKS Cellular Networks Adhoc Wireless Networks Infrastructure Networks Infrastructureless Networks Single hop relaying Multihop relaying Static backbone network topology. Highly dynamic network topologies High setup costs Cost effective Circuit-switched Packet-switched Centralized routing Distributed routing Guaranteed bandwidth Shared radio channel Applications mainly for civilian and commercial sectors. Applications include battlefields, emergency research, rescue operations and collaborative computing.
ELEMENTS OF AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Category of wireless networks, collection of two or more mobile hosts which communicate with each other without the support of any fixed infrastructure.  An ad hoc wireless network is self-organizing and adaptive. This means that a formed network can be de-formed on-the- fly without the need for any system administration.  No fixed radio base stations, no wires and fixed routers.
CONTD..  A wireless ad-hoc network is a decentralized type of wireless network.  Routing and resource management are done in distributed manner.  More intelligent node required in the network can function both as a network host for transmitting, receiving data and as a network router for routing packets from other nodes.  The network is ad hoc because it does not depend on a pre- existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless networks.  In addition to the classic routing, ad hoc networks can use flooding for forwarding the data.
ISSUES IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS  Ad hoc wireless nodes are in different forms such as laptops, palmtop, Internet mobile phone- the computation, storage, interoperability of these devices will vary tremendously.  The major issues that affect the design, deployment, and performance of an Ad hoc wireless system are as follows: 1.Medium access scheme 9. Energy management 2.Routing 10. Addressing and service discovery 3. Multicasting 11. Scalability 4. Transport layer protocol 12. Deployment considerations 5. Pricing scheme 6.Quality of service provisioning 7. Self Organization 8. Security
1.MEDIUM ACCESS SCHEME  MAC provides a distributed arbitration for the shared channel for transmission of packets.  Wireless networks depends on MAC protocol for better performance, the major issues are as follows:  Distributed operation -works in uncentralized coordination -design should be fully distributed involving minimum control overhead. -in polling-based MACprotocols, partial coordination is required.  Synchronization -Time synchronization is important for TDMA based systems for management of transmission and reception slots -uses resources such as bandwidth and battery power. -control packets used for synchronization increases collisions in the network.
CONTD…  Hidden terminals -They are nodes hidden from the sender of a data transmission session, but are reachable to the receiver of the session -Cause collisions at the receiver node, -The presence of hidden terminals reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol, -so MAC should be designed in a way to avoid this issue  Exposed terminals -Nodes in the transmission range of the sender of an on-going session -Not allowed to make transmission -They should be allowed to make transmission to improve MAC protocol efficiency
CONTD…  Throughput - MAC protocol should improve the throughput of the ad hoc network by - Minimizing the occurrence of collisions, maximizing channel utilization, and minimizing control overhead.  Access Delay - MAC protocal should attempt to minimize the average delay that any packet experiences to get transmitted  Fairness( provides equal or weighted share of BW to all nodes) - Two types  node based or flow based - Node based provides equal BW share for competing nodes - Flow based equal share for competing transfer sessions - Equal fairness is important as multihop relaying is done - Unfairness leads to draining of resources.
CONTD…  Real-time traffic support - Time-sensitive traffic such as voice, video, and real-time data requires explicit support from the MAC protocol.  Resource reservation - MAC protocol should be able to provide mechanisms for supporting resource reservation and QoS provisioning like - Bandwidth, delay, and jitter requires reservation of resources such as bandwidth, buffer space, and processing power  Ability to measure resource availability - The MAC protocol should be able to provide an estimation of resource availability at every node(ie)for making congestion-control decisions, like BW management & call admission control
CONTD…  Capability for power control - Tx. Power control reduces energy consumption at nodes - Decreases interference at neighbouring nodes and improves frequency reuse  Adaptive rate control(variation in data bit rate) - MAC protocol can make use of a high data rate when the sender and receiver are nearby - Reduce the data rate as they move away from each other.  Use of directional antennas - Provides increased spectrum reuse, reduction in interference, and reduced power consumption
2.ROUTING  The responsibilities of a routing protocol include exchanging the route information  Finding a feasible path to a destination based on criteria such as hop length, minimum power required and lifetime of the wireless link  Gathering information about the path breaks  Mending the broken paths expending minimum processing power and bandwidth  Utilizing minimum bandwidth
CONTD… The major challenges that a routing protocol faces are as follows:  Mobility - The mobility of nodes results in frequent path breaks, packet collisions, transient loops, stale routing information, and difficulty in resource reservation. - A good routing protocol should be able to efficiently solve all the above issues.  Bandwidth constraint -The bandwidth available per wireless link depends on the number of nodes and the traffic they handle. Thus only a fraction of the total bandwidth is available for every node.  Error prone and shared channel - BER is very high for wireless channel, so efficiency can be improved by - Considering of the state of the wireless link, signal-to-noise ratio, and path loss
CONTD…  Location –dependent contention -The load of the channel varies with no. of nodes -Increases contention with the increase in nodes, this increases collision and wastage of BW. -So proper mechanisms should be provided to distribute load evenly  Other resource constraints -The constraints on resources such as computing power, battery power, and buffer storage also limit the capability of a routing protocol.
CONTD… The major requirements of a routing protocol in ad hoc wireless networks are the following:  Minimum route acquisition delay -node that does not have a route to a particular destination node should be as minimal as possible -this delay may vary with the size of the network and the network load.  Quick route reconfiguration -unpredictable changes in the topology of the network requires routing protocol be able to quickly perform route reconfiguration -this avoids path breaks and subsequent packet losses.
CONTD…  Loop-free routing -due to the random movement of nodes, transient loops may form in the route thus established. -a routing protocol should detect such transient routing loops and take corrective actions.  Distributed routing approach -ad hoc is a distributed wireless network -centralized routing consumes a large BW  Minimum control overhead -control packets used for finding and maintaining routes should be maintained minimal as it consumes large BW and causes collision.
