This document discusses the convergence of wireless networks towards next generation networks. It begins with an introduction to communication networks and their increasing importance. It then provides details on public switched telephone networks (PSTN) and their traditional circuit-switched architecture. Finally, it describes next generation networks (NGN), which use an all-IP architecture with separation of the transport and service layers, allowing for delivery of multiple services over a single network. NGN aims to replace existing networks with a single, simplified IP-based core network.
Site specific assessment of node b using key service quality indicators over ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the quality of service of three Node B base stations (BEN 035, BEN026, and BEN 098) on a 3G/UMTS network in Benin City, Nigeria through outdoor drive-test measurements. Key quality indicators such as received signal code power (RSCP), energy per chip to total received power ratio (Ec/Io), and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) were measured along drive routes near each base station. The results found that BEN 035's Ec/Io range indicates it can support more subscribers, but tuning may be needed to reduce interference. QoS was very poor near BEN026, likely causing data access issues for users
This document proposes a business case for deploying a 4G heterogeneous wireless network in Spain. It describes the network architecture, which includes WiFi, UMTS and WiMAX access networks connected through an IMS core network. The business case analyzes deployment in both an urban area (Barcelona) and a rural area (Caserras). It outlines the assumptions made, including the types of subscriber devices, business models, and logical flows for determining economic results like NPV, IRR, cash flows, payback period and profitability index.
The document discusses telecommunications and the company's experience in the telecom sector. It provides the following key points:
1) The telecom sector accounts for over 80% of the company's focus and it has pan-India experience and coverage in the telecom space.
2) The company provides turnkey solutions for telecom projects in a cost-effective manner with strong technical support. As a turnkey provider, it handles all aspects of network rollout.
3) The company has seen rapid growth since 2005 and has a service management system to efficiently handle projects from end to end with a focus on timely response, low costs, and ease of operation.
Revolution in telecommunication and its impact in businessAbhaya Abhaya S
This document discusses the revolution in telecommunications and its impact on business. It describes how telegraph and telephone technology was introduced and grew in India. It also outlines the development of modern landline, wireless, internet and broadband infrastructure in the country. The document discusses how telecommunications systems like email, voice mail, video conferencing and online transaction processing can benefit businesses. It highlights the economic, social and other impacts that telecommunications has enabled.
Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5 g CellularPoornima E.G.
This document summarizes research on using millimeter wave frequencies for 5G cellular networks as a solution to address increasing bandwidth demands. It discusses how directional antennas and wider channel bandwidth at mm-wave frequencies could enable multi-gigabit mobile data speeds. The document also reviews myths around rain attenuation at mm-wave bands and shows that for small cell sizes of 200m, rain impact is minimal. It presents motivation, methodology and initial measurement results showing 28GHz and 38GHz can be used for cellular with directional antennas.
This is the idea of using existing power lines for communication purposes. Power line communications (PLC)
enables network communication of voice, data, and video over direct power lines. High-speed PLC involves
data rates in excess of 10 Mbps. PLC has attracted a lot of attention and has become an interesting subject of
research lately.
Basics of telecommunication and networkingMilan Padariya
Telecommunication enables people to talk via electronic media and Networking enables more than one computers to connect and share the information. In today's business telecommunication and networking play an important role. Also wireless technologies like bluetooth and Wi-Fi make easy transaction for any IT enable business.
COMMUNICATION SOLUTIONS FOR INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE SMART DELIVERY OF ELE...Power System Operation
This document provides a summary of communication solutions for information exchange in the smart delivery of electrical energy. It examines the factors influencing communication technology selection, how smart meter functionality may be changing, and presents case studies. Key findings include:
- Industry structure and regulations constrain technology choices and favor some options over others.
- Powerline communication is common but fragmented, while radio use is limited by spectrum availability.
- Smart meter functionality has converged around core functions, with non-core functions also increasingly common. Functionality increases have not significantly impacted communication demands.
- Case studies from Italy, Poland and Spain illustrate lessons learned from large smart meter rollouts using powerline and radio networks. Availability of meter data varied between 96-
Site specific assessment of node b using key service quality indicators over ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the quality of service of three Node B base stations (BEN 035, BEN026, and BEN 098) on a 3G/UMTS network in Benin City, Nigeria through outdoor drive-test measurements. Key quality indicators such as received signal code power (RSCP), energy per chip to total received power ratio (Ec/Io), and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) were measured along drive routes near each base station. The results found that BEN 035's Ec/Io range indicates it can support more subscribers, but tuning may be needed to reduce interference. QoS was very poor near BEN026, likely causing data access issues for users
This document proposes a business case for deploying a 4G heterogeneous wireless network in Spain. It describes the network architecture, which includes WiFi, UMTS and WiMAX access networks connected through an IMS core network. The business case analyzes deployment in both an urban area (Barcelona) and a rural area (Caserras). It outlines the assumptions made, including the types of subscriber devices, business models, and logical flows for determining economic results like NPV, IRR, cash flows, payback period and profitability index.
The document discusses telecommunications and the company's experience in the telecom sector. It provides the following key points:
1) The telecom sector accounts for over 80% of the company's focus and it has pan-India experience and coverage in the telecom space.
2) The company provides turnkey solutions for telecom projects in a cost-effective manner with strong technical support. As a turnkey provider, it handles all aspects of network rollout.
3) The company has seen rapid growth since 2005 and has a service management system to efficiently handle projects from end to end with a focus on timely response, low costs, and ease of operation.
Revolution in telecommunication and its impact in businessAbhaya Abhaya S
This document discusses the revolution in telecommunications and its impact on business. It describes how telegraph and telephone technology was introduced and grew in India. It also outlines the development of modern landline, wireless, internet and broadband infrastructure in the country. The document discusses how telecommunications systems like email, voice mail, video conferencing and online transaction processing can benefit businesses. It highlights the economic, social and other impacts that telecommunications has enabled.
Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5 g CellularPoornima E.G.
This document summarizes research on using millimeter wave frequencies for 5G cellular networks as a solution to address increasing bandwidth demands. It discusses how directional antennas and wider channel bandwidth at mm-wave frequencies could enable multi-gigabit mobile data speeds. The document also reviews myths around rain attenuation at mm-wave bands and shows that for small cell sizes of 200m, rain impact is minimal. It presents motivation, methodology and initial measurement results showing 28GHz and 38GHz can be used for cellular with directional antennas.
This is the idea of using existing power lines for communication purposes. Power line communications (PLC)
enables network communication of voice, data, and video over direct power lines. High-speed PLC involves
data rates in excess of 10 Mbps. PLC has attracted a lot of attention and has become an interesting subject of
research lately.
Basics of telecommunication and networkingMilan Padariya
Telecommunication enables people to talk via electronic media and Networking enables more than one computers to connect and share the information. In today's business telecommunication and networking play an important role. Also wireless technologies like bluetooth and Wi-Fi make easy transaction for any IT enable business.
COMMUNICATION SOLUTIONS FOR INFORMATION EXCHANGE IN THE SMART DELIVERY OF ELE...Power System Operation
This document provides a summary of communication solutions for information exchange in the smart delivery of electrical energy. It examines the factors influencing communication technology selection, how smart meter functionality may be changing, and presents case studies. Key findings include:
- Industry structure and regulations constrain technology choices and favor some options over others.
- Powerline communication is common but fragmented, while radio use is limited by spectrum availability.
- Smart meter functionality has converged around core functions, with non-core functions also increasingly common. Functionality increases have not significantly impacted communication demands.
- Case studies from Italy, Poland and Spain illustrate lessons learned from large smart meter rollouts using powerline and radio networks. Availability of meter data varied between 96-
The document discusses the role of communications as a key enabler for the smart distribution network. It argues that power engineering innovation is increasingly dependent on communication capabilities. It outlines challenges with existing communication paradigms and key challenges that need to be addressed, including the need for cost-effective, ubiquitous, high-availability, and secure communications. It concludes that utilities, regulators, and the telecommunications industry need to work together to develop an integrated vision and strategy.
Mobile phones have become essential communication tools globally due to their ability to stay connected with others. Early mobile phones were bulky and expensive with poor reception, but technological advances have made phones smaller, more affordable, and with improved reception. Mobile telephony has evolved through generations from 0G to 4G, offering greater capabilities like texting, internet access, and multimedia services. While mobile phones provide many benefits, they also present challenges like unsolicited texts and lack of regulation of mobile spam.
The document discusses telecommunications networks and applications. It covers topics like major developments in telecommunications technologies, the business value of the internet, intranets and extranets. Components of telecommunications networks are identified as terminals, telecommunications processors, channels and computers. Types of networks explained are WAN, LAN, VPN, client/server, network computing and peer-to-peer. The document also discusses telecommunications media like twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable. Case studies on wireless business applications and using mobile technologies for emergency services are presented.
Cellular Connectivity: Changing the Landscape of the Cellular Backhaul Market...ST Engineering iDirect
The demand for connectivity is surging worldwide. Today more than ever, more people in more places are connecting for work, entertainment, social communications, and education. Increasingly, they’re using smartphones, tablets, and other easy-to-carry devices. And in many underdeveloped parts of the world, smartphones are often the only Internet access technology that’s both affordable and available.
As a result, mobile networks are poised to become the primary way in which we connect. According to the 2018 Ericsson Mobility Report, there will be 7.2 billion smartphone subscriptions by 2023. Total data traffic has surged by 400% from 2013 to today and is projected to explode another 500% by 2023.
