ACADEMIC RESEARCH A DEMYSTIFYING APPROACH (PAPER I

ACADEMIC RESEARCH: A DEMYSTIFYING APPROACH
(PAPER I)
BY
ISAH SHEHU MOHAMMED, PhD (UUM Sintok-Kedah)
mishehu@fptb.edu.ng
ADAM MUHAMMAD HAMID, PhD
amhamid@fptb.edu.ng
AISHAAHMAD ALIYU, BSc, MSc
aishaaa@fptb.edu.ng
BEING PAPER A PRESENTED AT
THE SCHOOL OF GENERAL STUDIES (SGNS) WORKSHOP ON RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC, BAUCHI, BAUCHI STATE – NIGERIA
16 – 17 MARCH, 2022

INTRODUCTION
‘Publish or Perish’
Research and writing is not only central to, but an indispensable part of productive
academics
Overcoming fear and gaining confidence mark the beginning of any successful academic research; and
doing it makes the journey move on
Research is all about investigation for the betterment of what is known, exists or is used, and or
solving problems
Every research work may at a point need to be improved, advanced or repeated for some obvious
gaps which exist, but such gaps may be or not identified; no research work/study is perfect
There are many methods of conducting research and each is important and special in its own way and
perspective
Conducting research is more mastered by practice and experience
No one can claim perfection in research, but the more it is done, the more it is understood and better
conducted

Introduction ...
Academics, especially the new ones/early career experience difficulty and challenges in
research and writing, while some become stagnated in their academic career for various
and obvious reasons as:
 Time and stress management
 poor working conditions
 Poor environmental conditions – money, sexual, moral, employer and other harassments
 Poor or lack of confidence in oneself
 Poor or no writing skills/strategies
 Quality, substance, poor contribution ration of a research
 Shortage of or inaccessibility to funding/sponsorship/grant
 Becoming stuck while writing/conducting research
 Inexperience/inferiority complex
 Perils associated with peer-reviewing, desk-rejection, major corrections from publishers

Introduction ..
 Excessive/increasing workload and pressure on Academics
 No helping hands/writing support
 Lonesomeness and isolation
 Social and emotional issues
 Reconciling time for lectures/teaching, writing, Committees works, corporate social
responsibility, policy advice, raising funds, grants and support for their
institutions and other curricular and non-curricular works
 How, where, when and how to start/difficulty getting started/no coaching/mentoring
 Family and other life challenges
 Mystery and intimidation in research writing
 Predatory journals and fake publishers
 Phobia about new things/innovation, creativity/criticism
All the above difficulties and challenges are true and real, but never are excuses for an
academic to perish
(Castle & Keane, 2016; Dickson-Swift, et al., 2009)

Introduction ..
The journey of research is tasking, challenging and complex, sometimes risky and highly
demanding, but developing interest and determination to carry on, despite the hurdles to
come across and bringing up meaningful and interesting research questions/issues to
investigate are the focal points of success.

Introduction …
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
 Research is the systematic and scientific search for knowledge on a particular issue,
problem, process, activity, etc.;
 A comprehensive and process conscious investigation into the cause, relation, change/alteration or
formation of an issue, activity, problem, event or phenomena;
 Systematic and methodological investigation/inquiry carried out with a view to achieve some
specific aims, find definite answers, and or solve some systematically identified problems
with scientifically methodological answers;
 A process by which an issue, problem, event, phenomena is methodically studied with a view to
find some specific answers as to where, when and how, etc.;
 It involves a comprehensive exploration/investigation into something with the intention of finding
some specific and new ideas/knowledge/fact;
 Scientific investigation through systematically structured, organized search for facts using various
methods, steps and stages to search/investigate facts about and issue, phenomena or event.

What is research? …
 It is comprehensive and planned search to gain new or improve the existent on issue, event,
problem or phenomenon whether natural or social;
 It is an academic commitment/activity that comprises of defining a problem or an issue and
working out solutions or generalisations to it;
 It is a search for more/advanced knowledge on what is already known using scientifically standard
and systematically established ways.
Many reasons prompt the conduct of an academic research on an issue, even, phenomena, problem, etc.
these can be either due to shortage of something (information/clarification, data, figures, etc.);
dilemma over an issue/problem; dissatisfaction with what is obtainable/on ground, need for more and
optional ways, ideas, etc.; changing times and circumstances; need for knowledge improvement, etc. All
or any of these can be a GAP which necessitates conduct of academic research

Research as a Process
Researches are conducted to also repeat earlier studies and possibly meet up with time and changing
circumstances, new trends, events and development; to further clear up an earlier study; and or
test/contest previous studies.
As a process, research involves among others:
 Identifying an exact problem, question, issue, event, activity, phenomena, etc. with a view to find
an explanation, solution, answer to it;
 Raising the questions to be answered, problems to solved, issues to be investigated, events to be
observed, etc. or formulation of testable statements (hypothesis) in relation to an
issue/problem or activity;
 Reviewing past works, studies, investigations, results and how they were arrived at in relation to
the identified and raised problem, question, issue, event or activity above – what others have
done in the past on the same or related;

Research as a process …
Choose a scientifically proven way of carrying out specifically outlined activities (methodology) by
which the researcher will go about in studying and gathering relevant and required
information/explanations and from appropriate sources about the identified/raised problem, issue or
phenomena – How to go about the current study/investigation;
 Collection of all the relevant and possible (accessible) information, explanation, figures, audio,
video, audio-visual, etc. on the issue, problem, event or activity under study/investigation –
Data Collection;
 Breaking the collected information (Data) into the appropriate divisions and categories, according
to their relevance/usage to the study/investigation and giving same a meaning for the
understand and usage of who/where it is meant to/for (interpretation);
 Drawing a conclusion on what has been studied/investigated in relation to the results as may be
found by the study.

What is research? …
By successfully reaching the end of this systematic and methodical process, the researcher fills a gap -
makes a new and positive contribution to what is already known, brings something new, or develops a
new and certain way of doing something.
 There are different types/approaches of conducting research, and there are some general and
common standards in conducting research. However, various disciplines may have some
‘discipline-specific’ standards and or requirements.
Research Design
This is an outline, main plan and or a basic scheme of conducting a particular research using some
specific means of collection an measurement of data, and procedural analysis of the data in order to
address/answer some research questions and or test some hypotheses.

WHAT ACADEMIC RESEARCH IS ALLABOUT
 Academic research is conducted to fill gap;
 It is an investigation into something using standard and systematic procedures;
 It is about searching for answers/solutions to social, economic, environmental, medical,
scientific, technical problems, etc. in theoretical and practical terms;
 It is meant to discover/find out answers that have not been known/found;
 The investigation is systematic – conducted in a specially organized, orderly and logical way;
 It is meant and organized to solve a particular problem, contribute to or develop
knowledge about something;
 The research/investigation/result can be generalized to things/issues.