CONTD…  Scalability - for a better scaling of the network, it requires minimization of control overhead and adaptation of the routing protocol to the network size.  Provisioning of QoS - parameters can be bandwidth, delay, jitter, packet delivery ratio, and throughput to provide certain level of QoS to the nodes  Support for time-sensitive traffic - The routing protocol should be able to support both hard realtime and soft real-time traffic.  Security and privacy - must be resilient to threats and vulnerabilities - it should avoid resource consumption, denial of-service, impersonation, and similar attacks
3.MULTICASTING  Multicasting plays an important role in emergency search-and-rescue operations and military communication.  In such an environment, nodes form groups to carry out point-to- multipoint and multipoint-to-multipoint voice and data communication.  The arbitrary movement of nodes changes the topology dynamically in an unpredictable manner  Usage of traditional tree based structure like core based trees (CBT), protocol independent multicast (PIM), and distance vector multicast routing protocol (DVMRP) is highly unstable.  The use of single-link connectivity among the nodes in a multicast group results in a tree-shaped multicast routing topology  This provides high multicast efficiency, with low packet delivery ratio due to the frequent tree breaks.  Provisioning of multiple links among the nodes in an ad hoc network results in a mesh-shaped structure, which work well in a high-mobility environment.
CONTD… The major issues in designing multicast routing protocols are as follows:  Robustness -The multicast routing protocol must be able to recover and reconfigure quickly from potential mobility-induced link breaks - thus making it suitable for use in highly dynamic environments.  Efficiency -A multicast protocol should make a minimum number of transmissions to deliver a data packet to all the group members.  Control overhead -The scarce bandwidth availability in ad hoc wireless networks demands minimal control overhead for the multicast session.
CONTD…  Quality of service -QoS support is essential in multicast routing as the data transferred in a multicast session is time-sensitive.  Efficient group management: - the process of accepting multicast session members and maintaining the connectivity among them until the session expires. -This process of group management needs to be performed with minimal exchange of control messages.  Scalability -The multicast routing protocol should be able to scale for a network with a large number of nodes.  Security - Authentication of session members and prevention of non-members from gaining unauthorized information play a major role in military communications.
4.TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS  The main objectives of the transport layer protocols include -setting up and maintaining end-toend connections, -reliable end-to-end delivery of data packets, -flow control, and congestion control  Simple connectionless protocol like UDP does not perform any actions like flow or congestion control nor reliable data transfer  It does not take into account the current network status such as congestion at the intermediate links, the rate of collision, or other similar factors affecting the network throughput.  It increases the contention of the network Eg: in an ad hoc wireless network that employs a contention-based MAC protocol, nodes in a high-contention region experience several backoff states, resulting in an increased number of collisions and a high latency.
CONTD…  Connectionless transport layer protocols, unaware of this situation, increase the load in the network, degrading the network performance.  a reliable connection-oriented transport layer protocol such TCP faces performance degradation due to frequent path breaks, presence of stale routing information, high channel error rate, and frequent network partitions.  This occurs due to mobility of nodes in low Tx range.  Each path break results in route re-configuration that depends on the routing protocol employed.  Finding new route takes more time than the Tx. Time. Sometimes if no new route is found, the packets has to be re-transmitted.  Or congestion control algorithm has to be executed, this reduces the congestion window size and this results in low throughput.
ISSUES  The latency associated with the reconfiguration of a broken path and the use of route caches result in stale route information at the nodes.  Hence the packets will be forwarded through multiple paths to a destination, causing an increase in the number of out-of-order packets.  Multipath routing protocols such as temporally-ordered routing algorithm (TORA) and split multipath routing (SMR) protocols employ multiple paths between a source destination pair.  Out-of-order packet arrivals force the receiver of the TCP connection to generate duplicate acknowledgments (ACKs).  On receiving duplicate ACKs, the sender invokes the congestion control algorithm.
CONTD…  Wireless channels are inherently unreliable due to the high probability of errors caused by interference.  In addition to the error due to the channel noise, the presence of hidden terminals also contributes to the increased loss of TCP data packets or ACKs.  When the TCP ACK is delayed more than the round-trip timeout, the congestion control algorithm is invoked
CONTD…  Due to the mobility of the nodes, ad hoc wireless networks frequently experience isolation of nodes from the rest of the network or occurrence of partitions in the network.  When a TCP connection spans across multiple partitions, -that is, the sender and receiver of the connection are in two different partitions, all the packets get dropped.  This tends to be more serious when the partitions exist for a long duration, resulting in multiple retransmissions of the TCP packets and subsequent increase in the retransmission timers.  So all these issues like latency, Occurrence of partitions, probability of errors has to be avoided in transport layer while designing the routing protocol
5.PRICING SCHEME  An ad hoc wireless network's functioning depends on the presence and willingness of relaying nodes . Eg: Assume that an optimal route from node A to node B passes through node C, and if node C is not powered on, then node A will have to set up a costlier and non-optima l route to B.  The non-optimal path consumes more resources(battery charge and computing power) and affects the throughput of the system. Throughput- No of packets reached successfully in a given time period.  Proper Compensation required - pricing schemes that incorporate service compensation or service reimbursement.  Not required for applications like military missions, rescue operations, and law enforcement.  Required for commercial deployment.
6.QUALITY OF SERVICE PROVISIONING  Measure the performance level of services offered by a service provider or a network to the user.  Quality of service provisioning includes  QoS parameters  QoS-aware routing  QoS frameworks QoS PARAMETERS  QoS parameters are differ from application to application, based on the requirements.  For example, for multimedia applications, the bandwidth and delay are the key parameters, whereas military applications have the additional requirements of security and reliability.  In a sensor network the transmission among them the nodes results in minimum energy consumption, hence battery life and energy conservation can be the prime QoS parameters here.