Causes of Fiber Cut and the Recommendation to Solve the ProblemIOSRJECE
Optical fiber technology has transformed the telecom landscape in Ghana in recent years owing to its overwhelming advantages over the traditional transmission medium. Though the technology is highly immune to electromagnetic wave, it also offers a higher capacity of bandwidth for data and voice activities. The fiber infrastructure in Ghana has experienced a lot of fiber cuts incidences. And this has affected network quality delivery, increased operational expenditure and decline revenue margins of the telcos. This research was carried out in two phases using MTN Ghana (Western and Central Region) as a case study, to establish the root causes and remedial actions to curb it. First, Pareto and Ishakawa analytical tools were applied to the primary source data for the analysis. Secondly, a purposive survey was administered to acquire additional information. It was established that activities of government sponsored projects and private developers were largely responsible for the menace due to; negligence, ignorance, lack of coordination etc. On the bases, it’s recommended that telcos and stakeholders embark on educational campaign to sensitize the public on optical fiber cables whiles the government of Ghana put in measures to build mandatory right-of-way with support from the private sector.
Hossain markendahl2021 article-comparison_oflpwan_technologiesc july 2021 vvv...VaddiNagaPrasuna
This document compares the cost structures and scalability of various LPWAN technologies for IoT deployments. It presents a framework for assessing the viability of IoT communication technologies. The paper analyzes the inter-technology interference impact on LoRaWAN and Sigfox scalability. It compares the costs of deploying Sigfox, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT, LTE-M and EC-GSM-IoT in both urban and rural scenarios using licensed and unlicensed spectrum. The results validate that a single technology rollout is not cost-efficient, and the scalability of a technology may not be directly related to its cost-effectiveness.
Comparative analysis of LTE backbone transport techniques for efficient broad...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This document provides a comparative analysis of LTE backbone transport techniques for efficient broadband penetration in a heterogeneous network. It discusses how IP/MPLS currently serves as the transport technique but suffers from failures that can cause delays and packet loss. As an alternative, IP/ATM is proposed which can dynamically allocate bandwidth and support varying QoS requirements. The paper aims to evaluate the performance of these two techniques through simulation to establish which better addresses the challenges of IP/MPLS. Simulation results showed IP/ATM had superior performance over IP/MPLS in terms of average bandwidth utilization, mean traffic drop, and mean traffic delay.
This document discusses the deployment of Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks and the importance of in-building solutions to handle increasing mobile data traffic indoors. It notes that LTE will see its first deployments this year and will reinforce the "islands of life" concept by providing continuity of voice and data services in locations like workplaces, homes, malls and train stations. Providing quality in-building coverage presents challenges around architecture, design, installation, optimization and operations that require well-considered solutions. The document outlines best practices for selecting the right in-building LTE solution.
A WIRELESS NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE ARCHITECTURE FOR RURAL COMMUNITIESijcsit
Wireless network implementation is a viable option for building network infrastructure in rural communities. Rural people lack network infrastructures for information services and socio-economic development. The aim of this study was to develop a wireless network infrastructure architecture for network services to rural dwellers. A user-centered approach was applied in the study and a wireless network infrastructure was designed and deployed to cover five rural locations. Data was collected and
analyzed to assess the performance of the network facilities. The results shows that the system had been performing adequately without any downtime with an average of 200 users per month and the quality of service has remained high. The transmit/receive rate of 300Mbps was thrice as fast as the normal Ethernet transmit/receive specification with an average throughput of 1 Mbps. The multiple output/multiple input
(MIMO) point-to-multipoint network design increased the network throughput and the quality of service experienced by the users.
This document discusses wireless communication technologies. It provides an overview of wireless communication types including wired and wireless. It describes the evolution of wireless technologies through four generations (1G to 4G) and discusses multiple access techniques like FDMA and TDMA. The document also outlines advantages of wireless technologies and examples of applications including infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and WiMax.
The document is a report on broadband access technologies submitted by Satish Masina for their Bachelor of Technology degree. It provides an overview of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), the largest telecommunications provider in India. It discusses BSNL's infrastructure and services, as well as the National Internet Backbone. It also covers various broadband technologies used by BSNL like DSL, ADSL, VDSL, Wi-Fi and WiMax. The report aims to provide information on the technologies enabling broadband access in India.
Third Generation (3G) and Fourth Generation (4G) Mobile Telephony provides a brief review of the development and status of 3G and 4G mobile communications. It discusses that 3G allows higher data rates than 2G but has some limitations that 4G aims to address. The document then discusses key features of 3G including supported data rates and standards. 4G is outlined as supporting further increased data rates up to 20 Mbps through technologies like OFDM and aims to provide improved multimedia, roaming, and lower costs. Technical perspectives on 4G terminals, networks, and applications are also presented.
Energy efficient power control for device to device communication in 5G netw...IJECEIAES
Next generation cellular networks require high capacity, enhanced efficiency of energy and guaranteed quality of service (QoS). To reach these goals, device-to device (D2D) communication is a candidate technologie for future 5th Generation especially applications that require the reuse, the hop and the proximity gain. The present paper studies the energy efficient power control for the uplink of an OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-division multiple access) system composed of both regular cellular users and device-to-device (D2D) pairs. First, we analyze and model mathematically the prerequisites for D2D communications and classical cellular links in terms of minimum rate and maximum power requirement. Second, we use fractional programming in order to convert the initial problem into a concave one and we apply non-cooperative game theory in order to characterize the equilibrium. Then, we got the solution of the problem from the results of a water-filling power allocation. Moreover, we employ a distributed design for power allocation by means of three methods: a) Theory of fractional programming b) Closed form expression (the novelty is the use of Wright Omega function). c) Inverse water filling. Finally, simulations in both static and dynamic channel setting are realized to demontrate the enhanced gain in term of EE, SE (spectral efficiency) and time of execution of the iterative algorithm (Dinkelbach) than the closed form algorithms.
This document summarizes the evolution of wireless mobile communication systems from 1G to 5G. It discusses the key technologies and features of each generation. 1G systems used analog signals for voice calls. 2G introduced digital encryption and SMS. 3G enabled faster speeds and services like video calls and internet access. 4G provides further increased speeds up to 1Gbps and is based on LTE. 5G is expected to offer much higher speeds and bandwidth, near unlimited connectivity, low latency, and new applications through convergence of technologies like cloud computing and nanotechnology. It is predicted 5G will revolutionize wireless communications and be a major driver of social and economic development.
This document discusses wireless energy transfer through high frequency signals. It begins by providing background on wireless energy transfer and the traditional use of electromagnetic induction, which is less efficient and can negatively impact human health. It then proposes using high frequency signals to wirelessly charge electronic devices, where the signals would be transmitted using a transmitter circuit including an oscillator and loudspeaker transducer, and received using a receiver circuit including a microphone transducer, rectifier, and amplifier. The document discusses the components that would be used, including crystal oscillators to produce the high frequencies, and transducers to convert the signals to and from electrical and sound waves. The goal is to enable efficient and safe wireless charging of devices over short ranges.
This presentation provides an overview of advanced telecom technologies, including digital switching principles, fiber optics communication, mobile communication principles like GSM and CDMA, broadband DSL technologies, intelligent networks, ISDN, and next generation networks. It was presented by Ashish Nandan to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Future Institute of Engineering and Management.
1) The document discusses reducing vertical handover latency in heterogeneous networks consisting of WLAN and 3G to improve quality of service for voice and video streaming.
2) It proposes using an enhanced hybrid scheme combining bidirectional Stream Control Transmission Protocol (Bi-mSCTP) with Mobile IP to further reduce handover latency and packet loss during handovers.
3) This approach aims to allow users to receive services continuously with minimal packet loss, analyzing the performance of the Bi-mSCTP hybrid scheme for real-time traffic like voice and video.
The document discusses computer networks and their basic components. It defines a computer network as two or more connected computers that can communicate. The key components are client computers, a server, network interfaces, a connection medium like cables, a network operating system on the server, and networking devices like hubs and routers. It also describes local area networks (LANs) that connect computers within a small area, and wide area networks (WANs) that connect multiple LANs across a broader geographic area using more advanced technology. Common LAN topologies include bus, ring and star configurations. Transmission methods on a LAN include unicast to a single device, multicast to select devices, and broadcast to all devices on the network
Future-Sat Africa, June 2016_concept documentAdrian Hall
Extensia's inaugural Satellite summit, scheduled for June 2016 in South Africa, will focus on satellite playing an essential role in Africa’s future digital communications strategy across all sectors.
Literature Survey On Clustering TechniquesIOSR Journals
This document provides a literature review of different clustering techniques. It begins by defining clustering and describing the main categories of clustering methods: hierarchical, partitioning, density-based, grid-based, and model-based. It then summarizes some examples of algorithms for each category in 1-2 sentences. For hierarchical methods, it discusses BIRCH, CURE, and CHAMELEON. For partitioning methods, it mentions k-means clustering and k-medoids. For density-based methods, it lists DBSCAN, OPTICS, DENCLUE. For grid-based methods, it lists CLIQUE, STING, MAFIA, WAVE CLUSTER, O-CLUSTER, ASGC, and
Data Security in Cloud Computing Using Linear ProgrammingIOSR Journals
This document discusses a method for securely outsourcing linear programming (LP) computations to the cloud. It proposes to decompose LP computation into public LP solvers running on the cloud and private LP parameters owned by the customer. It develops efficient privacy-preserving problem transformation techniques that allow customers to transform their original LP problem into an arbitrary problem while protecting sensitive input and output. It also explores the duality theorem of LP to derive conditions for validating the computation result with close-to-zero cost. The method aims to achieve practical efficiency for secure outsourcing of LP problems to the cloud.