BASIC & APPLIED RESEARCHES
APPLIED RESEARH – This is research conducted to solve a particular problem at hand; a
challenge being currently experienced and such are conducted to find and arrive at
solutions to needed at that moment; results from such researches are applied in solving
problems, issues, challenges, etc.
BASIC RESEARCH – This is conducted to generate knowledge on how to an issue, a problem,
questions, or a phenomenon can be answered, solved or addressed;
 Such knowledge from the research is acquired to explore and understand a phenomenon, issue or
problem; makes additional contributions to the body of knowledge that is already acquired;
 Such acquired knowledge can also be used at other times;
 This research furnishes audience with additional information and or knowledge;
 Develop theories from the findings of the conducted research;
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2016)

RESEARCH IN HISTORY/ HISTORICAL RESEARCH
There are researches purposely conducted to uncover, explain, understand issues, properly account for
past issues, experiences and or events so as to explain, interpret or analyse current events, issues, etc. in
historical research, information/data is methodically gathered, assessed and used to provide answers to
the research questions in relation to the past/historical happenings. Historical research involves among
others:
 The past history, experience, records, etc. is used to comprehend the past
experience/events/issues with a view to relating same to the contemporaneous and yet to
come/happen issues, events, and or experience;
 Cautious review of related literature;
 Thorough study of issues, past experiences, events, happenings with standard measurement of both
validity and reliability of the past issues, events or happenings based on proofs;
 Materials (data) for this research can be text (written), oral and or other artifact
materials and objects;

Research in history …
 This research mainly relies on the past/previous, but available data – books, pamphlets,
newspapers and magazines, personal/official letters and correspondences, reports from
Commissions, archival materials, old and historical cities, towns, sites, tombs, cultural
objects (spoons, knives, clothes, bowls and plates), sculptures and other artistry, pyramids,
old and historical roads/routes, etc.;
 The contents and details, shapes, sizes, colours, etc. of the above are what are used as proofs to
rely on and then understand and infer on the investigated issues, events, experiences or
happenings, etc.;
 This research can be conducted with the use of primary, secondary or both data;
 All texts and or object materials are subjected to critical examination to ensure the source,
genuineness, originality usage and intention/purpose,

GAPS IN RESEARCH
Researches are conducted by humankinds who are imperfect and have strength and weaknesses. Thus,
no research work can claim perfection. Every research work/study has its weaknesses which may be
identified (at near or far) or not. Gaps, may therefore, exist in studies/researches. Researches are
conducted to fill existing gaps (vacuum). Gaps can exist and be identified in any research at any point
in time – immediately after completion of the research, later with changes in times and events,
development in the field and or new trends in that particular study/issue.
Types of gaps in research include:
 Methodological Gaps
 Knowledge Gaps
 Empirical Gaps
 Theoretical Gaps
 Evidence Gaps
 Population Gaps
 Practical Knowledge Gaps

Gaps in research …
Put simply, Gaps which necessitate conduct of a research include Omissions/Non-Inclusion,
Inconsistency, Controversy, Conflicts and or Contradictions as a result of:
 Methods used in conducting Previous Studies
 Analysis of the Previous Studies
 Theories used in the Previous Studies
 Concepts of the Previous Studies
 Perspectives of the Previous Studies
 Implications of the Previous Studies
 Population of the Previous Studies
(Miles, 2017; Müller-Bloch, & Kranz, 2014; Summers, 2011; Robinson, Saldanha & McKoy, 2011;
Jacobs, 2011)

Conceptual and Empirical Researches
 Conceptual Research is related to theories and or ideas; it is associated with ideas and
concepts, and their interpretation/re-interpretation;
 Empirical Research is practical, and can be observed or experimented; it is also known as
research for it can be experimented;

BASIC QUESTIONS IN EVERY ACADEMIC RESEARCH
 What exactly does the researcher wants to study/Why the study?
 What precisely does the researcher want to achieve in conducting the research?
 What happens if the research could not fine result/solution to the problem?
 What are needed to find a new/relevant/current solution by the study?
 What facts/data are there on ground?
 Who (the individuals) should the researcher involve in the research?

Basic questions in …
 What things will make the audience/readers best understand the topic and results of the
research?
 Where will the data be collected?
 What ethical issues/concerns are there in the study?
 How relevant/useful will the research be to the audience/society/industry/academia?
 How would the researcher find/discover more from what is already known?
 Who are THE audience/to benefit from the research?
 Why does the researcher seek solutions/answers to the problem?
 Why did the need for the research come up/why did the gap come to exist?
 Will the research make any difference/find anything new/ answers/solutions?

BASIC TIPS ON WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research proposal is a documented representation of both the essence and detailed provisions of how a
particular research is proposed to be conducted; writing a research proposal requires
consideration/inclusion of some basic elements; these elements are further broken into more parts as
the research progresses; the proposal may also vary with the level at which the research in conducted –
PhD, MSc, BSc, etc., including some specifications which may be required by institutions,
sponsors/financiers, Dissertation/Faculty Committee, the research design, the audience, etc. The basic
elements of a research proposal include, but not limited to:
 The main purpose (purpose statement) of and the exact intention of the research;
 General statement about the problem of the research, objectives and what it (the research
addresses) and to whom it is meant;
 Review of Related Literature, definition of terms;
 Formulation of hypothesis/research questions to be answered in the research;

Basic tips on writing …
 Methodology - Research design/type, theory, method of data collection and analysis, ethical
issues, duration/time and cost of the study;
 References
 Appendices
Succinctly, a research proposal (although modifiable), should clearly contain major elements as:
 Title for the research;
 Statement of the exact problem to be addressed;
 The main purpose of the study , use of theory and hypothesis/research questions to be
answered;
 Literature review;
 The scope, relevance and the limitations of the study;
 The actual design of the research – qualitative, quantitative or mixed; the exact data
collection method/instrument and the analysis method;
 Ethical issues, budget/cost of the research, time;
 References/Bibliography.

ARTICLE
An article is a research paper duly written and undergone review/peer review/assessment for
publication. An paper has to undergo a process before its publication to an article by a
journal publisher. There are tens of thousands of journals – Peer Reviewed, Scopus
indexed/Q1, Q2, Q3, etc. Some journals are ‘discipline specific’ while others are ‘multi-
disciplinary’.
Articles are shorter than other researched works such as Thesis, Dissertations, etc. and they are, but
(not all the times) conducted/written within a shorter period and are also usually shorter in
length.
Different journals require and have different specifications and formats before publication of a paper.
These varying requirements include among others: length of the paper (words count and
number of papers), single or double column, font size and character, referencing and in-text
citation styles, types and structure of Abstract, contents and organization of the main paper,
etc.

Article …
Contents/Structure of a Research Paper/Article for Publication in a Journal
Contents/structure of a paper/article for journal publication vary from one discipline and or journal to
another. There are, however, some key elements/contents which are common and standard. These
include:
 Title of the Paper
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Review of Related Literature
 Methodology/Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Acknowledgements
 References/Bibliography
 Appendices
These structure/content may, however, vary. Researchers need to be fully aware of journal-specific
formatting and publication guides, otherwise papers submitted are likely to suffer desk-rejection
although they may have substance and positive contributions to make.

TIPS ON WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER/ARTICLE FOR PUBLICATION IN A
JOURNAL
In order to avoid desk-rejection, multiple and or major corrections, a researcher needs to, before
submission, ensure that these tips are taken into full consideration as:
 Confirm whether the Journal charges, Review and or publication fees, Open Access, etc.
 Read and understand the submission guidelines of the particular journal;
 Use the guideline specified font character and size;
 Confirm the exact and maximum number of pages and word counts specified by the journal;
 Ensure strict compliance with research ethics;

Tips on writing research …
 Your writing should be clear, precise and concise;
 Note specifications on paper margins, and whether single, two or more double columns;
 Make appropriate usage of active and passive words;
 Make appropriate usage of both academic and professional terms;
 Revise and edit your work properly;
 Properly paste the paper into the template (where such is provided);
 Proof-read your work before submission;
 Make consultation before submission .