CONTD.. QOS-AWARE ROUTING  A QoS-aware routing protocol is to have the routing use QoS parameters for finding a path.  Consider the following parameters for routing decisions  Throughput  packet delivery ratio  reliability, delay  delay jitter  packet loss rate  bit error rate  path loss.  For example, the QoS parameter is bandwidth, the routing protocol utilizes the available bandwidth at every link to select a path with necessary bandwidth.  Demand- Reserve the required amount of bandwidth for that particular connection.
QOS FRAMEWORK  To provide the promised services to each user or application.  QoS service model - defines the way user requirements are served.  Various components of QoS Framework: QoS routing - To find all or some feasible paths in the network that can satisfy user requirements, QoS signaling- Resource reservation required by the user or application QoS medium access control, connection admission control, and scheduling schemes pertaining to that service model. The QoS modules such as routing protocol, signaling protocol, and resource management should react promptly according to changes in the network state (topology change in ad hoc wireless networks) and flow state (change in end-to-end view of service delivered).
7.SELF-ORGANIZATION  An ad hoc wireless network should exhibit is organizing and maintaining the network by itself.  Activities required to perform for self-organization are neighbor discovery, topology organization, and topology reorganization.  Neighbor discovery phase - Every node in the network should aware of its neighbors by using periodic transmission of beacon packets.  Topology organization phase – Maintaining topological information by every node in the network by gathers information about the entire network part of the network.  Topology reorganization phase - Updating the topology information by incorporating the topological changes occurred in the network due to the mobility of nodes, failure of nodes, or complete depletion of power sources of the nodes.
CONTD..  The reorganization consists of two major activities: 1.periodic exchange – Exchanging of topological information periodically. 2.Aperiodic exchange- Exchanging of topological information once changes in the network (Adaptability)  Network partitioning and merging of two existing partitions require major topological reorganization.  Ad hoc wireless networks should be able to perform self- organization quickly and efficiently in a way transparent to the user and the application.
8.SECURITY In wireless Ad hoc networks the packets are more vulnerable to various attacks than wired networks. ATTACKS ACTIVE ATTACKS: Disrupt the operation of the network. PASSIVE ATTACKS: The attacker intercepts the transit information with the intention of reading and analyzing the information not for altering it.INTERNAL ATTACKS- Executed by nodes belonging to the same network EXTERNAL ATTACKS- Executed by nodes belonging to other network
SECURITY THREATS IN AD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS ARE:  DENIAL OF SERVICE: The attack effected by making the network resource unavailable for service to other nodes, either by consuming the bandwidth or by overloading the system, is known as denial of service (DoS).  RESOURCE CONSUMPTION: Aiming at consuming resources available in the network  Energy depletion - Depleting the battery power of critical nodes by directing unnecessary traffic through them.  Buffer overflow - Attack is carried out either by filling the routing table with unwanted routing entries or by consuming the data packet buffer space with unwanted data. -Attack lead to a large number of data packets being dropped, leading to the loss of critical information.
CONTD…  HOST IMPERSONATION: A compromised internal node can act as another node and respond with appropriate control packets to create wrong route entries, and can terminate the traffic meant for the intended destination node.  INFORMATION DISCLOSURE: A compromised node can act as an informer by deliberate disclosure of confidential information to unauthorized nodes.  INTERFERENCE: To jam the wireless communication by creating a wide-spectrum noise. Done by using a single wide-band jammer, sweeping across the spectrum.
9. ADDRESSING AND SERVICE DISCOVERY  If node in the networks need to participate in communication, auto- configuration(no centralized co-ordinator) of addresses is required to allocate non-duplicate addresses to the nodes.  In networks where the topology is highly dynamic, frequent partitioning and merging of network components require duplicate address-detection mechanisms in order to maintain unique addressing throughout the connected parts of the network.  Service advertisement mechanism are required to locate services.  Provisioning of certain kinds of services demands authentication, billing, and privacy that in turn require the service discovery protocols to be separated from the network layer protocols.
10. ENERGY MANAGEMENT ENERGY MANAGEMENT:  Process of managing the sources and consumers of energy in a node / network.  To enhancing the lifetime of the network. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TRANSMISSION POWER MANAGEMENT BATTERY ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROCESSOR POWER MANAGEMENT DEVICES POWER MANAGEMENT
1.TRANSMISSION POWER MANAGEMENT  The power consumed by a mobile node is determined by several factors such as the state of operation, the transmission power, and the technology used for the RF circuitry.  The state of operation refers to the transmit, receive, and sleep modes of the operation. The transmission power is determined by the reachability requirement of the network, the routing protocol, and the MAC protocol employed.  The RF hardware design should ensure minimum power consumption in all the three states of operation.  Power conservation responsibility lies across the data link, network, transport, and application layers.  By designing a data link layer protocol that reduces unnecessary retransmissions, by preventing collisions, by switching to standby mode or sleep mode.
CONTD..  The network layer routing protocols can consider battery life and relaying load of the intermediate nodes.  At the transport layer, reducing the number of retransmissions, and recognizing and handling the reason behind the packet losses locally, can be incorporated into the protocols.  At the application layer, the power consumption varies with applications. In a mobile computer, the image/video processing/playback software and 3D gaming software consume higher power than other applications.  Hence application software developed for mobile computers should take into account the aspect of power consumption as well.
2.BATTERY ENERGY MANAGEMENT  Aimed at extending the battery life of a node by taking advantage of its chemical properties, discharge patterns, and by the selection of a battery from a set of batteries that is available for redundancy.  Designing of efficient embedded charge controllers in the battery pack. 3.PROCESSOR POWER MANAGEMENT  The clock speed and instruction execution time affect power consumption.  Turn off the CPU if the machine is idle and turn on by user interaction.