The document discusses the role of communications as a key enabler for the smart distribution network. It argues that power engineering innovation is increasingly dependent on communication capabilities. It outlines challenges with existing communication paradigms and key challenges that need to be addressed, including the need for cost-effective, ubiquitous, high-availability, and secure communications. It concludes that utilities, regulators, and the telecommunications industry need to work together to develop an integrated vision and strategy.
Mobile phones have become essential communication tools globally due to their ability to stay connected with others. Early mobile phones were bulky and expensive with poor reception, but technological advances have made phones smaller, more affordable, and with improved reception. Mobile telephony has evolved through generations from 0G to 4G, offering greater capabilities like texting, internet access, and multimedia services. While mobile phones provide many benefits, they also present challenges like unsolicited texts and lack of regulation of mobile spam.
The document discusses telecommunications networks and applications. It covers topics like major developments in telecommunications technologies, the business value of the internet, intranets and extranets. Components of telecommunications networks are identified as terminals, telecommunications processors, channels and computers. Types of networks explained are WAN, LAN, VPN, client/server, network computing and peer-to-peer. The document also discusses telecommunications media like twisted-pair wire and coaxial cable. Case studies on wireless business applications and using mobile technologies for emergency services are presented.
Cellular Connectivity: Changing the Landscape of the Cellular Backhaul Market...ST Engineering iDirect
The demand for connectivity is surging worldwide. Today more than ever, more people in more places are connecting for work, entertainment, social communications, and education. Increasingly, they’re using smartphones, tablets, and other easy-to-carry devices. And in many underdeveloped parts of the world, smartphones are often the only Internet access technology that’s both affordable and available.
As a result, mobile networks are poised to become the primary way in which we connect. According to the 2018 Ericsson Mobility Report, there will be 7.2 billion smartphone subscriptions by 2023. Total data traffic has surged by 400% from 2013 to today and is projected to explode another 500% by 2023.
Causes of Fiber Cut and the Recommendation to Solve the ProblemIOSRJECE
Optical fiber technology has transformed the telecom landscape in Ghana in recent years owing to its overwhelming advantages over the traditional transmission medium. Though the technology is highly immune to electromagnetic wave, it also offers a higher capacity of bandwidth for data and voice activities. The fiber infrastructure in Ghana has experienced a lot of fiber cuts incidences. And this has affected network quality delivery, increased operational expenditure and decline revenue margins of the telcos. This research was carried out in two phases using MTN Ghana (Western and Central Region) as a case study, to establish the root causes and remedial actions to curb it. First, Pareto and Ishakawa analytical tools were applied to the primary source data for the analysis. Secondly, a purposive survey was administered to acquire additional information. It was established that activities of government sponsored projects and private developers were largely responsible for the menace due to; negligence, ignorance, lack of coordination etc. On the bases, it’s recommended that telcos and stakeholders embark on educational campaign to sensitize the public on optical fiber cables whiles the government of Ghana put in measures to build mandatory right-of-way with support from the private sector.
Hossain markendahl2021 article-comparison_oflpwan_technologiesc july 2021 vvv...VaddiNagaPrasuna
This document compares the cost structures and scalability of various LPWAN technologies for IoT deployments. It presents a framework for assessing the viability of IoT communication technologies. The paper analyzes the inter-technology interference impact on LoRaWAN and Sigfox scalability. It compares the costs of deploying Sigfox, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT, LTE-M and EC-GSM-IoT in both urban and rural scenarios using licensed and unlicensed spectrum. The results validate that a single technology rollout is not cost-efficient, and the scalability of a technology may not be directly related to its cost-effectiveness.
Comparative analysis of LTE backbone transport techniques for efficient broad...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This document provides a comparative analysis of LTE backbone transport techniques for efficient broadband penetration in a heterogeneous network. It discusses how IP/MPLS currently serves as the transport technique but suffers from failures that can cause delays and packet loss. As an alternative, IP/ATM is proposed which can dynamically allocate bandwidth and support varying QoS requirements. The paper aims to evaluate the performance of these two techniques through simulation to establish which better addresses the challenges of IP/MPLS. Simulation results showed IP/ATM had superior performance over IP/MPLS in terms of average bandwidth utilization, mean traffic drop, and mean traffic delay.
This document discusses the deployment of Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks and the importance of in-building solutions to handle increasing mobile data traffic indoors. It notes that LTE will see its first deployments this year and will reinforce the "islands of life" concept by providing continuity of voice and data services in locations like workplaces, homes, malls and train stations. Providing quality in-building coverage presents challenges around architecture, design, installation, optimization and operations that require well-considered solutions. The document outlines best practices for selecting the right in-building LTE solution.
A WIRELESS NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE ARCHITECTURE FOR RURAL COMMUNITIESijcsit
Wireless network implementation is a viable option for building network infrastructure in rural communities. Rural people lack network infrastructures for information services and socio-economic development. The aim of this study was to develop a wireless network infrastructure architecture for network services to rural dwellers. A user-centered approach was applied in the study and a wireless network infrastructure was designed and deployed to cover five rural locations. Data was collected and
analyzed to assess the performance of the network facilities. The results shows that the system had been performing adequately without any downtime with an average of 200 users per month and the quality of service has remained high. The transmit/receive rate of 300Mbps was thrice as fast as the normal Ethernet transmit/receive specification with an average throughput of 1 Mbps. The multiple output/multiple input
(MIMO) point-to-multipoint network design increased the network throughput and the quality of service experienced by the users.
This document discusses wireless communication technologies. It provides an overview of wireless communication types including wired and wireless. It describes the evolution of wireless technologies through four generations (1G to 4G) and discusses multiple access techniques like FDMA and TDMA. The document also outlines advantages of wireless technologies and examples of applications including infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and WiMax.
The document is a report on broadband access technologies submitted by Satish Masina for their Bachelor of Technology degree. It provides an overview of Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), the largest telecommunications provider in India. It discusses BSNL's infrastructure and services, as well as the National Internet Backbone. It also covers various broadband technologies used by BSNL like DSL, ADSL, VDSL, Wi-Fi and WiMax. The report aims to provide information on the technologies enabling broadband access in India.
Third Generation (3G) and Fourth Generation (4G) Mobile Telephony provides a brief review of the development and status of 3G and 4G mobile communications. It discusses that 3G allows higher data rates than 2G but has some limitations that 4G aims to address. The document then discusses key features of 3G including supported data rates and standards. 4G is outlined as supporting further increased data rates up to 20 Mbps through technologies like OFDM and aims to provide improved multimedia, roaming, and lower costs. Technical perspectives on 4G terminals, networks, and applications are also presented.
Energy efficient power control for device to device communication in 5G netw...IJECEIAES
Next generation cellular networks require high capacity, enhanced efficiency of energy and guaranteed quality of service (QoS). To reach these goals, device-to device (D2D) communication is a candidate technologie for future 5th Generation especially applications that require the reuse, the hop and the proximity gain. The present paper studies the energy efficient power control for the uplink of an OFDMA (orthogonal frequency-division multiple access) system composed of both regular cellular users and device-to-device (D2D) pairs. First, we analyze and model mathematically the prerequisites for D2D communications and classical cellular links in terms of minimum rate and maximum power requirement. Second, we use fractional programming in order to convert the initial problem into a concave one and we apply non-cooperative game theory in order to characterize the equilibrium. Then, we got the solution of the problem from the results of a water-filling power allocation. Moreover, we employ a distributed design for power allocation by means of three methods: a) Theory of fractional programming b) Closed form expression (the novelty is the use of Wright Omega function). c) Inverse water filling. Finally, simulations in both static and dynamic channel setting are realized to demontrate the enhanced gain in term of EE, SE (spectral efficiency) and time of execution of the iterative algorithm (Dinkelbach) than the closed form algorithms.
This document summarizes the evolution of wireless mobile communication systems from 1G to 5G. It discusses the key technologies and features of each generation. 1G systems used analog signals for voice calls. 2G introduced digital encryption and SMS. 3G enabled faster speeds and services like video calls and internet access. 4G provides further increased speeds up to 1Gbps and is based on LTE. 5G is expected to offer much higher speeds and bandwidth, near unlimited connectivity, low latency, and new applications through convergence of technologies like cloud computing and nanotechnology. It is predicted 5G will revolutionize wireless communications and be a major driver of social and economic development.
This document discusses wireless energy transfer through high frequency signals. It begins by providing background on wireless energy transfer and the traditional use of electromagnetic induction, which is less efficient and can negatively impact human health. It then proposes using high frequency signals to wirelessly charge electronic devices, where the signals would be transmitted using a transmitter circuit including an oscillator and loudspeaker transducer, and received using a receiver circuit including a microphone transducer, rectifier, and amplifier. The document discusses the components that would be used, including crystal oscillators to produce the high frequencies, and transducers to convert the signals to and from electrical and sound waves. The goal is to enable efficient and safe wireless charging of devices over short ranges.
This presentation provides an overview of advanced telecom technologies, including digital switching principles, fiber optics communication, mobile communication principles like GSM and CDMA, broadband DSL technologies, intelligent networks, ISDN, and next generation networks. It was presented by Ashish Nandan to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at Future Institute of Engineering and Management.
1) The document discusses reducing vertical handover latency in heterogeneous networks consisting of WLAN and 3G to improve quality of service for voice and video streaming.
2) It proposes using an enhanced hybrid scheme combining bidirectional Stream Control Transmission Protocol (Bi-mSCTP) with Mobile IP to further reduce handover latency and packet loss during handovers.
3) This approach aims to allow users to receive services continuously with minimal packet loss, analyzing the performance of the Bi-mSCTP hybrid scheme for real-time traffic like voice and video.