LITERATURE REVIEW/REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Literature review is an indispensable part of academic research whether qualitative, quantitative or the
mixed mode. There are many different types of literature review – simple, complex, integrative,
methodological, historical and theoretical. Key areas related to objectivity, articulateness, methodology,
worthiness/robustness, and originality are examined in review of literature. Literature review helps to
appropriately choose a theory for a study. Literature review is important as:
 It is a sequential process of identifying, evaluating and selection of relevant text materials/previous
works on the research topic/issue;
 It involves critically reviewing other previous works/writings on the same or related topic of study
being conducted by the researcher;
 Through literature review, a researcher understands whether the proposed topic to study,
questions to answer, investigation to conduct has been done in the past or not, and the
results;


Literature review …
 Whether past/previous studies are deficient in addressing any aspect of the study;
 Whether the previous studies need to be improved;
 Whether any gap worth investigating still exists;
 How coherent and organized are the information?
 What methods were used by the others in the previous studies;
 Whether those methods were effective or not;
 What were the weaknesses of the previously used methods;
 Whether the data, and analysis were properly collected and analysed;
 Whether the research is worthy of conduct or not;
 What method (Qualitative, Quantitative or Mixed) should be used in the proposed study;
 What latest literature and developments are there on the topic of study?

Literature review …
Sources of Literature Review Materials
Credibility and quality of literature review is primarily determined by the its sources - from where
(proper search for), what and how the reviewed materials are sourced. These sources include: text
books, journals, PhD thesis, conference proceedings, other unpublished manuscripts, internet (Google,
yahoo, etc.), reports, newspapers and magazines.
Not everything found, interpreted or analysed in others’ literature/studies is captured, accepted by a
reviewer – only relevant, useful and creditable information
The importance of literature review in research cannot be over-emphasized. However, if it is to be done
well, it is tasking, resource and time intensive, and sometimes uninteresting and baffling. There are
however, many ways of doing it depending on the context, specific needs and the volume of literature
available.
(Mohammed & Ahmed, 2018; Sekaran & Bougie, 2016)

THEORY
A theory refers to a set of concepts and or hypothesis which are used to categorise a research/study
with the use of orderly structured and interrelated propositions; it is a certain belief that is established
via scientific knowledge and or experience with facts, substantive assumptions and propositions,
forecasts to relate, explain and understand elements of normal and natural life and the world; it is
characterized by main principles of sophistication, economy, acceptance/popularity and extensiveness;
a theory connects to and is grounded in the research work.
 Theories are needed to relate to and also inform a research/study;
 A theory is situated within a research work to frame, explain and support a related study;
 It is based on observations, verified assumptions, general/normal laws, facts by the
experienced and experts;
 It is used to relate a general knowledge and related to the subject of investigation/under study;
(Sutton & Barry, 1995: Asher, 1984)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical framework is a organisation of/ structure or arrangement in which a particular and
relevant theory is situated within a study/research; provides the researcher a basis for both forming
research questions and determining the methodology for the study; theoretical framework explains the
use, relevance and appropriateness of a theory and its postulations to a particular research topic,
questions or problems; with theoretical framework, the audience are able to assess a particular
research/study; it also links a study with the available and or current knowledge in relation to the
subject of study; researchers can also develop and propose their own theories, but such be related to
the results or main findings of their studies.
 A theoretical framework highlights a theory to be used in the study, its relevance, context of
situating and as well, the general knowledge on the problem, topic, phenomena under study;
 Robustness, relevance, appropriateness and usability of a theory are essential to a well formed
theoretical framework;

Theoretical framework …
HOW TO DEVELOPA ROBUST, RELEVANT & APPROPRIATE
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR STUDY
For a substantive, robust and appropriate theoretical framework to be developed, the researcher needs
among other:
 Make the theory a guide to your study, including conceptual understanding, methodology and
analysis of the study;
 Carefully review related literature and clearly understand what other previous researchers and
studies have done on the same research topic;
 Carefully frame a research title and relate same to the formation of research questions;
 Carefully study and review available and relevant theories before choosing the robust and
appropriate one to use in the study;
 Carefully and precisely explain the theory and relate the chosen theory to the research work/study,
and stress the germane of the theory to the study;
 Carefully link the methodology for the study with the theoretical framework of the study;
 Highlight any limitations/weaknesses of the chosen theory.

METHODS & METHOLOGIES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
 Methods of conducting research are about the exact and precise ways of how we collect data in
conducting a particular research
 Methodologies of research are about how researchers should best collect data in respect of a
particular investigation/research
 Epistemology is about how we should conduct investigation of the world
 Ontology is about how we view/look at the world

PHILOSOPHY IN RESEARCH/RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES
Philosophy in research involves both nature of knowledge and its development in relation to issues,
problems, phenomena, events, etc.; there is philosophy in research and this makes it possess substance
and is robust since the philosophy gives research assumptions and underpinnings which help to view
and explain issues, events, problems and or phenomena; there exist many philosophical
perspectives/approaches to research as: critical, transformative, interpretivism, pragmatism, realist,
positivism, post-positivism, constructivists, etc.;
 Epistemology is about how we should conduct investigation of the world; how we view
things/issues;
 Ontology is about how we view/look at the world;
 Axiology is about and relates to values to our thoughts, actions and reactions.
(Cresswell, 2014, Saunders, et al., 2012; West & Turner, 2010)

TITLE OF A RESEARCH/RESEARCH TOPIC
For any research to be successfully conducted, it needs to have an appropriate title for the study; a title
provides the exact intention of the researcher in relation to a study/research. A title should therefore,
be:
 Brief and concise;
 No too many words/wordings (about 12 words);
 No use of big/pompous grammar;
 Directly focused on the problem/issue of the research/study;
 It can have a single title; or a double title separated/joined together by a colon (:).

ABSTRACT
An abstract is a brief/summary of the major elements of a particular research/article; Although it is
written and placed at the first page of a research, it is mostly comprehensively written after the
research has been completed; abstract may thus change when a study is completed to reflect the
inclusions. Abstract is key to every research writing because it is mostly read first and is what gives
clear and general impression of the entire work done;
 Abstract comes/appears in first part of a study;
 It comes in both proposal, completed research and or articles;
 Writing an abstract may vary by specific/special requirements – type of study, article, Report,
proposal, etc. However, abstract generally has common features as:
 It is a summary of a research/article/study/paper;
 It is written in one/single paragraph;

Features of an Abstract
 It is between 150-250 words
 It contains no abbreviations
 It comprises of 5 – 7 keywords as may be used in the text
 It contains no images/artifacts – only text
 It is clear and concise
 It is cohesive and exact
 It relatively comprises of some major elements as: Statement of Problem, Purpose, Aims, Scope,
Methods and Materials (data), Major Findings/Results, Main Conclusion, Application, and
Originality/Novelty of the Study

RESEARCH PROBLEM
Research Problem is a fundamental element of qualitative research. It refers to the actual
problem that compels the need for the study; the exact need for conducting the study; why the need for
the study; an unanswered question/argument, unresolved controversy, or an
inconsistency/discrepancy.
Research problems may originate/emanate from the need to fill an existing gap in literature
or a study (scholarly grounds) and improve available literature or add to/improve/develop what is
already known, personal experience of the researcher/supervisor, emerging occupational and or job
challenges, etc.
In stating what exactly a research problem for a particular study is, the research needs to
essentially review some literature so as to provide and buttress the need for the study, assess the level
previous studies and then properly situate the new study along the line of the existing literatures.
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2016; Creswell, 2007)

TIPS ON WRITING/STATING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 Research questions are open-ended questions that allow respondents to answer freely and navigate
through the question/answer;
 Research questions are non-directional, i.e. not pointing to any specific/directed answers; but state
specifically what the researcher is investigating and needed on the topic;
 Research questions first ask ‘what’ and or ‘how’;
 Research questions are clear and straight;
 Research questions are not much in number (about 5-7);
 Research questions may comprise sub-questions related to the central question;
 Research questions arise/emerge, and one leads to another;
 Research questions are asked from general to specific questions.