4.DEVICES POWER MANAGEMENT  Reducing power consumption by managing the device intelligently.  Advanced power management features built into the operating system and application software's for managing devices effectively.
11.SCALABILITY  Commercial deployments of ad hoc wireless networks that include wireless mesh networks show early trends for a widespread installation of ad hoc wireless networks for mainstream wireless communication  The latency of path-finding involved with an on-demand routing protocol in a large ad hoc wireless network may be unacceptably high.  Similarly, the periodic routing overhead involved in a table-driven routing protocol may consume a significant amount of bandwidth in such large networks  Hybrid architectures that combine the multi-hop radio relaying in the presence of infrastructure may improve scalability.
12.DEPLOYMENT CONSIDERATION  The deployment of ad hoc wireless networks good amount of planning and estimation of future traffic growth over any link in the network.  The time-consuming planning stage is followed by the actual deployment of the network.  The deployment of a commercial ad hoc wireless network has the following benefits when compared to wired networks:  Low cost of deployment -The use of multi-hop wireless relaying does not require any cables to be layed. Hence the cost involved is much lower than that of wired networks.
CONTD..  Incremental deployment -In commercial wireless WANs based on ad hoc wireless networks, deployment can be performed incrementally over geographical regions of the city. -The deployed part of the network starts functioning immediately after the minimum configuration is done  Short deployment time -Compared to wired networks, the deployment time is considerably less due to the absence of any wired links  Reconfigurability -The cost involved in reconfiguring a wired network covering a metropolitan area network (MAN) is very high -The incremental deployment of ad hoc wireless networks might demand changes in the topology of the fixed part
CONTD… The following are the major issues to be considered in deploying an ad hoc wireless network:  Scenario of deployment The scenario of deployment assumes significance because the capability required for a mobile node varies with the environment in which it is used.  Some of the different scenarios in which the deployment issues vary widely:  Military deployment -The military deployment of an ad hoc wireless network may be datacentric (e.g., a wireless sensor network) or - user-centric (e.g., soldiers or armored vehicles carrying soldiers equipped with wireless communication devices)
CONTD…  Emergency operations deployment -This kind of application scenario demands a quick deployment of rescue personnel equipped with hand-held communication equipment.  Commercial wide-area deployment -The aim is to provide an alternate communication infrastructure for in urban areas and -areas where a traditional cellular base station cannot handle the traffic volume. -provides very low cost per bit transferred -Addressing, configuration, positioning of relaying nodes, redundancy of nodes, and power sources are the major issues in deployment. -Billing, provisioning of QoS, security, and handling mobility are major issues that the service providers need to address.
CONTD…  Home network deployment - It needs to consider the limited range of the devices that are to be connected by the network -placing the nodes properly will avoid issues due to partitioning -proper network topology should be decided  Required longevity of network -to increase the longevity of the network, battery power can be used or fixed radio relaying equipment with regenerative power sources can be deployed. - the mesh connectivity should be planned in such a way that the harsh atmospheric factors do not create network partitions.  Area of coverage - some nodes will be fixed and the network topology is partially or fully fixed, the coverage can be enhanced by means of directional antennas
CONTD…  Service availability - Availability assumes significance both in a fully mobile ad hoc wireless network used for tactical communication and - in partially fixed ad hoc wireless networks used in commercial communication infrastructure such as wireless mesh networks  Operational integration with other infrastructure - it is considered for improving the performance or gathering additional information, or for providing better QoS - In the military environment, integration of ad hoc wireless networks with satellite networks or UAVs improves the capability - the availability of GPS can be obtained as a resource for network synchronization and geographical positioning -smooth hand-offs should be planned
CONTD…  Choice of protocols - The choice of protocols at different layers of the protocol stack is to be done taking into consideration the deployment scenario -eg: for military applications CDMA-based MAC protocol will be best suited -it should give better security -such as in the search operation in the underground may not not be supported by GPS, so proper protocol should be selected - The periodic beacons, or routing updates, drain the battery with time but battery power is not a matter in military applications - the protocols should make use of the fixed nodes to avoid unstable paths due to the mobility of the relaying nodes. -at the transport layer, either connection oriented or connectionless protocol can be adapted - similarly, all the issues responsible for packet loss has to be considered and proper actions must be taken in the higher layer.
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Adhoc wireless networks and its issues

  • 1.
    EC 8702- AD-HOCAND WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK JAI SHRIRAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, TIRUPUR Prepared by, Ms.S.Menaga,AP/ECE Ms.J.Paruvathavardhini,AP/ECE
  • 2.
    UNIT-I AD-HOC NETWORKS-INTRODUCTION & ROUTINGPROTOCOLS CONTENTS  Introduction-Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Issues in Ad hoc wireless networks
  • 3.
    INTRODUCTION-AD HOC WIRELESSNETWORKS Ad hoc Networks A Basic Service Set without an Access Point is called an ad hoc network/Infrastruceless network. A Basic Service Set without an Access Point is called an infrastructure network. -BS/AP Infrastructure –BSS with AP Ad hoc–BSS without AP
  • 4.
    WIRELESS AD HOCNETWORKS  Ad hoc Networks - Temporary network composed of mobile hosts that communicate with other nodes through wireless medium.  Infrastructureless network(no Access point(AP) and Base Station (BS))  Each node acts as a router for multi-hop routing.  Self-organizing network without any fixed infrastructure.  Started from University of Hawaii – invented ALOHA net in 1970  Develop Ethernet by Robert Metcalfe and PRNet by DARPA in 1970  Cooperative nodes (wireless)  Each node decode-and-forward packets for other nodes  Multi-hop packet forwarding through wireless links  Proactive/reactive/hybrid routing protocols  Most works based on CSMA/CA to solve the interference problem  IEEE 802.11 MAC
  • 5.