The document discusses computer networks and their basic components. It defines a computer network as two or more connected computers that can communicate. The key components are client computers, a server, network interfaces, a connection medium like cables, a network operating system on the server, and networking devices like hubs and routers. It also describes local area networks (LANs) that connect computers within a small area, and wide area networks (WANs) that connect multiple LANs across a broader geographic area using more advanced technology. Common LAN topologies include bus, ring and star configurations. Transmission methods on a LAN include unicast to a single device, multicast to select devices, and broadcast to all devices on the network
Future-Sat Africa, June 2016_concept documentAdrian Hall
Extensia's inaugural Satellite summit, scheduled for June 2016 in South Africa, will focus on satellite playing an essential role in Africa’s future digital communications strategy across all sectors.
Literature Survey On Clustering TechniquesIOSR Journals
This document provides a literature review of different clustering techniques. It begins by defining clustering and describing the main categories of clustering methods: hierarchical, partitioning, density-based, grid-based, and model-based. It then summarizes some examples of algorithms for each category in 1-2 sentences. For hierarchical methods, it discusses BIRCH, CURE, and CHAMELEON. For partitioning methods, it mentions k-means clustering and k-medoids. For density-based methods, it lists DBSCAN, OPTICS, DENCLUE. For grid-based methods, it lists CLIQUE, STING, MAFIA, WAVE CLUSTER, O-CLUSTER, ASGC, and
Data Security in Cloud Computing Using Linear ProgrammingIOSR Journals
This document discusses a method for securely outsourcing linear programming (LP) computations to the cloud. It proposes to decompose LP computation into public LP solvers running on the cloud and private LP parameters owned by the customer. It develops efficient privacy-preserving problem transformation techniques that allow customers to transform their original LP problem into an arbitrary problem while protecting sensitive input and output. It also explores the duality theorem of LP to derive conditions for validating the computation result with close-to-zero cost. The method aims to achieve practical efficiency for secure outsourcing of LP problems to the cloud.
This document proposes a generalized method for determining ranks in rank-ordered statistics that does not require observations to be numeric or continuous.
The method assigns a value of 1 to observation j if it is greater than or equal to observation i, and 0 if it is less than observation i. The rank of observation j is then the sum of these indicator values. This allows ranks to be determined without explicitly ordering the observations.
The method also intrinsically handles tied observations by assigning them the average of the ranks they would receive if not tied. This avoids issues with existing methods when dealing with ties among non-numeric observations. The proposed approach is demonstrated with sample data.
This document reports on the synthesis and characterization of copper indium disulfide (CuInS2) nanoparticles. CuInS2 nanoparticles were prepared by a solid state melt growth process under vacuum. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the formation of a chalcopyrite crystal structure in the as-prepared sample. Field emission scanning electron microscopy images showed an increase in nanoparticle size after annealing the sample at 200°C. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis demonstrated that the elemental composition of copper, indium, and sulfur was maintained close to the intended stoichiometric ratio.
High Performance Temperature Insensitive Current Mode Rectifier without DiodeIOSR Journals
A new current mode precision rectifier is presented. This circuit provides precision rectification for
wide range of input signal with low temperature sensitivity. It can work as full wave rectifier as well as half
wave rectifier with controllability on action. It can amplify rectified current signal by a bias voltage. Direction
of the output current signal can also be controlled by changing the polarity of the bias voltage. It can operate up
to tens of Giga Hertz. The rectifier circuit with above features does not use any diode but only two CMOS
CCCDTA. Power consumption of the circuit is 601.05μW. The performance of the circuit is verified by PSPICE
simulations
A Quantified Approach for large Dataset Compression in Association MiningIOSR Journals
Abstract: With the rapid development of computer and information technology in the last several decades, an
enormous amount of data in science and engineering will continuously be generated in massive scale; data
compression is needed to reduce the cost and storage space. Compression and discovering association rules by
identifying relationships among sets of items in a transaction database is an important problem in Data Mining.
Finding frequent itemsets is computationally the most expensive step in association rule discovery and therefore
it has attracted significant research attention. However, existing compression algorithms are not appropriate in
data mining for large data sets. In this research a new approach is describe in which the original dataset is
sorted in lexicographical order and desired number of groups are formed to generate the quantification tables.
These quantification tables are used to generate the compressed dataset, which is more efficient algorithm for
mining complete frequent itemsets from compressed dataset. The experimental results show that the proposed
algorithm performs better when comparing it with the mining merge algorithm with different supports and
execution time.
Keywords: Apriori Algorithm, mining merge Algorithm, quantification table
The Analysis of Plyometric Training Program on University Handball PlayersIOSR Journals
This study analyzed the effects of a 16-week plyometric training program on 21 university handball players. Testing was conducted before, during, and after the program to measure changes in explosive power and speed/force capabilities. While explosive power metrics like vertical jump height did not significantly improve, speed/force metrics like medicine ball throws saw reliable gains, especially in female players. The program was effective at improving handball players' ability to perform repeated maximal height jumps quickly, an important skill in the sport. The study demonstrates that plyometric training can boost speed/force abilities more than explosive power in handball players.
This document summarizes a research paper on automated brain tumor segmentation using a hierarchical self-organizing map (HSOM) algorithm. The paper proposes using HSOM for magnetic resonance (MR) image segmentation to accurately identify tissue structures and detect tumors. The HSOM algorithm segments the MR image into affected and unaffected cells in two phases - pre-processing to remove noise from the image, followed by applying the HSOM algorithm. Experimental results on test images show the number of affected cells detected and execution time for segmentation using HSOM. The algorithm accurately segments tumors and counts affected cells compared to ground truths.
Colorization of Gray Scale Images in YCbCr Color Space Using Texture Extract...IOSR Journals
This document describes a technique for colorizing grayscale images by matching texture features between the grayscale image and windows in a color reference image. The technique works by first converting the images to the YCbCr color space, which has decorrelated color channels that allow color to be transferred without artifacts. Texture features like energy, entropy, homogeneity, contrast and correlation are then extracted from windows in the color image and compared to the grayscale image to find the best matching window. The mean and standard deviation of color values in the matching window are then imposed on pixels in the grayscale image to transfer color, while retaining the original luminance values. This process is repeated on small windows across the image to colorize the entire grayscale input.
On Stability Equilibrium Analysis of Endemic MalariaIOSR Journals
This document presents a mathematical model for analyzing the transmission and spread of malaria. It establishes disease-free and endemic equilibriums to represent the states of no infection and sustained infection in the population. Stability analysis is performed on the disease-free equilibrium state. The basic reproduction number R0 is derived, which represents the expected number of secondary infections from one infected individual. It is shown that the disease-free equilibrium is locally asymptotically stable if R0 < 1 and unstable if R0 > 1, indicating the threshold for malaria to spread or die out in the population.
L Inequalities Concerning Polynomials Having Zeros in Closed Interior of A Ci...IOSR Journals
Let
0
( )
n
j
i
j
p z a z
be a polynomial of degree n and p(z) be its derivative, then Zygmund [9]
proved that
1 1
2
0
2
'( ) | ( ) | , 1
0
| |
r r i r i r p e d n p e d r
In this paper we shall obtain similar type of inequalities in reverse order for the polynomials having r fold
zeros at origin and rest of the zeros in | z | k , k 1.
Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 30A10, 30C15, 30C10
Critical barriers impeding the delivery of Physical Education in Zimbabwean p...IOSR Journals
Abstract: This article reviews and analyses the critical factors that have contributed to the trivialisation and
the consequent non teaching of Physical Education in Zimbabwean primary and secondary schools. The paper
analyses and reviews relevant Zimbabwean studies and literature in order to come up with a pattern that
explains the major reasons for the non teaching of this significant, but often neglected subject. The paper also
projects forward by presenting practical suggestions for improvement of the status quo.
Keywords: Physical education delivery, impeding factors, primary and secondary schools, Zimbabwe
A Primer on Cointegration: Application to Nigerian Gross Domestic Product and...IOSR Journals
This document examines the relationship between gross domestic product (GDP) and exports (EXP) in Nigeria from 1970 to 2007 using cointegration analysis. Autocorrelation tests show that GDP and EXP are both non-stationary. Applying the Augmented Engle-Granger method reveals that regressing GDP on EXP produces a cointegrating relationship, not a spurious one. An error correction model indicates that while GDP and EXP have a long-term equilibrium relationship, GDP does not fully adjust to changes in EXP in the short run.
IOSR journal of VLSI and Signal Processing (IOSRJVSP) is an open access journal that publishes articles which contribute new results in all areas of VLSI Design & Signal Processing. The goal of this journal is to bring together researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to focus on advanced VLSI Design & Signal Processing concepts and establishing new collaborations in these areas.
An Overview on Security Issues in Cloud ComputingIOSR Journals
This document discusses security issues in cloud computing. It begins by defining cloud computing and its service models, including software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and infrastructure as a service (IaaS). It then discusses that security is the top challenge for cloud computing according to a survey of IT executives. Specifically, there are concerns about maintaining security, compliance, and control over critical applications and sensitive data when using public cloud environments. The document goes on to provide more details on cloud computing definitions, characteristics, architectures, and the specific security issues involved in cloud computing.
Quantum Cryptography Using Past-Future EntanglementIOSR Journals
This paper discusses the concept of past-future entanglement, which allows two qubits to become entangled without directly interacting by interacting with a shared quantum field at different times. The paper proposes using past-future entanglement as a novel approach for quantum cryptography. If an eavesdropper interacts with the quantum field during the time interval where no qubits are interacting, it would disturb the entanglement and be detectable. Additionally, without access to the entangled qubit, an eavesdropper could not derive the encrypted key even if they obtain classical bits from the field. Past-future entanglement could enable secure key distribution and quantum teleportation through time via the quantum field.
