The document discusses acute pancreatitis, which occurs when the pancreas becomes inflamed. It describes the pancreas's normal functions and the pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis, which involves premature activation of digestive enzymes that digest the pancreas itself. Symptoms include severe abdominal pain. Complications can include multi-organ failure if the inflammation spreads beyond the pancreas. Risk factors, signs, symptoms, classification, complications, and treatment approach are outlined.

1. ACUTEACUTE
PANCREATITISPANCREATITIS

2.  The pancreas is a gland located in theThe pancreas is a gland located in the
upper, posterior abdomen and isupper, posterior abdomen and is
responsible for insulin production andresponsible for insulin production and
the manufacture and secretion ofthe manufacture and secretion of
digestive enzymes leading todigestive enzymes leading to
carbohydrate, fat, and proteincarbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism. Approximately 80% ofmetabolism. Approximately 80% of
the gross weight of the pancreasthe gross weight of the pancreas
supports exocrine function, while thesupports exocrine function, while the
remaining 20% is involved withremaining 20% is involved with
endocrine functionendocrine function

3. The principal function of the exocrineThe principal function of the exocrine
pancreas is to make food-digestingpancreas is to make food-digesting
enzymes. In normal pancreatic function,enzymes. In normal pancreatic function,
up to 15 different types of digestiveup to 15 different types of digestive
enzymes are manufactured in the roughenzymes are manufactured in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.endoplasmic reticulum.

4.  In acute pancreatitis there are not onlyIn acute pancreatitis there are not only
symptoms of acute inflammation in thesymptoms of acute inflammation in the
pancreas are present. There are thepancreas are present. There are the
sings of hemorrhages and necroticsings of hemorrhages and necrotic
processes, which are caused byprocesses, which are caused by
autodigestion of tissues by pancreaticautodigestion of tissues by pancreatic
enzymes.enzymes.
 Secondary infection and multiorganSecondary infection and multiorgan
system failure may be associated withsystem failure may be associated with
autodigestion process.autodigestion process.

5. FrequencyFrequency
 In the US: In 2002, 230,000 patients withIn the US: In 2002, 230,000 patients with
acute pancreatitis were admitted toacute pancreatitis were admitted to
nonfederally funded hospitals. In 1998,nonfederally funded hospitals. In 1998,
183,000 patients with acute pancreatitis183,000 patients with acute pancreatitis
were admitted. This rend in rising incidencewere admitted. This rend in rising incidence
has been recognized over the past severalhas been recognized over the past several
decades.decades.
 Internationally: In Germany the frequency isInternationally: In Germany the frequency is
17.5 cases per 100,000 people. In Finland,17.5 cases per 100,000 people. In Finland,
the frequency is 73.4 cases per 100,000the frequency is 73.4 cases per 100,000
people.people.

6.  The overall mortality rate of patients with acuteThe overall mortality rate of patients with acute
pancreatitis is 10-15%. Patients with biliarypancreatitis is 10-15%. Patients with biliary
pancreatitis tend to have a higher mortalitypancreatitis tend to have a higher mortality
rate than patients with alcoholic pancreatitis.rate than patients with alcoholic pancreatitis.
 In patients with severe disease (necrosisIn patients with severe disease (necrosis
and/or organ failure), the mortality rate isand/or organ failure), the mortality rate is
approximately 30%. This rate in mortality hasapproximately 30%. This rate in mortality has
not dropped in the last 10 years.not dropped in the last 10 years.
 In the first week of illness, most deaths resultIn the first week of illness, most deaths result
from multiorgan system failure. In subsequentfrom multiorgan system failure. In subsequent
weeks, infection plays a more significant role,weeks, infection plays a more significant role,
but organ failure still constitutes a major causebut organ failure still constitutes a major cause
of mortality.of mortality.

7. PathophysiologyPathophysiology
Acute pancreatitis may occur when factorsAcute pancreatitis may occur when factors
involved in maintaining cellular homeostasis areinvolved in maintaining cellular homeostasis are
out of balance. The initiating event may beout of balance. The initiating event may be
anything that injures the acinar cell and impairs theanything that injures the acinar cell and impairs the
secretion of zymogen granules, such as alcoholsecretion of zymogen granules, such as alcohol
use, gallstones, and certain drugs.use, gallstones, and certain drugs.
In addition, acute pancreatitis can develop whenIn addition, acute pancreatitis can develop when
ductal cell injury leads to delayed or absentductal cell injury leads to delayed or absent
enzymatic secretion, such as with the CFTR geneenzymatic secretion, such as with the CFTR gene
mutation.mutation.
The mechanisms by which alcohol or gallstonesThe mechanisms by which alcohol or gallstones
cause destruction to pancreatic acinar cells are notcause destruction to pancreatic acinar cells are not
currently known.currently known.