    CELLULAR AND ADHOC WIRELESS NETWORKS
  • 6.
    CELLULAR VS ADHOCWIRELESS NETWORKS Cellular Networks Adhoc Wireless Networks Infrastructure Networks Infrastructureless Networks Single hop relaying Multihop relaying Static backbone network topology. Highly dynamic network topologies High setup costs Cost effective Circuit-switched Packet-switched Centralized routing Distributed routing Guaranteed bandwidth Shared radio channel Applications mainly for civilian and commercial sectors. Applications include battlefields, emergency research, rescue operations and collaborative computing.
  • 7.
    ELEMENTS OF ADHOC WIRELESS NETWORKS Elements of Ad hoc Wireless Networks  Category of wireless networks, collection of two or more mobile hosts which communicate with each other without the support of any fixed infrastructure.  An ad hoc wireless network is self-organizing and adaptive. This means that a formed network can be de-formed on-the- fly without the need for any system administration.  No fixed radio base stations, no wires and fixed routers.
  • 8.
    CONTD..  A wirelessad-hoc network is a decentralized type of wireless network.  Routing and resource management are done in distributed manner.  More intelligent node required in the network can function both as a network host for transmitting, receiving data and as a network router for routing packets from other nodes.  The network is ad hoc because it does not depend on a pre- existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in managed (infrastructure) wireless networks.  In addition to the classic routing, ad hoc networks can use flooding for forwarding the data.
  • 9.
    ISSUES IN ADHOC WIRELESS NETWORKS  Ad hoc wireless nodes are in different forms such as laptops, palmtop, Internet mobile phone- the computation, storage, interoperability of these devices will vary tremendously.  The major issues that affect the design, deployment, and performance of an Ad hoc wireless system are as follows: 1.Medium access scheme 9. Energy management 2.Routing 10. Addressing and service discovery 3. Multicasting 11. Scalability 4. Transport layer protocol 12. Deployment considerations 5. Pricing scheme 6.Quality of service provisioning 7. Self Organization 8. Security
  • 10.
    1.MEDIUM ACCESS SCHEME MAC provides a distributed arbitration for the shared channel for transmission of packets.  Wireless networks depends on MAC protocol for better performance, the major issues are as follows:  Distributed operation -works in uncentralized coordination -design should be fully distributed involving minimum control overhead. -in polling-based MACprotocols, partial coordination is required.  Synchronization -Time synchronization is important for TDMA based systems for management of transmission and reception slots -uses resources such as bandwidth and battery power. -control packets used for synchronization increases collisions in the network.
  • 11.
    CONTD…  Hidden terminals -Theyare nodes hidden from the sender of a data transmission session, but are reachable to the receiver of the session -Cause collisions at the receiver node, -The presence of hidden terminals reduce the throughput of a MAC protocol, -so MAC should be designed in a way to avoid this issue  Exposed terminals -Nodes in the transmission range of the sender of an on-going session -Not allowed to make transmission -They should be allowed to make transmission to improve MAC protocol efficiency
  • 12.
    CONTD…  Throughput - MACprotocol should improve the throughput of the ad hoc network by - Minimizing the occurrence of collisions, maximizing channel utilization, and minimizing control overhead.  Access Delay - MAC protocal should attempt to minimize the average delay that any packet experiences to get transmitted  Fairness( provides equal or weighted share of BW to all nodes) - Two types  node based or flow based - Node based provides equal BW share for competing nodes - Flow based equal share for competing transfer sessions - Equal fairness is important as multihop relaying is done - Unfairness leads to draining of resources.
  • 13.
    CONTD…  Real-time trafficsupport - Time-sensitive traffic such as voice, video, and real-time data requires explicit support from the MAC protocol.  Resource reservation - MAC protocol should be able to provide mechanisms for supporting resource reservation and QoS provisioning like - Bandwidth, delay, and jitter requires reservation of resources such as bandwidth, buffer space, and processing power  Ability to measure resource availability - The MAC protocol should be able to provide an estimation of resource availability at every node(ie)for making congestion-control decisions, like BW management & call admission control
  • 14.
    CONTD…  Capability forpower control - Tx. Power control reduces energy consumption at nodes - Decreases interference at neighbouring nodes and improves frequency reuse  Adaptive rate control(variation in data bit rate) - MAC protocol can make use of a high data rate when the sender and receiver are nearby - Reduce the data rate as they move away from each other.  Use of directional antennas - Provides increased spectrum reuse, reduction in interference, and reduced power consumption
  • 15.
    2.ROUTING  The responsibilitiesof a routing protocol include exchanging the route information  Finding a feasible path to a destination based on criteria such as hop length, minimum power required and lifetime of the wireless link  Gathering information about the path breaks  Mending the broken paths expending minimum processing power and bandwidth  Utilizing minimum bandwidth
  • 16.
    CONTD… The major challengesthat a routing protocol faces are as follows:  Mobility - The mobility of nodes results in frequent path breaks, packet collisions, transient loops, stale routing information, and difficulty in resource reservation. - A good routing protocol should be able to efficiently solve all the above issues.  Bandwidth constraint -The bandwidth available per wireless link depends on the number of nodes and the traffic they handle. Thus only a fraction of the total bandwidth is available for every node.  Error prone and shared channel - BER is very high for wireless channel, so efficiency can be improved by - Considering of the state of the wireless link, signal-to-noise ratio, and path loss
  • 17.
    CONTD…  Location –dependentcontention -The load of the channel varies with no. of nodes -Increases contention with the increase in nodes, this increases collision and wastage of BW. -So proper mechanisms should be provided to distribute load evenly  Other resource constraints -The constraints on resources such as computing power, battery power, and buffer storage also limit the capability of a routing protocol.