Analysis of Cow’s Urine for Detection of Lipase Activity and Anti-Microbial P...IOSR Journals
There is enormous amount of literature in Ayurveda stating the importance of cow’s urine for all purposes, including its importance in our daily life. This research targets on the antimicrobial activity of urine and its biochemical content that can be the key potential factor for its usage as a medicine.
A detailed biochemical analysis of cow’s urine was done to understand its antibacterial/antifungal properties along with lipase activity which could make it a potentially effective anti-cancer agent.
Various micro-organismal plating techniques were applied using Nutrient and Potato Dextrose Agar as the medium for bacterial and fungal growth, to study the inhibitory activity of cow’s urine on these organisms. Thin layer chromatography, Volumetric analysis, Spectrophotometric analysis and Tributyrin tests were conducted on cow’s urine sample to analyze the lipase activity present within the urine content.
Statistical comparisons, of the spectra obtained from the Spectrophotometric analysis of urine sample, were made with those already analyzed on various types of lipase activity detections from previous researches, and similarities were observed in both studies to ascertain the lipase factor potential within cow’s urine sample.
The tests proved that cow’s urine was highly effective in inhibiting bacterial and fungal growth and also a potential natural source of lipase enzyme.
Estimation of Anti Hbs antibody titer in adults during 5-10 years period foll...IOSR Journals
Health care professional are a high risk group for Hepatitis B and are advised vaccination against hepatitis B. The protective antibodies induced by Hepatitis B vaccination wane gradually over period of time and may reach very low or even undetectable levels. A cross sectional prospective study was undertaken to investigate the persistence of anti-HBs levels in health care professionals who had been immunized with HBV vaccine and the need for booster doses of the vaccine. In this cross-sectional study, health care professionals (18 -55 yrs of age) who had received full course of HBV vaccination were sampled and tested for anti-HBs from May 2010 to June 2011. Plasma samples were tested for anti-HBs using ELISA. Titer >=10 mIU/mL was considered to be seroprotective. Individuals with titre <10 /><0.001).According to the above mentioned results, for a high risk group population such as medical students and residents, who are at continuous exposure to HBV, it is reasonable to determine the anti HBsAb response at one month post vaccination However, in order to confirm the persistence of immune protection, we strongly suggest detection of the anti-HBsAb titer at 5 – 10 years after the last inoculation
An Exploration of HCI Design Features and Usability Techniques in GamingIOSR Journals
Abstract: This Conference paper explores the human computer interaction design features relating to gaming
industry. The HCI user design interface development and HCI Usability expectations are discussed in this
paper. HCI design features of Simple Sudoku and Contemporary HCI Expectations are also discussed. And
suggestions are given to develop the Simple Sudoku as per HCI standards and expectations.
Keywords: Brain Computer Interface, Gestures Recognition, Hand Gestures in 3D, Pattern Language
Management Tool, Real Time Strategy Games
Design of a Dual-Band Microstrip Patch Antenna for GPS,WiMAX and WLAN.IOSR Journals
The A multi band microstrip patch antenna has been designed for GPS,WiMAX and WLAN
applications. The proposed antenna is designed by using substrate of RT duroid having permittivity of about 2.2
and loss tangent of 1.The substrate is having thickness of 6mm at which a trapezoidal patch antenna with V slot
has been introduced in this paper. The designing results like S11 parameter return loss,VSWR and field pattern
is plotted successfully. The obtained result is having a two band resonance with S11 less then -10dB and VSWR
less than 2.
So a dual band trapezoidal microstrip patch antenna has been designed and all results are plotted.Simmulating
software used is IE3D.
The document discusses the transition to Next Generation Networks (NGNs). Traditional telecom networks are being replaced by IP-based networks capable of integrating different access technologies and services. This allows for the convergence of fixed, mobile, and data networks. NGNs aim to reduce costs through infrastructure optimization while creating new revenue sources by offering converged services like triple play bundles. However, successful business models for NGNs remain uncertain and will depend on demonstrating clear benefits to customers.
Shashank Narayan completed a summer training internship at Bharti Airtel Ltd. in their UNOC department in Manesar, Haryana. The report provides an overview of the internship, including detailing various telecommunication technologies like PDH, SDH, DWDM, and network performance monitoring tools used by Airtel. It acknowledges the guidance received from managers during the training period.
Power line communication uses existing power lines to transmit data signals. It provides a cost-effective solution compared to installing new communication wiring. The document discusses the basic concepts of power line communication, including that different frequencies are used depending on the wiring and applications can have data rates from kilobits per second to megabits per second over short distances. Advances in digital signal processing have allowed new designs to overcome noise issues on power lines using techniques like spread spectrum modulation and error correction coding. Standards still vary globally which limits technical information sharing for these proprietary systems.
This document summarizes a research paper on designing and implementing a fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) campus network at Technological University in Loikaw, Myanmar. It first discusses FTTH network architectures like active optical network (AON) and passive optical network (PON). It then describes studying FTTH architectures used in Myanmar, fiber transmission technologies, and TCP/IP networking configurations. The implementation at TU Loikaw uses an AON architecture with fiber optic cables transmitting signals across the campus providing high-speed broadband access.
Telcos prefer GPON over EPON for fiber networks due to technical and historical reasons. GPON was designed for phone networks to support both business and residential services. It also allows RF video signals to be transmitted over fiber. EPON is preferred by cable providers as it provides symmetrical bandwidth, important for cable applications. Ultimately the fiber network technologies are moving to all-IP transmission over point-to-point Ethernet connections.
This document summarizes a project to deploy a wireless VoIP network across two rural sites in Bangladesh, serving approximately 80 customers. Key aspects of the project included using commodity wireless networking equipment to build a wireless backbone and last-mile connections, evaluating performance of the wireless links and VoIP service, and exploring providing internet access to a school. The network was designed to use 802.11b wireless technology between repeater stations over distances up to 15km to deliver voice and data services in a cost-effective manner to rural areas that previously lacked affordable communication options.
RF Planning and Optimization in GSM and UMTS NetworksApurv Agrawal
The report covers various aspects involved in improving the network coverage as well as the parameters used in planning of new network sites for GSM and UMTS networks.
Creating The Future Economically-Viable Networks_JAN17Emre Yilmaz
1) The document discusses the need for new radio network systems to meet increasing data traffic demands and diversifying connection needs in the future.
2) A key challenge is ensuring the economic viability of these new systems for network operators, as costs per megabyte have decreased. Any new system must prioritize cost reductions.
3) The author proposes several approaches to reduce network costs, such as using intelligent optimization to reduce energy usage, redesigning network architecture to centralize equipment, and employing a multi-tiered network structure using different spectrum bands.
Analysis of back propagation and radial basis function neural networks for ha...IJECEIAES
This document analyzes the use of back propagation neural networks (BPNN) and radial basis function (RBF) neural networks for making handover decisions in wireless communication networks. It finds that RBF neural networks provide better results than BPNN for handover classification, achieving an accuracy of 90%. Specifically, it evaluates the performance of these classifiers based on the number of hidden layer neurons, training time, and classification accuracy. RBF neural networks are shown to give faster and more accurate classifications compared to BPNN for the purpose of vertical handovers between different wireless technologies.
A book which covers all available telecom systems, shows inter-relationships, and also covers aspects of data communications and some aspects of IT Infrastructure. Useful guide to practising professionals and to students wishing to build a career in these fields in industry.l
Lawful interception monitoring using distributed architecture for ngn 2IAEME Publication
The document proposes a distributed architecture for lawful interception in Next Generation Networks (NGNs). It discusses the challenges of intercepting communications in complex IP-based networks. The proposed architecture is hierarchical, with a Central LI Entity connecting to Intermediate LI Entities that connect to Base LI Entities located at service provider gateways. This distributed approach reduces processing load while allowing centralized control and administration through the Central LI Entity. An example SIP-H323 call flow is discussed to demonstrate how lawful interception could be implemented using this architecture in heterogeneous networks.
This internship report summarizes Muhammad ZainUl Abideen's internship at the Switching Department of National Telecom Corporation (NTC) in Islamabad from October 2, 2014. It discusses NTC's progress since its establishment in 1996, including developing its own infrastructure like optical fiber backbone, billing system, and multi-services data network. It describes the various departments of NTC and services it offers. It also provides an overview of NTC's EWSD digital switching system, digital telephony, and plans to migrate to an IP-based next generation network.
Te 1 introduction to telecommunications_updatedShohan Ean
This document provides an overview of key concepts in telecommunications and computer networking. It discusses telecommunication systems, data communication models, transmission media, wide area networks, local area networks, and the Internet. Specific topics covered include circuit switching versus packet switching, frame relay, asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), Ethernet, TCP/IP, and the hierarchical structure of networks connecting end systems globally. Examples are provided to illustrate communication concepts and network elements.
The document discusses network sharing opportunities in LTE mobile networks. It describes how network sharing can help reduce costs for mobile service providers facing increasing data traffic and changing revenue models. The standards allow for two types of network sharing - national roaming, where one operator's customers access another's network, and eUTRAN sharing, where operators share active network elements like base stations. eUTRAN sharing has two approaches defined in 3GPP - Multi-Operator Core Network (MOCN), where the shared network connects to separate core networks, and Gateway Core Network (GWCN), where the shared MME is also shared. Customer cases illustrate how different sharing models may apply depending on the market situation and operators' objectives.