Research Questions …
Generally, Research Questions fall under the types/categories of:
 Descriptive – describe an issue/phenomenon
 Exploratory – investigative a problem/issue/phenomenon
 Explanatory – explain outlines and forms which are connected to problem/phenomenon/issue.
 Causal – investigating whether a variable results to change in another.
 Emancipatory – be involved in socio-societal action on the issue/phenomenon so as to open up,
widen or broad.
(Sekaran, & Bougie, 2016; Miles, et al., 2014; Creswell, 2007; Marshall & Rossman, 2006)

QUESTIONAIRE
A Questionnaire is a formed and written set of questions (in respect of a research/investigation) given
out (administered) to the respondents to answer via writing from the options which may be given out
on the written set of questions; answers on questioners are usually given in alternative, but closed
forms.
Questionnaire can be administered (given out for respondents to fill) through several ways, especially
through:
 Personal Administration – the researcher and assistants distribute the questions to
respondents and collect same back after filling/answering. This is common in
confined, limited to a relatively, small, local or manageable area of study.
 Online & Electronic Questionnaire – using the internet facilities, email, the social
network, websites, blog, etc. to collect data.
 Mail – this is where and when the questionnaire is mailed to the respondents to fill/answer and
return same.

Questionaire …
TIPS ON PREPARING/DRAFTING QUESTIONAIRE OR SCHEDULE
A well drafted Questionnaire must take into account several elements that determine its
appropriateness to a research as:
 Conscious and always considerate of the problem of study/focus of the research problem;
 Clarity and Simplicity when filling by the respondents;
 Questions must be logical and coherent;
 Questions must appear with well defined units of enumeration;
 Pilot study be conducted to pre-test the questionnaire and correction of anomalies;
 Mindful & Careful of words to be used and the wordings;
 Questions must be sequentially prepared;
 Non-offensive Questions and Personal Information;
 Questionnaire must be revised/re-examined before administration;
 Questions must be appropriate and whether open or closed-ended.

Questionaire …
Things not to do while preparing a Questionnaire
Preparing a questionnaire should be done in most cautions, purposeful and time, energy and
resource conscious manner. A researcher is expected NOT TO in preparation of questionnaire:
Not to use words, phrases, sentences which may seem/or be difficult to understand by the
participants/respondents;
Not to use big grammar/too technical words/vocabularies;
Not to use too many words/sentences;
Not to include calculations;
Not to ask difficult/perplexing/confusing questions;
Not to be abstract in asking questions;
These DO NOT should be strictly avoided, except where such become absolutely necessary and
unavoidable

HYPOTHESIS
In research, Hypothesis means any statement, assumption, supposition which stands to be
proved/confirmed or disproved/refuted after a conduct of scientific and systematic investigation
(study); it is an uncertain statement that a researcher wants to test and prove using empirical data; it is
an assumption that relates testable independent and dependent variables in a research; it is an asked
question/problem which the researcher intends to answer/solve through systematic and scientific
investigation; it is a projecting statement which are tested through scientific means by the researcher.
Types of Hypothesis
Null & Alternate Hypotheses
In research and analysis, especially statistics, two main hypotheses (Null & Alternative) are known and
often used;
Null Hypothesis – this hypothesis has symbol: H0; it hypothesizes no relationship and or
differences between variables in a study;
Alternate Hypothesis – this has symbol: HA.

Hypothesis …
Although Hypothesis is short and brief, it should all the same contain and exhibit certain elements and
should be:
Tips on Good Hypothesis
 Testable – deducible and confirmable;
 Testable within a considerable/reasonable period of time;
 Reflect facts and underline the need which prompt conducting the research, explain the
problem;
 Stated in clear, simple, vibrant and exact terms;
 Where a Hypothesis is ‘Relational’, it should clearly establish and provide the relationship
between or among variables;
 Specific to the study and limited/narrow so as to be able to be tested;
 Steady and be in consistence with already known facts.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Conceptual framework is a graphic or textual and narrative description of what is studied/to be
studied, including the key issues, aspects and dynamics, and the relationships between and or among
them in a research;
 It is better done in graphical form;
 It is an atlas of the area under a study that is established at the commencement of a research, but
takes proper shape, changes and improves as the research moves on;
 It guides a researcher in selecting more important issues, data to be collected for analysis, and may
aid ‘cross-case’ data analysis where a study involves several researchers;

Conceptual …
In quantitative research, theoretical framework does among others provide:
 Make clear definition of the variables which are relevant and useful to the
research/investigation being/to be conducted;
 Clear show the relationship between and or among variables in a study;
 Clear description/explanation on why there is that relationship between the variables

HOW TO COLLECT DATA IN RESEARCH
Data can be collected in research through:
Review of Documents – the researcher reviews some literature (books, journals, etc.) and or relevant
programme documents where useful information can be found.
Survey – Survey research/data collection is very common in applied social science researches.
 It entails obtaining data/information from a specific/particular set/group of people in order to have
a generalized result; it is one on one paper talk/two way communication between the researcher and
participant/respondent with the use of questionnaire in a sampling process to collect data from
participants/respondents where observation may not be possibly made. Survey research is mostly
based on and domiciled in quantitative research method and analysis in which the
participants/respondents are asked questions in a written form (with the use of questionnaire) and
the responses/answers also recorded, processed and then analysed and reported respectively.
Survey research can as well fit into qualitative research method. Survey measures attitude, behaviours,
etc. of a population of the study with the use of a representative sample of the population of study.

Data can be collected in research - Survey
There are key issues to be considered in conducting a survey research as: what to ask, population for
the study, and the sample to be used/taken; the type and length of the questions to be asked, logistics
(materials to be used), time and cost of conducting the research.
The process of conducting survey research involves: planning the research process, determining
sampling type and frame, design of questionnaire, collection of data from the field, translating, and
analyzing collected data, making conclusions, and reporting the research. Survey can be:
Descriptive/Exploratory – where it describes; addresses ‘what’ aspect of a question; where the survey is
meant to collect and make available data/information about certain element.
Analytical – where it answers ‘why’; seeks to comprehend and construe and establish
relationship between/among elements.

Data can be collected in research - Survey
Survey research is conducted based on time meant for and allocated for the conduct of the research.
The time is however determined by the nature and type of questions to be asked and the purpose of
conducting the survey.
There are two categories of survey based on the timing of conducting survey research as:
Longitudinal Survey – conducted over a period of time, at different points in time, and using same or a
different respondents of the sample;
Cross-Sectional Survey – the data is collected at a particular point of time and at once.
Survey research is significant, especially in social sciences because it greatly helps achieve collection of
both robust and appropriate data and the exact answers; it is very rational and economic, energy and
time efficient
Observation – physically look at and learn how an activity/process/operation is carried out.