8. Once a cellular injury pattern has been initiated, cellularOnce a cellular injury pattern has been initiated, cellular
membranemembrane
trafficking becomes chaotic, with the following deleterioustrafficking becomes chaotic, with the following deleterious
effects:effects:
1. Lysosomal and zymogen granule compartments fuse,1. Lysosomal and zymogen granule compartments fuse,
enabling activation of trypsinogen to trypsin.enabling activation of trypsinogen to trypsin.
2. Intracellular trypsin triggers the entire zymogen activation2. Intracellular trypsin triggers the entire zymogen activation
cascade.cascade.
3. Secretory vesicles are extruded across the basolateral3. Secretory vesicles are extruded across the basolateral
membrane into the interstitium, where molecular fragmentsmembrane into the interstitium, where molecular fragments
act as chemoattractants for inflammatory cells. Activatedact as chemoattractants for inflammatory cells. Activated
neutrophils then exacerbate the problem by releasingneutrophils then exacerbate the problem by releasing
superoxide (the respiratory burst) or proteolytic enzymessuperoxide (the respiratory burst) or proteolytic enzymes
(cathepsins B, D, and G; collagenase; and elastase).(cathepsins B, D, and G; collagenase; and elastase).
Finally, macrophages release cytokines that further mediateFinally, macrophages release cytokines that further mediate
local (and, in severe cases, systemic) inflammatorylocal (and, in severe cases, systemic) inflammatory
responses.responses.

9. These mediators of inflammation cause anThese mediators of inflammation cause an
increase pancreatic permeability, leading toincrease pancreatic permeability, leading to
hemorrhage, edema, and eventually pancreatichemorrhage, edema, and eventually pancreatic
necrosis. As the mediators are excretednecrosis. As the mediators are excreted
into the circulation, systemic complications caninto the circulation, systemic complications can
arise, such as bacteremia due to gut floraarise, such as bacteremia due to gut flora
translocation, acute respiratory distresstranslocation, acute respiratory distress
syndrome,pleural effusions, gastrointestinalsyndrome,pleural effusions, gastrointestinal
hemorrhage, and renal failure. Eventually, thehemorrhage, and renal failure. Eventually, the
mediators of inflammation can become somediators of inflammation can become so
overwhelming to the body that hemodynamicoverwhelming to the body that hemodynamic
instability and death ensue.instability and death ensue.

10. EtiologyEtiology
 Bile and digestive – pancreatic reflux.Bile and digestive – pancreatic reflux.
 Obstruction and hypertension ofObstruction and hypertension of
biliary and pancreatic ducts.biliary and pancreatic ducts.
 Blood supply disturbance ofBlood supply disturbance of
pancreas.pancreas.
 Allergic and toxic process.Allergic and toxic process.
 Peptic ulcer disease.Peptic ulcer disease.
 Injuries.Injuries.

11. RaceRace
The hospitalization rates of patients withThe hospitalization rates of patients with
acute pancreatitis per 100,000 populationacute pancreatitis per 100,000 population
are 3 times higher for blacks than whites.are 3 times higher for blacks than whites.
These racial differences are moreThese racial differences are more
pronounced for males than females.pronounced for males than females.
In Europe and other developed nations suchIn Europe and other developed nations such
as Hong Kong, more patients tend to haveas Hong Kong, more patients tend to have
gallstone pancreatitis. Whereas in thegallstone pancreatitis. Whereas in the
United States, alcoholic pancreatitis is mostUnited States, alcoholic pancreatitis is most
common.common.

12. SexSex
In general, acute pancreatitis affectsIn general, acute pancreatitis affects
males more often than females.males more often than females.
The etiology in males is more oftenThe etiology in males is more often
related to alcohol; in females, torelated to alcohol; in females, to
biliary tract disease.biliary tract disease.
Idiopathic pancreatitis has no clearIdiopathic pancreatitis has no clear
predilection for either sex.predilection for either sex.