Mobile systems face challenges when connecting to Next Generation Networks (NGN) due to differences between circuit-switched mobile networks and the IP-based NGN. A new Base Station Gateway is proposed to provide these connections. NGN aims to reduce costs and offer integrated services via common IP technology, while mobile networks have evolved through generations based on circuit switching and packet technologies. Connecting mobile networks to the NGN backbone allows access to NGN services but requires protocol conversion through mobile media gateways.
This document discusses deploying an IP/MPLS communications network for smart grids. It describes how traditional utility networks use TDM which has limitations for new smart grid applications requiring IP. The document outlines requirements for smart grid networks including bandwidth, security, reliability and manageability. It then describes Nokia's IP/MPLS network solution using products like routers, switches, and a management platform. The network provides migration from TDM, supports legacy and new applications, and enables utilities to improve operational efficiency.
Wireless network implementation is a viable option for building network infrastructure in rural
communities. Rural people lack network infrastructures for information services and socio-economic
development. The aim of this study was to develop a wireless network infrastructure architecture for
network services to rural dwellers. A user-centered approach was applied in the study and a wireless
network infrastructure was designed and deployed to cover five rural locations. Data was collected and
analyzed to assess the performance of the network facilities. The results shows that the system had been
performing adequately without any downtime with an average of 200 users per month and the quality of
service has remained high. The transmit/receive rate of 300Mbps was thrice as fast as the normal Ethernet
transmit/receive specification with an average throughput of 1 Mbps. The multiple output/multiple input
(MIMO) point-to-multipoint network design increased the network throughput and the quality of service
experienced by the users.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
This document discusses propagation models for simulating wireless networks in NS-3. It provides an overview of NS-3 and describes several propagation models that are implemented in NS-3, including Friis, Log Distance, Jakes, Nakagami, and COST-231 Walfisch Ikegami models. These models predict path loss and fading to simulate wireless channel effects. The document also discusses next generation networks and the need for accurate propagation models to simulate their performance.
This document provides a technical review of secure banking using RSA and AES encryption methodologies. It discusses how RSA and AES are commonly used encryption standards for secure data transmission between ATMs and bank servers. The document first provides background on ATM security measures and risks of attacks. It then reviews related work analyzing encryption techniques. The document proposes using a one-time password in addition to a PIN for ATM authentication. It concludes that implementing encryption standards like RSA and AES can make transactions more secure and build trust in online banking.
This document analyzes the performance of various modulation schemes for achieving energy efficient communication over fading channels in wireless sensor networks. It finds that for long transmission distances, low-order modulations like BPSK are optimal due to their lower SNR requirements. However, as transmission distance decreases, higher-order modulations like 16-QAM and 64-QAM become more optimal since they can transmit more bits per symbol, outweighing their higher SNR needs. Simulations show lifetime extensions up to 550% are possible in short-range networks by using higher-order modulations instead of just BPSK. The optimal modulation depends on transmission distance and balancing the energy used by electronic components versus power amplifiers.
This document provides a review of mobility management techniques in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). It discusses three modes of communication in VANETs: vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), and hybrid vehicle (HV) communication. For each communication mode, different mobility management schemes are required due to their unique characteristics. The document also discusses mobility management challenges in VANETs and outlines some open research issues in improving mobility management for seamless communication in these dynamic networks.
This document provides a review of different techniques for segmenting brain MRI images to detect tumors. It compares the K-means and Fuzzy C-means clustering algorithms. K-means is an exclusive clustering algorithm that groups data points into distinct clusters, while Fuzzy C-means is an overlapping clustering algorithm that allows data points to belong to multiple clusters. The document finds that Fuzzy C-means requires more time for brain tumor detection compared to other methods like hierarchical clustering or K-means. It also reviews related work applying these clustering algorithms to segment brain MRI images.
1) The document simulates and compares the performance of AODV and DSDV routing protocols in a mobile ad hoc network under three conditions: when users are fixed, when users move towards the base station, and when users move away from the base station.
2) The results show that both protocols have higher packet delivery and lower packet loss when users are either fixed or moving towards the base station, since signal strength is better in those scenarios. Performance degrades when users move away from the base station due to weaker signals.
3) AODV generally has better performance than DSDV, with higher throughput and packet delivery rates observed across the different user mobility conditions.
This document describes the design and implementation of 4-bit QPSK and 256-bit QAM modulation techniques using MATLAB. It compares the two techniques based on SNR, BER, and efficiency. The key steps of implementing each technique in MATLAB are outlined, including generating random bits, modulation, adding noise, and measuring BER. Simulation results show scatter plots and eye diagrams of the modulated signals. A table compares the results, showing that 256-bit QAM provides better performance than 4-bit QPSK. The document concludes that QAM modulation is more effective for digital transmission systems.
The document proposes a hybrid technique using Anisotropic Scale Invariant Feature Transform (A-SIFT) and Robust Ensemble Support Vector Machine (RESVM) to accurately identify faces in images. A-SIFT improves upon traditional SIFT by applying anisotropic scaling to extract richer directional keypoints. Keypoints are processed with RESVM and hypothesis testing to increase accuracy above 95% by repeatedly reprocessing images until the threshold is met. The technique was tested on similar and different facial images and achieved better results than SIFT in retrieval time and reduced keypoints.
This document studies the effects of dielectric superstrate thickness on microstrip patch antenna parameters. Three types of probes-fed patch antennas (rectangular, circular, and square) were designed to operate at 2.4 GHz using Arlondiclad 880 substrate. The antennas were tested with and without an Arlondiclad 880 superstrate of varying thicknesses. It was found that adding a superstrate slightly degraded performance by lowering the resonant frequency and increasing return loss and VSWR, while decreasing bandwidth and gain. Specifically, increasing the superstrate thickness or dielectric constant resulted in greater changes to the antenna parameters.
This document describes a wireless environment monitoring system that utilizes soil energy as a sustainable power source for wireless sensors. The system uses a microbial fuel cell to generate electricity from the microbial activity in soil. Two microbial fuel cells were created using different soil types and various additives to produce different current and voltage outputs. An electronic circuit was designed on a printed circuit board with components like a microcontroller and ZigBee transceiver. Sensors for temperature and humidity were connected to the circuit to monitor the environment wirelessly. The system provides a low-cost way to power remote sensors without needing battery replacement and avoids the high costs of wiring a power source.
1) The document proposes a model for a frequency tunable inverted-F antenna that uses ferrite material.
2) The resonant frequency of the antenna can be significantly shifted from 2.41GHz to 3.15GHz, a 31% shift, by increasing the static magnetic field placed on the ferrite material.
3) Altering the permeability of the ferrite allows tuning of the antenna's resonant frequency without changing the physical dimensions, providing flexibility to operate over a wide frequency range.
This document summarizes a research paper that presents a speech enhancement method using stationary wavelet transform. The method first classifies speech into voiced, unvoiced, and silence regions based on short-time energy. It then applies different thresholding techniques to the wavelet coefficients of each region - modified hard thresholding for voiced speech, semi-soft thresholding for unvoiced speech, and setting coefficients to zero for silence. Experimental results using speech from the TIMIT database corrupted with white Gaussian noise at various SNR levels show improved performance over other popular denoising methods.
This document reviews the design of an energy-optimized wireless sensor node that encrypts data for transmission. It discusses how sensing schemes that group nodes into clusters and transmit aggregated data can reduce energy consumption compared to individual node transmissions. The proposed node design calculates the minimum transmission power needed based on received signal strength and uses a periodic sleep/wake cycle to optimize energy when not sensing or transmitting. It aims to encrypt data at both the node and network level to further optimize energy usage for wireless communication.
This document discusses group consumption modes. It analyzes factors that impact group consumption, including external environmental factors like technological developments enabling new forms of online and offline interactions, as well as internal motivational factors at both the group and individual level. The document then proposes that group consumption modes can be divided into four types based on two dimensions: vertical (group relationship intensity) and horizontal (consumption action period). These four types are instrument-oriented, information-oriented, enjoyment-oriented, and relationship-oriented consumption modes. Finally, the document notes that consumption modes are dynamic and can evolve over time.
The document summarizes a study of different microstrip patch antenna configurations with slotted ground planes. Three antenna designs were proposed and their performance evaluated through simulation: a conventional square patch, an elliptical patch, and a star-shaped patch. All antennas were mounted on an FR4 substrate. The effects of adding different slot patterns to the ground plane on resonance frequency, bandwidth, gain and efficiency were analyzed parametrically. Key findings were that reshaping the patch and adding slots increased bandwidth and shifted resonance frequency. The elliptical and star patches in particular performed better than the conventional design. Three antenna configurations were selected for fabrication and measurement based on the simulations: a conventional patch with a slot under the patch, an elliptical patch with slots
1) The document describes a study conducted to improve call drop rates in a GSM network through RF optimization.
2) Drive testing was performed before and after optimization using TEMS software to record network parameters like RxLevel, RxQuality, and events.
3) Analysis found call drops were occurring due to issues like handover failures between sectors, interference from adjacent channels, and overshooting due to antenna tilt.
4) Corrective actions taken included defining neighbors between sectors, adjusting frequencies to reduce interference, and lowering the mechanical tilt of an antenna.
5) Post-optimization drive testing showed improvements in RxLevel, RxQuality, and a reduction in dropped calls.
This document describes the design of an intelligent autonomous wheeled robot that uses RF transmission for communication. The robot has two modes - automatic mode where it can make its own decisions, and user control mode where a user can control it remotely. It is designed using a microcontroller and can perform tasks like object recognition using computer vision and color detection in MATLAB, as well as wall painting using pneumatic systems. The robot's movement is controlled by DC motors and it uses sensors like ultrasonic sensors and gas sensors to navigate autonomously. RF transmission allows communication between the robot and a remote control unit. The overall aim is to develop a low-cost robotic system for industrial applications like material handling.