Research Designs
 Conceptual Design – involves Research Objectives, Research Framework, Research
Questions and or Conceptual Models, and Definition of the Research
Terms/Operationalisation of Terms in a particular research.
 Technical Design – involves the Research Planning, Research Strategy, and Research
Materials.

VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
Variables (constructs) are any elements/features/characters of either persons or organisations which
can have dissimilar and changing/flactuating standards or values; can be measured and or observed in
a research, e.g. income, weight, motivation, production units, height, etc.; variables vary from one
object to another, person to person, situation and circumstances, time and or one organization to
another, but can either be measured and or observed; values of a variable can change.
Types of Variables
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – this variable is one that affects/influences a dependent variable
in either positive or negative means/ways; it is one thing that a researcher changes, e.g. Age, ; any
changes (whether increase or decrease) in the independent variable also results in change in the
dependent variable;

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES – The change that occurs from independent (above); a
dependent variable is one that is determined, a result of or a consequent of others, e.g.
height. It is the most important variable before every researcher for it is the subject of
investigation/conduct of a research; it is measured/quantified by the researcher; the
researcher tries to understand what affect and then describe/explain its
inconsistency/erraticism; a research can have only one , two or more dependent variables in
a study.
 CONTROLLED VARIABLES – What the researcher wants to remain consistent/constant in
the research/investigation being conducted.

 MODERATING VARIABLE – with significant effects on the independent-dependent
variables relationship, this is a modifier of the exact relation between the independent and
the dependent variables; it is thus, a relationship modifier; the effects of a moderating
variables on the relationship between the two (dependent and independent) is contingent.
 MEDIATING/INTERVENING VARIABLE – a mediating variable plays a role in when a
researcher is to ‘model a process’ in a research; it comes up while the independent
variables are run/operated;
In research, there exists a relationship among all the 4 variables. It is the forces at work in any given
circumstances/situation that determine what exact type a variable is in research.
(Mertens, Pugliese & Recker, 2017; Sekaran & Bougie, 2016)

RESEARCH DESIGNS
Research design is the structure of a research investigation/study that highlights the main elements of a
particular study/investigation; a designs of research brings some certain elements (major and key
parts) and harmonises them to achieve a successful conduct and completion of a research; it is a
prescribed procedure with which a particular research is commenced and completed
There are Three Basic Academic Research Designs. None of them is perfect – every research method
has some strengths and also its weaknesses; each is also appropriate and robust with a particular
situation and circumstance, specific aims and objectives of the research, value system, gender, time,
energy and resources available.
 Qualitative Design -
 Quantitative Design -
 Mixed Method Design -

FACTORS DETERMINING SELECTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN/METHOD
Several factors come into play in determination of which research design (Qualitative, Quantitative or
Mixed) is to be used by a researcher in conducting a particular research; these factors ultimately
decide which is to be followed and why it is to be followed.
 Availability of funds to undertake the research;
 Time and space of conducting the research – peace/conflict period, home or abroad, in
fulfilment of requirement, etc.;
 Feasibility of collecting data;
 Nature, type & peculiarity of the research problem/issue/phenomenon;

Factors determining selection …
 Peculiar/Personal experience, skills/expertise of the researcher in relation to the problem of
study/issue;
 To/for whom the research is meant/to be reported/used, what problems it will solve/answers it will
provide;
 The atmosphere under which it is to be conducted.
Whichever of the methods/designs is to used, the researcher must be decide which is to be used
before going to the field for collection of relevant data, and subsequent analysis of the collected
data. Researcher normally chooses the most appropriate based on the research objectives, time and
resources, availability of and access to the data, extents of subsequent reliability and validity, etc.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
 Qualitative Research deals more with text and imagery materials;
 Qualitative research try to find out about a problem, opinion, issue, behaviour, situation, attitude,
etc.; explores issues, phenomenon or problems;
 In qualitative research, the researcher tries to get and understand the
interviewee/informant/respondent’s perception, view, standpoint through their ‘lived’
experience and sense of the issue/problem under study and connects same to the ‘social
world’;
 Qualitative Research has multiple sources of collecting data;
 Natural Setting/Environment is very critical to qualitative research and data collection.

Qualitative Research …
 Qualitative research can be conducted in many different ways, but some of the ways are more
popular;
 Qualitative research is conducted in a natural setup;
 Qualitative research is directly connected to the social world and has physical impacts on humans
and the life they live;
 The researcher himself collects the data from the field through interviews, observations,
reviewing/examining text materials/documents;
 Contact between the researcher and informants/participants/respondents is wide-ranging and
extensive;
 It involves both inductive & deductive analysis of collected data – there is a constant navigation
through and being touch between the themes of the research and the actual database until
the research work is completed.

 The data/reports/findings/results in qualitative research are usually given
words/texts/pictures/images/artifacts.
 It is participants that give meaning to the research problems/issues being researched – the
researcher gives emphasis to what the participants/respondents/informants with ‘lived’
experience mean on or about the problem/issue/phenomenon of the research.
 The plan of the research is flexible - can change/be modified any point of conducting the
research, especially during data collection.
 The research questions, informants/participants, the proposed form of the data collection, and
many other adjustments and or modifications can be changed at anytime in the course of
conducting the research, depending on emerging trends.
(Miles, et al., 2014; Creswell, 2012; 2007)

 Qualitative research gives multiple perspectives of the study, brings forth the complexities and
the many dynamics involved and or found in the study and brings forth fundamental issues
as related to the problem/phenomenon.
 Qualitative Research involves thorough involvement and understanding between the researcher
and the informants/participants/interviewees/respondents.
 Qualitative Research deals with open-ended data in relation to the Research Questions.
Qualitative Data Collection
 Qualitative Interviews - Face to face interviews, telephone interviews, Focus Group
Discussion (FGD) (with between 8 and 10 interviewees/person in a Group);
 Qualitative Texts/Public/Private Documents – Books, Journals, Newspapers, Magazines, Diaries,
Letters, e-mails, Reports, etc. and documents analysis.

 Qualitative Audio, Video and or Audio-Visual Materials – Photographs, Audio recordings,
Video, Art Designs/Objects, Computer Messages, etc.;
 Qualitative Observation – This is making field observations during the process of an activity,
process while they take place with the researcher fully participating in the activity/process
(Participant Observation) over a long period of time, especially in studying cultures of a
people and this is most common to and associated with Sociology and Anthropology; or
where the researcher only observes without participation (Non-Participant
Observation).

Qualitative research …
Observation in research can be one of either Controlled or Controlled:
Controlled – where the research/observation is carried out under an arranged/controlled and or
influenced set up;
Uncontrolled – where the observation process/researcher observes the natural course and trends of
activities, process, etc. without any interference and or attempt to shape/control the
process/activity.
Concealed & Unconcealed Observations
 Concealed Observation – where those who are observed are not aware of being observed;
 Unconcealed Observation - where those who are being observed are fully aware that they are
being observed.
Whether observation is participatory or non-participatory, controlled or uncontrolled, concealed or
unconcealed, it is up to the researcher/observer to decide which best to use depending on the
circumstances, specific requirements, make up of the research and other factors.