  • 18.
    CONTD… The major requirementsof a routing protocol in ad hoc wireless networks are the following:  Minimum route acquisition delay -node that does not have a route to a particular destination node should be as minimal as possible -this delay may vary with the size of the network and the network load.  Quick route reconfiguration -unpredictable changes in the topology of the network requires routing protocol be able to quickly perform route reconfiguration -this avoids path breaks and subsequent packet losses.
  • 19.
    CONTD…  Loop-free routing -dueto the random movement of nodes, transient loops may form in the route thus established. -a routing protocol should detect such transient routing loops and take corrective actions.  Distributed routing approach -ad hoc is a distributed wireless network -centralized routing consumes a large BW  Minimum control overhead -control packets used for finding and maintaining routes should be maintained minimal as it consumes large BW and causes collision.
  • 20.
    CONTD…  Scalability - fora better scaling of the network, it requires minimization of control overhead and adaptation of the routing protocol to the network size.  Provisioning of QoS - parameters can be bandwidth, delay, jitter, packet delivery ratio, and throughput to provide certain level of QoS to the nodes  Support for time-sensitive traffic - The routing protocol should be able to support both hard realtime and soft real-time traffic.  Security and privacy - must be resilient to threats and vulnerabilities - it should avoid resource consumption, denial of-service, impersonation, and similar attacks
  • 21.
    3.MULTICASTING  Multicasting playsan important role in emergency search-and-rescue operations and military communication.  In such an environment, nodes form groups to carry out point-to- multipoint and multipoint-to-multipoint voice and data communication.  The arbitrary movement of nodes changes the topology dynamically in an unpredictable manner  Usage of traditional tree based structure like core based trees (CBT), protocol independent multicast (PIM), and distance vector multicast routing protocol (DVMRP) is highly unstable.  The use of single-link connectivity among the nodes in a multicast group results in a tree-shaped multicast routing topology  This provides high multicast efficiency, with low packet delivery ratio due to the frequent tree breaks.  Provisioning of multiple links among the nodes in an ad hoc network results in a mesh-shaped structure, which work well in a high-mobility environment.
  • 22.
    CONTD… The major issuesin designing multicast routing protocols are as follows:  Robustness -The multicast routing protocol must be able to recover and reconfigure quickly from potential mobility-induced link breaks - thus making it suitable for use in highly dynamic environments.  Efficiency -A multicast protocol should make a minimum number of transmissions to deliver a data packet to all the group members.  Control overhead -The scarce bandwidth availability in ad hoc wireless networks demands minimal control overhead for the multicast session.
  • 23.
    CONTD…  Quality ofservice -QoS support is essential in multicast routing as the data transferred in a multicast session is time-sensitive.  Efficient group management: - the process of accepting multicast session members and maintaining the connectivity among them until the session expires. -This process of group management needs to be performed with minimal exchange of control messages.  Scalability -The multicast routing protocol should be able to scale for a network with a large number of nodes.  Security - Authentication of session members and prevention of non-members from gaining unauthorized information play a major role in military communications.
  • 24.
    4.TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS The main objectives of the transport layer protocols include -setting up and maintaining end-toend connections, -reliable end-to-end delivery of data packets, -flow control, and congestion control  Simple connectionless protocol like UDP does not perform any actions like flow or congestion control nor reliable data transfer  It does not take into account the current network status such as congestion at the intermediate links, the rate of collision, or other similar factors affecting the network throughput.  It increases the contention of the network Eg: in an ad hoc wireless network that employs a contention-based MAC protocol, nodes in a high-contention region experience several backoff states, resulting in an increased number of collisions and a high latency.
  • 25.
    CONTD…  Connectionless transportlayer protocols, unaware of this situation, increase the load in the network, degrading the network performance.  a reliable connection-oriented transport layer protocol such TCP faces performance degradation due to frequent path breaks, presence of stale routing information, high channel error rate, and frequent network partitions.  This occurs due to mobility of nodes in low Tx range.  Each path break results in route re-configuration that depends on the routing protocol employed.  Finding new route takes more time than the Tx. Time. Sometimes if no new route is found, the packets has to be re-transmitted.  Or congestion control algorithm has to be executed, this reduces the congestion window size and this results in low throughput.
  • 26.
    ISSUES  The latencyassociated with the reconfiguration of a broken path and the use of route caches result in stale route information at the nodes.  Hence the packets will be forwarded through multiple paths to a destination, causing an increase in the number of out-of-order packets.  Multipath routing protocols such as temporally-ordered routing algorithm (TORA) and split multipath routing (SMR) protocols employ multiple paths between a source destination pair.  Out-of-order packet arrivals force the receiver of the TCP connection to generate duplicate acknowledgments (ACKs).  On receiving duplicate ACKs, the sender invokes the congestion control algorithm.
  • 27.
    CONTD…  Wireless channelsare inherently unreliable due to the high probability of errors caused by interference.  In addition to the error due to the channel noise, the presence of hidden terminals also contributes to the increased loss of TCP data packets or ACKs.  When the TCP ACK is delayed more than the round-trip timeout, the congestion control algorithm is invoked
  • 28.
    CONTD…  Due tothe mobility of the nodes, ad hoc wireless networks frequently experience isolation of nodes from the rest of the network or occurrence of partitions in the network.  When a TCP connection spans across multiple partitions, -that is, the sender and receiver of the connection are in two different partitions, all the packets get dropped.  This tends to be more serious when the partitions exist for a long duration, resulting in multiple retransmissions of the TCP packets and subsequent increase in the retransmission timers.  So all these issues like latency, Occurrence of partitions, probability of errors has to be avoided in transport layer while designing the routing protocol
  • 29.