13. AgeAge
The following are median ages of onset forThe following are median ages of onset for
various etiologies:various etiologies:
 Alcohol-related - 39 yearsAlcohol-related - 39 years
 Biliary tract–related - 69 yearsBiliary tract–related - 69 years
 Trauma-related - 66 yearsTrauma-related - 66 years
 Drug-induced etiology - 42 yearsDrug-induced etiology - 42 years
 Endoscopic retrogradeEndoscopic retrograde
cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)–related -cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)–related -
58 years58 years
 AIDS-related - 31 yearsAIDS-related - 31 years
 Vasculitis-related - 36 yearsVasculitis-related - 36 years

14. HistoryHistory
The cardinal symptom of acute pancreatitis isThe cardinal symptom of acute pancreatitis is
abdominal pain, which is characteristically dull,abdominal pain, which is characteristically dull,
boring, and steady. Usually, the pain is suddenboring, and steady. Usually, the pain is sudden
in onset and gradually intensifies in severityin onset and gradually intensifies in severity
until reaching a constant ache. Most often, it isuntil reaching a constant ache. Most often, it is
located in the upper abdomen, usually in thelocated in the upper abdomen, usually in the
epigastric region, but it may be perceivedepigastric region, but it may be perceived
more on the left or right side, depending onmore on the left or right side, depending on
which portion of the pancreas is involved. Thewhich portion of the pancreas is involved. The
pain radiates directly through the abdomenpain radiates directly through the abdomen
to the back in approximately one half of casesto the back in approximately one half of cases

15. ClassificationClassification
Clinico – anatomical formsClinico – anatomical forms
Edematous pancreatitisEdematous pancreatitis
Fatty pancreatitisFatty pancreatitis
Hemorrhagic pancreatitisHemorrhagic pancreatitis
Mixed pancreatitisMixed pancreatitis
Purulent pancreatitisPurulent pancreatitis

16. Periods of APPeriods of AP
 Period of hemodynamic disturbancesPeriod of hemodynamic disturbances
and pancreatogenic shock.and pancreatogenic shock.
 Period of functional insufficiency ofPeriod of functional insufficiency of
parenchymatous organs.parenchymatous organs.
 Period of degenerative and purulentPeriod of degenerative and purulent
complications.complications.

17. ComplicationsComplications
 Toxic: pancreatogenic plevritis,Toxic: pancreatogenic plevritis,
“pancreatic lung”, hepatic and kidney“pancreatic lung”, hepatic and kidney
necrosis, erosive-hemorrhagicnecrosis, erosive-hemorrhagic
gastropathy, delirium, coma.gastropathy, delirium, coma.
 Necrotic: pancreatical mass, pancreaticalNecrotic: pancreatical mass, pancreatical
abscess, abdominal abscess, phlegmonabscess, abdominal abscess, phlegmon
of retroperitoneal fatty tissue, pseudocystof retroperitoneal fatty tissue, pseudocyst
of pancreas.of pancreas.

18.  Visceral: external and internal fistulas.Visceral: external and internal fistulas.
 Arrosive hamorrhage.Arrosive hamorrhage.
 Peritonitis.Peritonitis.
 Vessels thrombosis.Vessels thrombosis.

19. Atlanta's classification,Atlanta's classification,
19921992
 Interstitial pancreatitisInterstitial pancreatitis
 Pancreonecrosis (aseptical,Pancreonecrosis (aseptical,
inflectional)inflectional)
 Parapancreatitis (fluid inParapancreatitis (fluid in
parapancretical fatty tissue)parapancretical fatty tissue)
 Pseudocyst of pancreasPseudocyst of pancreas
 Abscess of pancreasAbscess of pancreas

20. Nausea and vomiting are often presentNausea and vomiting are often present
along with accompanying anorexia.along with accompanying anorexia.
Diarrhea can also occur.Diarrhea can also occur.
Positioning can be important, becausePositioning can be important, because
the discomfort frequently improves withthe discomfort frequently improves with
the patient in the supine position.the patient in the supine position.
The duration of pain varies but typicallyThe duration of pain varies but typically
lasts more than a day. It is the intensitylasts more than a day. It is the intensity
and persistence of the pain thatand persistence of the pain that
usually causes patients to seek medicalusually causes patients to seek medical
attention.attention.