This document reviews cryptography techniques to secure the Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol in mobile ad-hoc networks. It discusses various types of attacks on AODV like impersonation, denial of service, eavesdropping, black hole attacks, wormhole attacks, and Sybil attacks. It then proposes using the RC6 cryptography algorithm to secure AODV by encrypting data packets and detecting and removing malicious nodes launching black hole attacks. Simulation results show that after applying RC6, the packet delivery ratio and throughput of AODV increase while delay decreases, improving the security and performance of the network under attack.
The document describes a proposed modification to the conventional Booth multiplier that aims to increase its speed by applying concepts from Vedic mathematics. Specifically, it utilizes the Urdhva Tiryakbhyam formula to generate all partial products concurrently rather than sequentially. The proposed 8x8 bit multiplier was coded in VHDL, simulated, and found to have a path delay 44.35% lower than a conventional Booth multiplier, demonstrating its potential for higher speed.
This document discusses image deblurring techniques. It begins by introducing image restoration and focusing on image deblurring. It then discusses challenges with image deblurring being an ill-posed problem. It reviews existing approaches to screen image deconvolution including estimating point spread functions and iteratively estimating blur kernels and sharp images. The document also discusses handling spatially variant blur and summarizes the relationship between the proposed method and previous work for different blur types. It proposes using color filters in the aperture to exploit parallax cues for segmentation and blur estimation. Finally, it proposes moving the image sensor circularly during exposure to prevent high frequency attenuation from motion blur.
This document describes modeling an adaptive controller for an aircraft roll control system using PID, fuzzy-PID, and genetic algorithm. It begins by introducing the aircraft roll control system and motivation for developing an adaptive controller to minimize errors from noisy analog sensor signals. It then provides the mathematical model of aircraft roll dynamics and describes modeling the real-time flight control system in MATLAB/Simulink. The document evaluates PID, fuzzy-PID, and PID-GA (genetic algorithm) controllers for aircraft roll control and finds that the PID-GA controller delivers the best performance.
1. IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1676 Volume 4, Issue 4 (Jan. - Feb. 2013), PP 01-13
www.iosrjournals.org
Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
Ritesh C Sadiwala
Senior Engineer, Indian Telephone Industries & Research Scholar, RKDF University Bhopal
Abstract: The communications sector is undergoing significant changes, with the emergence of a number of
platforms available to provide a different range of services. Some of these platforms are complementary, others
are competitive, or can provide a valid substitute for some of the services provided. Till now, the most important
communications platform in most of the countries is the public switched telecommunication network (PSTN),
which provides access to all households and buildings across most countries. This paper focuses on the area
where the most significant changes are taking place in the communications sector. This paper gives a
description of the wire line and wireless (NGN) networks, its basics, its transformation to wireless technology,
need for convergence towards next generation networks and the future of NGN networks. The focus is on the
next generation access and core networks, it is because they are changing the public switched
telecommunication networks, the changes taking place in the PSTN are considerable. For over 100 years
copper has been used as the transmission technology in the local loop to connect each home and building to the
telecommunication network. Copper is increasingly being replaced by fibre in the local loop while packet-based
technology using the Internet Protocol is replacing existing circuit-based switching technologies. This paper
describes the need of wireless technology, why and how it becomes essential in terms of technological, social
and economic need of the society. It tells us about how the circuit switched technology has been switched to IP
technology and how the PSTN networks, which are circuit switched will be converted to packet-based networks
These changes affect existing regulations and policy frameworks, convergence, investment and choice in the
market place. Finally it concludes with the latest developments, which are going on in Wireless systems.
Index Terms – PSTN, NGN, Convergence, LTE
I. INTRODUCTION
Communication networks have become a key economic and social infrastructure in today‘s
economic scenario. The network infrastructure supports all economic sectors, which is crucial to the national
and international exchange of goods and services, and acts as a main catalyst in changing economic
interrelationships through rapid technological change and the proliferation of a range of new services. With the
development of the Internet the role of the communication networks has evolved and their importance has
increased. The advent of higher access speeds, in many cases symmetric speeds, available to business and to
residential subscribers, has also increased the role of communication infrastructures by expanding the available
range of services. High speed networks are increasingly helping resolve ongoing societal concerns in areas such
as the environment, health care and education, and are increasingly playing a role in social networking.
However, for the potential of new network technologies to be realised, the market will require that these
networks have universal, or close to universal coverage. The full potential of networks is only likely to be
achieved where markets are effectively competitive and solutions have been implemented which ensure
adequate coverage to most of the geographic areas. in the telecommunication sector has increased in recent
years to a large extent by the high demand for broadband data access, broadband being one of the latest
technologies with the fastest growth in penetration rates. Technological innovation, stimulated through
digitalisation, has been a major factor in driving change in the communications market. This innovation is
reducing costs and enhancing the capability of networks to support new services and applications. A key
innovation which is expected to bring further significant changes in the communications market is the
transformation from circuit-based public switched telecommunication networks to packet-based networks using
the Internet Protocol, so-called next generation networks (NGN). NGN is expected to completely reshape the
present structure of communication systems and access to the Internet. The present structure of vertically
independent, although interconnected, networks may be transformed into a horizontal structure of networks
based on Internet Protocol. The developments in new communication structures and the impetus they are
expected to give to the present process of convergence in networks, services and terminals are expected to grow
to a larger extent in future. In particular, convergence and the development of the NGN may require a review of
a number of elements of the present structure of economic regulation of communication markets, in order to
ensure that regulation allows the potential benefits of these technologies to rapidly diffuse in economies and
societies. Convergence, by changing service boundaries, service characteristics and stimulating the offer of new
services, may require that new markets are regulated differently than existing ones, and this will be possible
only by enhancement and development of Next Generation Wireless networks.
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2. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
II. ABOUT PSTN
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the network of the world's public circuit-switched
telephone networks. It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular
networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all inter-connected by switching centers
,thus allowing any telephone in the world to communicate with any other. Originally a network of fixed-line
analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost entirely digital in its core and includes mobile as well as
fixed telephones. Historically, incumbent operators typically ran one network — the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN). The PSTN was designed to carry voice when voice was the only communication carried. As
demand for data communications developed the incumbents adapted their networks to also carry data traffic.
However, typically, rather than replacing the PSTN operators typically built new networks that they ran in
parallel – which is called the overlay network. These new overlay networks were designed specifically to carry
data traffic. As network technology continued to develop, the number of networks multiplied in step. As a result,
today, many operators run typically 5-10 different network platforms (ATM, IP, Frame Relay, ISDN, PSTN,
X.25 etc.). The problem with this multi-network approach is that it has created a web of complexity resulting in
management complexity, operational inefficiencies, smaller economize of scale, maintenance issues, and
duplicating capex.
One such PSTN switch as shown in Figure 2.1 is of Alcatel Lucent OCB-283, which was used by
BSNL and MTNL, TATA, etc operators presently to run their landline and broadband network. The 1000 E10
(OCB283) exchange, also known by its shorter name as the E10 (OCB283), is designed for evolving networks
and the need to rationalize equipment operation. Its modular architecture means that new services can be added
and processing capacity can be increased without interrupting operation of the exchange. OCB 283 is digital
switching system which supports a variety of communication needs like basic telephony, ISDN, interface to
mobile communication, data communication etc. Telecommunications networks are constantly changing. The
rapid growth of the digital network, mobile network and intelligent network and the proliferation of new
services constantly being offered to subscribers mean that equipment must be continuously adapted to new
requirements. The 1000 E10 (OCB283) exchange, also known by its shorter name as the E10 (OCB283), is
designed for evolving networks and the need to rationalize equipment operation. Its modular architecture means
that new services can be added and processing capacity can be increased without interrupting operation of the
exchange. The E10 (OCB283) is a multipurpose exchange. It can be used for a specific function as well as to
combine several applications in the same equipment. The multipurpose properties of the E10 (OCB283) mean
that it can be used in widely varying contexts. The E10 (OCB283) configuration provide solutions for the
following:
a) The application for which it is intended (local switching center, international switching center, etc.)
b) The environment (urban area, rural area).
c) The volume and type of the traffic to be handled.
d) The resources of the telecommunications network to which it is connected. The E10 (OCB283) can be used
for all switching applications local switching center, regional or national transit center, international transit
center, intelligent network service access point, mobile service access point.
e) The E10 (OCB283) can also provide the STP (signaling transfer point) function of the Nº 7 signaling
network.
Figure 2.1. PSTN (OCB-283) Switch in a Wireline network .
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3. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
BSC: Base Station Controller
BTS: Base Transceiver Station
CN: Digital Concentrator
CSN: Subscriber Digital Access Unit
PRAD: Primary Rate Access, Directly connected to the exchange
SCP: Service Control Point
SMP: Service Management Point
Figure 2.2 General Architecture of PSTN System
General Architecture of PSTN Switch as shown in Figure 2.2 has three basic subsystems: -
1)Subscriber Access Subsystem
2) Connection and Control Subsystem
3) Operation and Maintenance Subsystem
1) SUBSCRIBER ACCESS SUBSYSTEM
This is treated as an independent entity. Every Subscriber Connecting Equipment Rack is given a
Signaling Point Number to operate in Common Channel Signaling mode with rest of the exchange Subsystems.
2) CONNECTION AND CONTROL SUBSYSTEM
This unit includes control functions and connection and switching Equipments. Control Functions has
common control equipments which process, monitor and control the call setup and release. Connection and
switching block comprises of Switching matrix equipment for performing digital time switching of speech path.