FOCUS GROUP DISUSSION (FGD)
This is an instrument of qualitative data collection in which a researcher engages a small
group of between 6-8, 7-9, 8-10 or 12-15 (no agreement on the exact number/size of the
group) of specially chosen discussants with the researcher (moderator) asking some open-
ended questions (collecting data) in a free and planned situation and scene, while the
discussants answer same in a discursive manner; the discussants give their perceptions on
the research questions. It is conducted within a time limit of between 60 and 90 minutes
long.
 Focus Group discussion (FGD) enable generation of data on wide, vast and variety of views,
perceptions and comments from the discussants;
 FGD explores both experience and perspectives of the research questions/issues under
discussion;
 FGD goes stably together with qualitative research approach;
 FGD can be structure, semi-structured and unstructured;
 FGD are recorded on Audi-visual or audio setting;
 Notes are also taken to supplement/back up the audio recordings;

Conducting Interviews in Qualitative Research
 Open-Ended Interviews (where no answers retractions are made for the respondents/free to
answering/with unlimited choices of answers)
 Structured Interviews
 Semi-Structured Interview
 Unstructured Interview
Recording Qualitative Interview
 Telephone Interview
 Audio Recorded Interview
 E-mail Interview
 Face to face Interview (where the researcher physically meets the interviewer)
 Focus Group face to face interview (involving 8-10 persons to discuss/answer/a topic, issue or
problem under investigation)
 Online Focus Group Interview
 Written Interview

 Data in Qualitative Interview are recorded and then transcribed to text material.
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research
Validity and reliability in qualitative research are meant to ensure correctness/exactness of the findings
of the study (validity), and that the method/approach used in conducting the research is consistent,
dependable and regular in relation to other researches and researchers (reliability).
 Validity involves the honesty, genuineness and reliability of the findings in the research.
 Validity can be checked and ensured through: Triangulation, Member Checking, Rich & Thick
descriptions, Clarification of Biasness, Presentation of Negative/Discrepant
Information/Materials, Spending prolonged Time on the Field during Data
Collection, Peer Debriefing, and using External Auditor.

Validity and reliability in …
Reliability can be checked and ensured through: checking and confirming that all transcript materials
are correct and do not contain any errors/mistakes/omissions/commissions, especially during the
process of transcription; consistent definition of Codes; constant and effective communication,
especially in coding and with the Coders and the researcher; cross-checking and comparison of codes
by and with other researchers with a view to ensuring consistency and stability.

Qualitative Research Design
Approaches to Qualitative Research
 Narrative
 Phenomenological
 Grounded Theory
 Ethnography/Participant Observation

Approaches to Qualitative Research
 Narrative – studies stories as narrated by persons; it studies individual’s lived experiences, and
as narrated by the person; written and or spoken explanation of activity, event, occasion, or
rather, inter-related/linked series of activities/events. This approach is originally linked to
other areas – Sociology, Literature, History, etc.
 Phenomenological/Phenomenology – studies various individuals’ experiences, perception,
understanding, opinions over a given issue/problem/phenomenon in the context of human
experience. In this approach, data is collected from individuals who are experienced
in/have encountered the phenomenon/problem/issue.

Approaches to qualitative …
 Grounded Theory – studying with a view to develop a new theory of an interaction, process
or activity; focuses on developing a new and substantive theory; thus, the developed theory,
in addition to describing the action/process, can offer both a basis and an outline for
conducting subsequent/further studies; the theory is developed/generated from the
data/member participants who have practiced/experienced the activity/process; in this,
systematic processes are strictly followed using the collected data to develop a theory.
 Ethnography – Derived from two words – ‘Ethno-people’ and ‘Graphy-description of
something’ - studying, and then describing and interpreting both the learned and shared
arrangement of language, beliefs, behaviours and values of a group that shares culture; it
involve observations and recording and writing a detailed and descriptive account of a
culture/daily life events of a people.
 Case Study - studying a definite system/setting over a time using both in depth and detailed data
collection through the use of interviews, documents, observation, etc.
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2016; Creswell, 2007; Czarniawska, 2004; Strauss & Corbin, 1998; Agar, 1980)

Other Issues in Qualitative Research
 Ethical issues are given priority; knowledge, consciousness and respect for custom, social norms,
culture and traditions, confidentiality, honesty, competence/expertise, results use/misuse,
intervention & advocacy, reciprocation, damages, informed consent, worthiness of the study,
risks, cost-benefit balance, etc.;
 It is a flexible research with some unfixed and dynamic procedures;
 More (adequate) time is required and spent by the researcher observing interview protocols,
collecting data;
 The researcher collects numerous data, takes and writes extensive notes;
 It is more time consuming and labour intensive with rigorous processes.

Other issues in qualitative …
 Data collection and analysis, and report writing are all rigorous and the researcher finally uses an
appropriately chosen procedure for the validation of the collected data;
 The researcher deals with large volume of data; and is required to reduce the large data to few,
relevant and categorized to suit the research design;
 It comprises of detailed methods of collection, analysis of data and writing the report;
 As researcher goes to and works on the field, qualitative research process involves other issues of
‘dilemma, conflict and trade-offs’ between the researcher, the informants/society, the
environment and the purpose and standards of conducting the research. This is especially
where the researcher is caught in situations that need assistance, unique compassion, the
informants are harmed/in harm, etc.
(Miles, et. al., 2014; Creswell, 2007)

COMMMON ELEMENTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH APPROACHES
In all the identified approaches to Qualitative Research (Case Study, Ethnography, Grounded Theory,
Phenomenological and Narrative), they are bound and characterized by some common elements of
procedure;
 All have uniformed and sequential process/steps of: developing research
problem/questions, data collection, data analysis, and finally reporting the
research.
 The means of data collection are also similar - documents, audio/video materials,
interviews, survey, observation.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
 Deals with figures, rather than words
 Has close-ended questions - Hypothesis and or Questionnaire
 Studies relations between or among variables

MIXED METHOD RESEARCH
Mixed Method research is a combination of the elements Qualitative and Quantitative processes and
data in research; it is where and when a researcher uses/combines both the quantitative and qualitative
research methods in conducting a single investigation/research.
Qualitative and Quantitative data are mixed/blended in Mixed Method research; it is a compromise
between the qualitative and quantitative research methods; it collects and analyses both
qualitative and quantitative data, and mixes the two for the purpose of answering research
questions;
Mixed method harnesses the strengths of qualitative and quantitative studies and minimizes the
weaknesses of both and that, underlies the ‘fundamental principles of mixed method’
research;
It involves the deduction, induction and abduction as in mixed method research, both inductive and
deductive thoughts are combined in order to answer research questions and achieve the
results of the research/investigation.
(Johnson & Turner, 2003)

Mixed Method …
Critical Issues in Mixed Method Research include:
 Collection of both qualitative and quantitative data;
 Merging, linking and implanting both the Qualitative and Quantitative data;
 Conducting analysis in both Qualitative and Quantitative modes;
 Adequacy of data and full adherence with the processes and steps in conducting the
research and analysis;
 Equality and or Inequality of the Qualitative and Quantitative Data; and whether that two
data are to be collected in concurrence or in sequence.
Mixed Model – where the two other methods (qualitative and quantitative) are mixed within and across
the stages of conducting a research;
Mixed Method – where a segments/elements of both qualitative and quantitative are
generally used in a research.
(Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004)