    5.PRICING SCHEME  Anad hoc wireless network's functioning depends on the presence and willingness of relaying nodes . Eg: Assume that an optimal route from node A to node B passes through node C, and if node C is not powered on, then node A will have to set up a costlier and non-optima l route to B.  The non-optimal path consumes more resources(battery charge and computing power) and affects the throughput of the system. Throughput- No of packets reached successfully in a given time period.  Proper Compensation required - pricing schemes that incorporate service compensation or service reimbursement.  Not required for applications like military missions, rescue operations, and law enforcement.  Required for commercial deployment.
  • 30.
    6.QUALITY OF SERVICEPROVISIONING  Measure the performance level of services offered by a service provider or a network to the user.  Quality of service provisioning includes  QoS parameters  QoS-aware routing  QoS frameworks QoS PARAMETERS  QoS parameters are differ from application to application, based on the requirements.  For example, for multimedia applications, the bandwidth and delay are the key parameters, whereas military applications have the additional requirements of security and reliability.  In a sensor network the transmission among them the nodes results in minimum energy consumption, hence battery life and energy conservation can be the prime QoS parameters here.
  • 31.
    CONTD.. QOS-AWARE ROUTING  AQoS-aware routing protocol is to have the routing use QoS parameters for finding a path.  Consider the following parameters for routing decisions  Throughput  packet delivery ratio  reliability, delay  delay jitter  packet loss rate  bit error rate  path loss.  For example, the QoS parameter is bandwidth, the routing protocol utilizes the available bandwidth at every link to select a path with necessary bandwidth.  Demand- Reserve the required amount of bandwidth for that particular connection.
  • 32.
    QOS FRAMEWORK  Toprovide the promised services to each user or application.  QoS service model - defines the way user requirements are served.  Various components of QoS Framework: QoS routing - To find all or some feasible paths in the network that can satisfy user requirements, QoS signaling- Resource reservation required by the user or application QoS medium access control, connection admission control, and scheduling schemes pertaining to that service model. The QoS modules such as routing protocol, signaling protocol, and resource management should react promptly according to changes in the network state (topology change in ad hoc wireless networks) and flow state (change in end-to-end view of service delivered).
  • 33.
    7.SELF-ORGANIZATION  An adhoc wireless network should exhibit is organizing and maintaining the network by itself.  Activities required to perform for self-organization are neighbor discovery, topology organization, and topology reorganization.  Neighbor discovery phase - Every node in the network should aware of its neighbors by using periodic transmission of beacon packets.  Topology organization phase – Maintaining topological information by every node in the network by gathers information about the entire network part of the network.  Topology reorganization phase - Updating the topology information by incorporating the topological changes occurred in the network due to the mobility of nodes, failure of nodes, or complete depletion of power sources of the nodes.
  • 34.
    CONTD..  The reorganizationconsists of two major activities: 1.periodic exchange – Exchanging of topological information periodically. 2.Aperiodic exchange- Exchanging of topological information once changes in the network (Adaptability)  Network partitioning and merging of two existing partitions require major topological reorganization.  Ad hoc wireless networks should be able to perform self- organization quickly and efficiently in a way transparent to the user and the application.
  • 35.
    8.SECURITY In wireless Adhoc networks the packets are more vulnerable to various attacks than wired networks. ATTACKS ACTIVE ATTACKS: Disrupt the operation of the network. PASSIVE ATTACKS: The attacker intercepts the transit information with the intention of reading and analyzing the information not for altering it.INTERNAL ATTACKS- Executed by nodes belonging to the same network EXTERNAL ATTACKS- Executed by nodes belonging to other network
  • 36.
    SECURITY THREATS INAD HOC WIRELESS NETWORKS ARE:  DENIAL OF SERVICE: The attack effected by making the network resource unavailable for service to other nodes, either by consuming the bandwidth or by overloading the system, is known as denial of service (DoS).  RESOURCE CONSUMPTION: Aiming at consuming resources available in the network  Energy depletion - Depleting the battery power of critical nodes by directing unnecessary traffic through them.  Buffer overflow - Attack is carried out either by filling the routing table with unwanted routing entries or by consuming the data packet buffer space with unwanted data. -Attack lead to a large number of data packets being dropped, leading to the loss of critical information.
  • 37.
    CONTD…  HOST IMPERSONATION:A compromised internal node can act as another node and respond with appropriate control packets to create wrong route entries, and can terminate the traffic meant for the intended destination node.  INFORMATION DISCLOSURE: A compromised node can act as an informer by deliberate disclosure of confidential information to unauthorized nodes.  INTERFERENCE: To jam the wireless communication by creating a wide-spectrum noise. Done by using a single wide-band jammer, sweeping across the spectrum.
  • 38.
    9. ADDRESSING ANDSERVICE DISCOVERY  If node in the networks need to participate in communication, auto- configuration(no centralized co-ordinator) of addresses is required to allocate non-duplicate addresses to the nodes.  In networks where the topology is highly dynamic, frequent partitioning and merging of network components require duplicate address-detection mechanisms in order to maintain unique addressing throughout the connected parts of the network.  Service advertisement mechanism are required to locate services.  Provisioning of certain kinds of services demands authentication, billing, and privacy that in turn require the service discovery protocols to be separated from the network layer protocols.
  • 39.
    10. ENERGY MANAGEMENT ENERGYMANAGEMENT:  Process of managing the sources and consumers of energy in a node / network.  To enhancing the lifetime of the network. ENERGY MANAGEMENT TRANSMISSION POWER MANAGEMENT BATTERY ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROCESSOR POWER MANAGEMENT DEVICES POWER MANAGEMENT
  • 40.