21. Atypical acute pancreatitis may beAtypical acute pancreatitis may be
misdiagnosed. In a study of patientsmisdiagnosed. In a study of patients
with pancreatitis discovered at autopsy,with pancreatitis discovered at autopsy,
13% presented with abdominal pain,13% presented with abdominal pain,
19% had disease that occurred in the19% had disease that occurred in the
postoperative setting, and 68%postoperative setting, and 68%
presented with various cardiac,presented with various cardiac,
pulmonary, hepatic, renal,pulmonary, hepatic, renal,
abdominal, and metabolic disturbancesabdominal, and metabolic disturbances

22. PhysicalPhysical
 Fever (76%) and tachycardia (65%) areFever (76%) and tachycardia (65%) are
common abnormal vital signs.common abnormal vital signs.
 Abdominal tenderness, muscular guardingAbdominal tenderness, muscular guarding
(68%), and distension (65%) are observed in(68%), and distension (65%) are observed in
most patients.most patients.
 Bowel sounds are often hypoactive dueBowel sounds are often hypoactive due
to gastric and transverse colonic ileus.to gastric and transverse colonic ileus.
 Guarding tends to be more pronounced in theGuarding tends to be more pronounced in the
upper abdomen.upper abdomen.
 A minority of patients exhibit jaundice (28%).A minority of patients exhibit jaundice (28%).

23.  Some patients experience dyspneaSome patients experience dyspnea
(10%), which may be caused by irritation(10%), which may be caused by irritation
of the diaphragm (resulting fromof the diaphragm (resulting from
inflammation), pleural effusion, or a moreinflammation), pleural effusion, or a more
serious condition, such as acuteserious condition, such as acute
respiratory distress syndrome.respiratory distress syndrome.
 In severe cases, hemodynamic instabilityIn severe cases, hemodynamic instability
is evident (10%) and hematemesis oris evident (10%) and hematemesis or
melena sometimes develops (5%).melena sometimes develops (5%).
 In addition, patients with severe acuteIn addition, patients with severe acute
pancreatitis are often pale, diaphoretic,pancreatitis are often pale, diaphoretic,
and listlessand listless

24. A few uncommon physical findings are associated withA few uncommon physical findings are associated with
severe necrotizing pancreatitis.severe necrotizing pancreatitis.
 The Cullen sign is a bluish discoloration around theThe Cullen sign is a bluish discoloration around the
umbilicus resulting from hemoperitoneum.umbilicus resulting from hemoperitoneum.
 The Grey-Turner sign is a reddish-brown discolorationThe Grey-Turner sign is a reddish-brown discoloration
along the flanks resulting from retroperitoneal bloodalong the flanks resulting from retroperitoneal blood
dissecting along tissue planes.dissecting along tissue planes.
 More commonly, patients may have a ruddy erythemaMore commonly, patients may have a ruddy erythema
in the flanks secondary to extravasated pancreaticin the flanks secondary to extravasated pancreatic
exudate.exudate.
 Erythematous skin nodules may result from focalErythematous skin nodules may result from focal
subcutaneous fat necrosis. These are usually notsubcutaneous fat necrosis. These are usually not
more than 1 cm in size and are typically located onmore than 1 cm in size and are typically located on
extensor skin surfaces. In addition, polyarthritis isextensor skin surfaces. In addition, polyarthritis is
occasionally seenoccasionally seen

25.  The Mondor sing – violet sports on theThe Mondor sing – violet sports on the
body and fasebody and fase
 The Holsted sing – cyanosis of skin ofThe Holsted sing – cyanosis of skin of
abdominal wallabdominal wall
 The Grunvald sing – petechial skin rashThe Grunvald sing – petechial skin rash
in the navel areain the navel area

26.  The Korte sing – regional tension ofThe Korte sing – regional tension of
anterior abdominal wall in epigastriaanterior abdominal wall in epigastria
region, along the projection of pancreasregion, along the projection of pancreas
 The Mayo – Robson sing – palpationThe Mayo – Robson sing – palpation
pain in the left costal-vertebral anglepain in the left costal-vertebral angle
 The Gobye sing – abdominal distensionThe Gobye sing – abdominal distension
in upper regionin upper region
 The Voskresensky sing – absence ofThe Voskresensky sing – absence of
pulsation of abdominal aorta in epigastriapulsation of abdominal aorta in epigastria
region (sing of parapancreaticalregion (sing of parapancreatical
infiltration)infiltration)