Types of mixed method …
 Exploratory Sequential Mixed Method
 Explanatory Sequential Mixed Method
 Convergent Parallel Mixed Method
 Transformative Mixed Method (Embedded & Multiphase Designs)
Mixed method is a corollary and pragmatic to both the qualitative and quantitative research methods
of conducting research. A combined (qualitative and quantitative) approach to a study/investigation; a
key issue mixed method, however, is where and when and at what level/stage should the mix come up?
(Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Morgan, 1998; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998; Creswell,
1994; Morse, 1991; Patton, 1990),

Mixed method …
One basic element of mixed method is combining qualitative and quantitative designs/inductive and
deductive thoughts – more than a single method for optimum and good data collection and analysis and
thus relies on ‘triangulation’ means to ensure ‘confidence’ or convergence in the collected data/results;
this triangulation can be through several means as:
 The use of several methods for data collection & analysis – Method Triangulation
 Collection of data from different sources and at different times – Data Triangulation
 Use of more than/several theories in interpretation and analysis of the data – Theory
Triangulation
 More than one/several researchers involved in collection and analysis of the data –
Researcher Triangulation

Mixed Method …
The major steps involved in conducting a mixed method research involves majorly, but subject to
redesign include among others:
 Deciding and framing the research question for the study;
 Deciding which appropriate mixed design is to be used
 Choosing the mixed method or mixed-model research design to use
 Collecting the relevant data for the study
 Analysing the collected in line with the mixed study;
 Interpretation of the data
 Validating the data;
 Drawing of conclusions/writing a report
It is however, worthy of note that mixed-method research has, among others, challenges of:
 More time and energy consumption;
 More resource intensive;
 Requires more cooperation, cohesion and coordination among many individuals involved in a
particular research;
(Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004)

Mixed method …
In Mixed Method research, analysis of collected data involves several stages as:
 Data Reduction – reducing the volume of the qualitative and quantitatively collected data into
statistical figures, thematic, factor or cluster analysis, etc.;
 Data display – the use charts, graphs, matrices, diagrams, tables, etc. to show the data;
 Data transformation – convert the data to texts or statistical/numerical codes;
 Data correlation – connecting/relating the qualitative and quantitative data;
 Data consolidation – Combining the qualitative and quantitative data for the purpose of having new
or amalgamating the data;
 Data Comparison – Comparing the qualitative and quantitative data to ensure credibility and
validity of the data and the sources;
 Data Integration – the qualitative and quantitative data are joined and fit into each other to give
comprehensive and complete study/result.
(Onwuegbuzie & Teddlie, 2003)

DATA
There are two types of data in research – the Primary; and Secondary Data.
Primary Data
Primary Data – is the one collected from the first hand/the first time from the source and is fresh and
original.
There are several, but the major methods/sources of collecting Primary Data include: Schedules,
Questionnaire, Interviews, Observation. There are also other methods of primary data collection as:
Depth Interviews, Content Analysis, Projective/Indirect Interviewing, Pantry Audits, Mechanical
devices, Store/Distributors Audit, Warranty Cards, and Consumer Panels.
(Kothari, 2004)

Data …
Secondary Data
Secondary Data – is data that has been collected by some other(s) analysed, is available and
transmitted to other(s) most often with the numerical/statistical processes;
There are also numerous methods/sources of Secondary Data (both published and unpublished) in
research as: Newspapers, Books, Magazines, Public Documents, publications/records of local and
International Governmental and Non-governmental Organisations/Institutions, historical facts and
figures, Reports from Banks/Business organisations, Journals and other Academic Publications; and
other unpublished sources such as: diaries, biographies, autobiographies, and letters.
(Kothari, 2004)

Data …
Selection of Appropriate Method of Data Collection
Selection of an appropriate method/source of data collection depends on several and critical factors as:
 Availability/Access to financial resources/sponsorship
 Availability of/time constraint in relation to the conduct and completion of the research – some
methods of data collection take longer period of time than others; PhD and MSc
candidates may be required to complete the research within specified period of time.
 Appropriateness of the data collection method to the scope and the type of research/problem of
enquiry to be undertaken.
 Accuracy of the data collection method in relation to the type of research to be
undertaken/problem to be enquired.

DATA COLLECTION PROCESS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
In qualitative research, although different approaches can be/are used, there is a general/common
process for all the approaches in the process of the collection of data as:
 Situating/identifying the appropriate place from where to collect the data;
 Having access to and establishing familiarity with the places and peoples (who are
competent and willing) on the data collection field;
 Purposeful sampling, i.e. deliberate selecting the appropriate places/sites, social process and the
respondents/informants/interviewees, including the ‘marginal, great and ordinary’ persons;

Data collection process …
 Collecting the data using an appropriately chosen approach – audio-visual materials,
interview, document, and observation;
 Recording the information;
 Considering and reflecting on issues (time, volume and richness of collected data, access, ethics,
etc.), which affect the study on the field of the data collection;
 Storing the collected data – which involves many crucial issues and activities – comprehensive
listing of types and categories of collected data, confidentiality/anonymity of
respondents/informants/interviewees in the data, use of qualitative audio-visual materials,
safe keeping of back-up soft/hard copies of the collected data.
(Creswell, 2007)

TIPS ON CONDUCTING INTERVIEW
For a research interview to be successfully conducted, these tips are essential for the researcher to work
with:
 Researcher/interviewer must be conversant with the research problem and the objectives of the
study;
 Researcher/interviewer must be both social/friendly and warm in approach; courteous and
respecting of traditions & customs; avoid socio-cultural taboos;
 Questions must be logical, coherent and organized;
 Researcher/Interviewer must be conversant, conscious and respectful of the customs and
traditions of the interviewee/respondent/informant;
 Researcher/Interviewer must be conscious of various and respective ways of addressing
interviewees, e.g. Your Majesty/Highness, Prof., Your Excellency, Honourable, Most
Reverend, Sheik, Allah shi gafarta Malam, Mrs., Ms, etc.

Tips on interview …
 Researcher/Interviewer must be conscious of commitments and suitable/convenient time
(weekend, weekdays, festive periods, morning, evening, etc.) of the interviewee;
convenient venue for the interview (farm house, office, hotel room, etc.);
suitable/convenient method of interview (face to face, telephone, e-mail, focus group, etc.);
 Researcher/Interviewer must be sharp, attentive and active listener/viewer to responses; positive
in understanding; gentle in asking questions; sharp & smart in taking notes, recording
video, audio, audio visuals;
 Research ethics must be consciously, cautiously, and carefully observed at all times and stages of
conducting the research.

DATAANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Analysing data in qualitative research involves three general steps of:
 Preparation and organization of the data by transcription/text material, or by representation in
images/photographs or other artifact forms;
 Reduction of the transcribed/imagery/photographed data into themes and sub-themes with the use
of codes;
 Representation of the coded data/themes/codes in forms of discussions, tables and or figures.
Alternatively, qualitative analysis has 4 major parts of: the data collection itself, condensation of the
collected data, displaying the data, verifying the data and a drawing conclusion.
(Miles, et al., 2014; 1994)

Data analysis …
Elaborately, the steps/process involve: management of the collected data, reading and commenting on
so as to master the data, describing/categorizing/interpreting the data, and expressing the data in
tabular, figure, imagery or discussion form.
(Miles, et. al., 2014; Creswell, 2007; Madison, 2005; Dey, 1993)

ACCURACY AND VALIDATION OF FINDINGS IN QUA;ITATIVE RESEARCH
It Is required that after successful completion of a research, the researcher finds a means to ensure that
the main findings of the study are both reliable and accurate for consumption by the audience of that
particular research. As such, there are means to ensure both reliability and accuracy of the collected,
analysed and interpreted data. These include:
Auditing – the researcher engages the services of some individuals who are not part of/not
involved in the conduct of the research to examine/review the key aspects of the
research with a view to ensuring that the main findings of the study are truly found in the
data originally collected by the researcher, the method used is appropriate, the study has
been properly contextualized, appropriateness of the themes/sub-themes, etc. as may have
been used in the study;
Member – Checking - the researcher engages some of the participants in the research to check, very
and ascertain the cohesion and accuracy of the collected data, notes and explanations
provided in the study;

Accuracy and validation …
Triangulation – The various notes, evidences and other relevant materials collected/gathered from
the different and respective respondents/interviewees/participants, the type and method of
collected data are all substantiated and confirmed by the researcher to ensure the accuracy
and reliability of the main findings of the research. It exposes ‘corresponding,
concurrence and disagreement in major findings of a research; triangulation can be done
using both qualitative and quantitative methods to ensure validity and accuracy of research
findings.
Triangulation can take several forms/types which include:
 Data (data sources triangulation) Triangulation of: The actual time when the data was
collected (Time); the persons who the data (Persons); and the space within which the data
was collected (Space);
The others types of triangulation also include:
 Theoretical Triangulation – use of multiple theories in same research/study/investigation to ensure
accuracy and validity of findings;

Accuracy and validation …
 Methodological Triangulation – use of more than one method in a study to ensure validity and
accuracy of major findings;
 Investigator Triangulation – the use/engaging more than two researchers/investigators at any stage
of conducting a research to ensure validity and accuracy of the research findings;
 Analysis (Data Analysis) Triangulation – the use of more than two methods of data analysis in
analysing the same data with the aim of ensuring both validity and accuracy of the findings
of the research.
(Hussein, 2009: Thurmond, 2001; Greene & Caracelli in Thurmond, 2001; Erzerberger & Prein, 1997;
Begley, 1996; Banik, 1993; Kimchi, Polivka, & Stevenson, 1991; Denzin, 1989 & 1978).

ETHICS AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Ethics have to do with goodness, honour, respect, honesty, benefits in conduct of research; the
comprehensive safety, protection and preservation of lives, properties, environment, education and
scholarship, cultures, privacy, values, integrity and dignity of the subjects/participants of a research;
ethics involve doing things in the right way without infringing on the rights, culture, values and norms
of subjects or the scholarship/knowledge, purpose, aims and objectives of the research.
Ethics is viewed relatively, especially by philosophers, but although it may vary from society to culture,
social set-up and environment, there are those ones that are very clear, precise and commonly known
values in research, despite the relativities/variations.
Therefore, it is important to note that:
 Ethics are an integral and indispensable part of every academic research;
 Ethics may vary from one society, culture, socio-geographic set to another, but there are
common ones that apply to all and are also embedded in academic research;
 The success or failure of an academic research is greatly influenced by the researcher’s ability to
exhibit and maintain good ethics throughout the conduct of a research/study;

Ethics and ethical issues …
Therefore, it is important to note that:
 Ethics are an integral and indispensable part of every academic research;
 Ethics may vary from one society, culture, socio-geographic set to another, but there are
common ones that apply to all and are also embedded in academic research;
 The success or failure of an academic research is greatly influenced by the researcher’s ability to
exhibit and maintain good ethics throughout the conduct of a research/study;
In academic research, ethical issues involve many elements which must be complied with by every
researcher and at every point in time of conducting a research/study. These generally include:
 Honesty in the entire research process and to the participants;
 Safety of the subjects/participants;
 Observing and guaranteeing the rights of all those involved in the research;
 Human Dignity - Respect for the humankinds involved in the research;

 Seeking non-compulsory – voluntary, full and informed consent of the
subjects/participants of the research at every point or level of conducting the
research (prior to and during);
 The results of whatever research must be meant and used for the benefit of humankinds at either
micro or macro level;
 The gains of conducting each and every research must be far greater than the danger/risks
involved in conducting the research;
 There must be full, adequate and timely preparation and protection of the participants from any
harm/danger which may result from the conduct of the research;
 No disability, injury, loss of life, property, etc. must occur in the process of conducting research.
Where such occur, the researcher must immediately discontinue the research/study;
 Research/study/investigation must only be carried out by professionals/qualified persons;
 Researcher should as much as possible be conscious of specific cultural norms, religious values,
beliefs and cultural taboos of the subjects;

 Participants in the research must be allowed to freely opt out/withdraw from the research without
any hesitation by the researcher and at any point in time;
 Confidentiality of the participants/subjects (except where the participants who want to be
identified), must be observed and maintained at all stages;
 Nothing whatsoever must be allowed to happen to the participants which may result in stigma,
embarrassment, disgrace, disrespect, discomfort, resentment, despise, provocation,
aggression,
 Data collected must be genuine, original and not doctored in any way to
influence/undermine the result/analysis and or interpretations;
 Any conflict of interest must be fully and clearly reported/declared at the appropriate time and
instances;
 Researcher must demonstrate high sense of responsibility, restraint, caution, and respect for others
values, especially the participants;
 Participants must never be cheated, swindled and or short-changed;

 All sources of data, information, quotes, etc. are fully acknowledged;
 In case of receipt of research grants, financiers, sponsors, supporters and other partners involved in
the research must all be appropriately declared;
 The process, data, results, interpretation and analysis, etc. of the research must be made open for
debate, criticism, review and or improvement by other researchers or those
interested;
 The entire process of conducting a research must be coherent, cohesive, purposeful, gap filling,
substantive and robust, responsible and responsive; consistent with local, state, nation and
cross-border laws and conventions, treaties and agreements; conscious of socio-societal
trends, problems and imperatives for socio-physical, economic, political and other spheres of
human development with the overall aim of bringing relief, development, advancement to
the immediate society or humankind at large;
 The real intentions/objectives of the research must be made known and never hidden at any stage of
conducting it.

In essence, ethics in research encompasses the protection and preservation of medical and health,
physical and psychological, academic and intellectual, social and environmental, political and
economic, religious and cultural, ethnic and gender, honesty and modesty, population and biological,
historical and archival, artistic and artifact life and materials of participants/respondents/subjects of a
research viz-a-viz their participation in the conduct of any research.
Where and whenever any of these appears to be threatened, damaged or undermined in the conduct of
any research, the researcher must immediately discontinue the conduct of such research.
Issues of ethics in research are non-compromising and an integral part of the success and credibility of
any research; and as well, honesty and objectivity in collection, analysis and interpretation of data
without adulteration, misrepresentation, under reporting, cooking/concoction of data/information.
In researches for the purpose of award of certificates – PhD, MSc, etc., and even industrial researches,
ethics are given top priority and determine the extent of academic, social, moral and psychological
successful conduct of a research.

THANKS INDEED!
www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammed_I_S/publications
https://eudang.academia.edu/IsahShehuMohammed
https://scholar.google.com/citations?hl=en&user=HkEGFVsAAAJ
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1944-9919
https://www.mendeley.com/profiles/mohammed-i-s/

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