    1.TRANSMISSION POWER MANAGEMENT The power consumed by a mobile node is determined by several factors such as the state of operation, the transmission power, and the technology used for the RF circuitry.  The state of operation refers to the transmit, receive, and sleep modes of the operation. The transmission power is determined by the reachability requirement of the network, the routing protocol, and the MAC protocol employed.  The RF hardware design should ensure minimum power consumption in all the three states of operation.  Power conservation responsibility lies across the data link, network, transport, and application layers.  By designing a data link layer protocol that reduces unnecessary retransmissions, by preventing collisions, by switching to standby mode or sleep mode.
  • 41.
    CONTD..  The networklayer routing protocols can consider battery life and relaying load of the intermediate nodes.  At the transport layer, reducing the number of retransmissions, and recognizing and handling the reason behind the packet losses locally, can be incorporated into the protocols.  At the application layer, the power consumption varies with applications. In a mobile computer, the image/video processing/playback software and 3D gaming software consume higher power than other applications.  Hence application software developed for mobile computers should take into account the aspect of power consumption as well.
  • 42.
    2.BATTERY ENERGY MANAGEMENT Aimed at extending the battery life of a node by taking advantage of its chemical properties, discharge patterns, and by the selection of a battery from a set of batteries that is available for redundancy.  Designing of efficient embedded charge controllers in the battery pack. 3.PROCESSOR POWER MANAGEMENT  The clock speed and instruction execution time affect power consumption.  Turn off the CPU if the machine is idle and turn on by user interaction.
  • 43.
    4.DEVICES POWER MANAGEMENT Reducing power consumption by managing the device intelligently.  Advanced power management features built into the operating system and application software's for managing devices effectively.
  • 44.
    11.SCALABILITY  Commercial deploymentsof ad hoc wireless networks that include wireless mesh networks show early trends for a widespread installation of ad hoc wireless networks for mainstream wireless communication  The latency of path-finding involved with an on-demand routing protocol in a large ad hoc wireless network may be unacceptably high.  Similarly, the periodic routing overhead involved in a table-driven routing protocol may consume a significant amount of bandwidth in such large networks  Hybrid architectures that combine the multi-hop radio relaying in the presence of infrastructure may improve scalability.
  • 45.
    12.DEPLOYMENT CONSIDERATION  Thedeployment of ad hoc wireless networks good amount of planning and estimation of future traffic growth over any link in the network.  The time-consuming planning stage is followed by the actual deployment of the network.  The deployment of a commercial ad hoc wireless network has the following benefits when compared to wired networks:  Low cost of deployment -The use of multi-hop wireless relaying does not require any cables to be layed. Hence the cost involved is much lower than that of wired networks.
  • 46.
    CONTD..  Incremental deployment -Incommercial wireless WANs based on ad hoc wireless networks, deployment can be performed incrementally over geographical regions of the city. -The deployed part of the network starts functioning immediately after the minimum configuration is done  Short deployment time -Compared to wired networks, the deployment time is considerably less due to the absence of any wired links  Reconfigurability -The cost involved in reconfiguring a wired network covering a metropolitan area network (MAN) is very high -The incremental deployment of ad hoc wireless networks might demand changes in the topology of the fixed part
  • 47.
    CONTD… The following arethe major issues to be considered in deploying an ad hoc wireless network:  Scenario of deployment The scenario of deployment assumes significance because the capability required for a mobile node varies with the environment in which it is used.  Some of the different scenarios in which the deployment issues vary widely:  Military deployment -The military deployment of an ad hoc wireless network may be datacentric (e.g., a wireless sensor network) or - user-centric (e.g., soldiers or armored vehicles carrying soldiers equipped with wireless communication devices)
  • 48.
    CONTD…  Emergency operationsdeployment -This kind of application scenario demands a quick deployment of rescue personnel equipped with hand-held communication equipment.  Commercial wide-area deployment -The aim is to provide an alternate communication infrastructure for in urban areas and -areas where a traditional cellular base station cannot handle the traffic volume. -provides very low cost per bit transferred -Addressing, configuration, positioning of relaying nodes, redundancy of nodes, and power sources are the major issues in deployment. -Billing, provisioning of QoS, security, and handling mobility are major issues that the service providers need to address.
  • 49.
    CONTD…  Home networkdeployment - It needs to consider the limited range of the devices that are to be connected by the network -placing the nodes properly will avoid issues due to partitioning -proper network topology should be decided  Required longevity of network -to increase the longevity of the network, battery power can be used or fixed radio relaying equipment with regenerative power sources can be deployed. - the mesh connectivity should be planned in such a way that the harsh atmospheric factors do not create network partitions.  Area of coverage - some nodes will be fixed and the network topology is partially or fully fixed, the coverage can be enhanced by means of directional antennas
  • 50.
    CONTD…  Service availability -Availability assumes significance both in a fully mobile ad hoc wireless network used for tactical communication and - in partially fixed ad hoc wireless networks used in commercial communication infrastructure such as wireless mesh networks  Operational integration with other infrastructure - it is considered for improving the performance or gathering additional information, or for providing better QoS - In the military environment, integration of ad hoc wireless networks with satellite networks or UAVs improves the capability - the availability of GPS can be obtained as a resource for network synchronization and geographical positioning -smooth hand-offs should be planned
  • 51.
    CONTD…  Choice ofprotocols - The choice of protocols at different layers of the protocol stack is to be done taking into consideration the deployment scenario -eg: for military applications CDMA-based MAC protocol will be best suited -it should give better security -such as in the search operation in the underground may not not be supported by GPS, so proper protocol should be selected - The periodic beacons, or routing updates, drain the battery with time but battery power is not a matter in military applications - the protocols should make use of the fixed nodes to avoid unstable paths due to the mobility of the relaying nodes. -at the transport layer, either connection oriented or connectionless protocol can be adapted - similarly, all the issues responsible for packet loss has to be considered and proper actions must be taken in the higher layer.
  • 52.
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