Connection equipments for connecting PCM (DIGITAL) Junctions from other exchanges and RSU‘s. Auxiliary
Equipments for Tones, Frequencies and other auxiliaries for signaling protocol handling.
3) OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE SUBSYSTEM
This section is used for Operation and Maintenance of exchange by operators. The functional
architecture of the PSTN System as shown in Figure 2.3 comprises of following distinct components:
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4. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
Figure 2.3 Functional Architecture of PSTN System
A) SWITCHING NETWORK
These provides facility for CONNECTING the LRs (internal PCM‘s) coming from connection units
and performs Switching Operation for Calling Subscriber TS onto called Subscriber TS and vice versa for a two
way connection per call of telephony. In an Electronic Stored Programme Control Digital Exchange like OCB –
283, all operation and maintenance activities are performed by a unit called O&M unit or OMC(Operation and
Maintenance Centre).This provides access for Man machine dialogues for the human operators to interact and
command the working of Exchange Equipments. The function of the operation & maintenance subsystems are
carried out by the operation & maintenance software (OM). The operating authority accesses all hardware &
software equipment of the PSTN system via computer terminals belonging to the operation and maintenance
subsystems: consoles, magnetic media, and intelligent terminal.
B) CONNECTION UNITS
These provide facility to connect a subscribers loop or circuits from an external PCM and transfer these
speech samples on to selected Time slots called voice channels on a LR link (internal PCM) towards switching
matrix and vice versa.
C) CONTROL UNITS
These units provides control of calls on the basis of Stored programmes. They process the calls on
reception of dialled digits from calling subscriber/circuit and take part in handling of call setup and release by
processing, monitoring, measuring charging of calls and all other common control functions needed for working
of an Automatic Common control Exchange.
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5. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
II.I System Architecture of PSTN System
A PSTN system comprises of following hardware units:
1) Subscriber Access Units (CSNL, CSND, CSED)
2) Trunks and Junction connection Units (SMT)
3) Switching Matrix (SMX)
4) Auxiliary Equipments (SMA)
5) Control Units (SMC)
6) Communication multiplexes (MIS & MAS Token rings)
7) Time Base generator (STS)
8) Operation and Maintenance Unit (SMM)
The subscriber connection units CSN, SMTs and SMAs are connected to switching network through PCM links.
The interchange of messages between SMT, SMX, SMA and control units SMCs takes place on ‗MAS‘ token
rings. The control units interchange messages with one another and with SMM on ‗MIS‘ token rings.
The SMM is the O&M function unit & is duplicated as SMMA & SMMB. These are in Pilot/Standby mode.
The SMCs are the units, which hold control functions MR, TR, TX, MQ, PC, GX and these
FUNCTIONAL units are in software form and are duplicated except MR, which can be more than two. The
duplicated functions work in load sharing mode (except PC which works in Pilot/Standbye mode) hence SMCs
can be minimum 2 and maximum 32 as per design.The SMA stations hold the ETA &PUPE functions and these
are also minimum 2 to maximum 32.SMT station which is the interface for the external PCMs is made of
duplicated hardware and can handle either 32 PCMs if SMT1G or 128 PCMs if 2G. The SMT‘s hardware is
fully duplicated and functions P/R mode
III. ABOUT NGN
Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network able to provide services including
Telecommunication Services and able to make use of multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport technologies
and in which service-related functions are independent from underlying transport-related technologies. It offers
unrestricted access by users to different service providers. It supports generalized mobility, which will allow
consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to users. Next Generation Mobile and Wireless Networks
(NGMWNs) plays central role to bring together the users, operators, and application developers. From an end-
user‘s point of view, NGN should consistently present him/her with the same personalized services whatever the
network that serves him/her and whatever the terminal technology he/she uses. From applications developers‘
point of view, NGN offers resources and interfaces Application Programming Interfaces ―APIs‖ through which
the applications are deployed. From an operators‘ point of view, NGN is concerned with provisioning and
guaranteeing end to end (e2e) Quality of Service (QoS) in the context of all-IP heterogeneous network. In order
to meet with such high expectation, NGN network have gone through many changes to come up optimized
network design without incurring major changes to network infrastructure. Next Generation Networks aim to
reverse the clock and go back to the simplicity of one single network. NGN is all about deploying one network
platform capable of supporting all traffic types while facilitating service innovation simplifying the network and
streamlining the support structure NGNs can also be defined in terms of their technical characteristics which are
as follows:
(i) IP-based network: A single IP-based core network handling the full range of telecom services. Next
generation core networks‖ generally cover the migration from multiple legacy core networks to IP-based
networks for the provision of all services. This means that all information is transmitted via packets. Packets can
take different routes to the same destination, and therefore do not require the establishment of an end-to-end
dedicated path as is the case for PSTN-based communications.
(ii) Packet-based, multi-purpose: In NGN different kinds of applications can be transformed into packets,
labelled accordingly and delivered simultaneously over a number of different transport technologies, allowing a
shift from single-purpose networks (one network, one service), to multi-purpose networks (one network, many
services). Interworking between the NGN and existing networks such as PSTN, ISDN, cable, and mobile
networks can be provided by means of media gateways.
(iii) Separation of transport and service layer: This constitutes the key common factor between NGN and
convergence, bringing about the radical change in relationship between network ―layers‖ (transport
infrastructure, transport services and control, content services and applications). In next generation networks
service-related functions are independent from underlying transport-related technologies as shown in Figure 3.1.
The uncoupling of applications and networks allow applications to be defined directly at the service level and
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6. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
provide seamlessly over different platforms, allowing for market entry by multiple service providers on a non-
discriminatory basis. Distributed rather than centralized switching, routing and network intelligence enabling
remote access, control and maintenance.
Figure 3.1 Separation of Layers in NGN
NGNs also have important service characteristics:
a) Continuity – Consumers will be able to continue to use those PSTN services they are used to, with essentially
no change.
b) Ease of migration – Consumers will be able to migrate seamlessly to new services offered by the same
operator.
c) Single access to multiple services – Driven by the separation of the service layer from the network layer.
d) Innovative new services – New services will have richer functionality (e.g. personalised, location-aware), and
reduced time-to-market, since they exploit the distributed intelligence inherent in an NGN.
e) Empowerment – Consumers will have an increased capability to configure and manage services to meet their
personal requirements.
III.I Network Architecture of NGN
In contrast to the circuit-switched model of previous systems, NGN also referred as ―Long Term
Evolution (LTE)‖ has been designed to support only packet-switched services. It aims to provide seamless
Internet Protocol (IP) connectivity between user equipment (UE) and the packet data network (PDN), without
any disruption to the end users‘ applications during mobility. While the term ―LTE‖ encompasses the evolution
of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) radio access through the Evolved UTRAN (E-
UTRAN), it is accompanied by an evolution of the non-radio aspects under the term ―System Architecture
Evolution‖ (SAE), which includes the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) network. Together LTE and SAE comprise
the Evolved Packet System (EPS).EPS uses the concept of EPS bearers to route IP traffic from a gateway in the
PDN to the UE. A bearer is an IP packet flow with a defined quality of service (QoS) between the gateway and
the UE. The E-UTRAN and EPC together set up and release bearers as required by applications.
Figure3.2 NGN Network Architecture
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7. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
NGN Network Architecture as shown in Figure 3.2 consists of Network Elements, which are as under
1.Packet based networks:-Trend is to use IP based networks over various transport possibilities (ATM, SDH,
WDM…).IP based networks must offer guarantees of Quality of Service (QoS) regarding the real time
characteristics of voice, video and multimedia.
2. Access Gateways: - It allows the connection of subscriber lines to the packet network converts the traffic
flows of analogue access (Pots) or 2 Mb/s access devices into packets,provides subscriber access to NGN
network and services.
3. Trunking Gateways: - It allows interworking between classical TDM telephony network and Packet-based
NGN networks, converts TDM circuits/ trunks (64kbps) flows into data packets, and vice versa.
4.Softswitch/MGC: - MGC referred to as the Call Agent or Media Gateway Controller (MGC) which provides
the ―service delivery control‖ within the network,in charge of Call Control and handling of Media Gateways
control (Access and/or Trunking) via H.248 protocol. It performs signalling gateway functionality or uses a
signalling gateway for interworking with PSTN N7 signalling network and provides connection to Intelligent
Network /applications servers to offer the same services as those available to TDM subscribers
5. Application Server (AS):- A unit that supports service execution, e.g. to control Call Servers and NGN
special resources (e.g. media server, message server).
6. H.248 Protocol :-It is also known as ‗MEGACO‘is a standard protocol, defined by ITU-T, for signalling and
session management needed during a communication between a media gateway, and the media gateway
controller managing it.H.248/MEGACO allows to set up, keep, and terminate calls between multiple endpoints
as between telephone subscribers using the TDM.
7. SIP :- Session Initiation Protocol in order to handle call establishment, maintenance and termination from
packet mode terminals.
8. Signalling Gateway (SG):- A unit that provides signalling conversion between the NGN and the other
networks (e.g. STP in SS7).
9.ENUM:-Electronic Numbering is a Protocol that allows to establish a correspondence between the traditional
telephone numbering (E.164 ) and the network addresses related to the packet mode networks ( RFC 2916
"E.164 number and DNS" IETF).
10. MPLS:- Multiprotocol Label Switch or protocol that assigns labels to information packets in order to allow
the node routers to treat and route flows in the network paths according to established priority for each category.
11.CAC:- Call Acceptance Control function in order to accept/reject traffic in the network that allows guarantee
of QoS for services with a Service Level Agreement
12. BGP :- Border Gateway Protocol to negotiate flow routing procedures and capacities across different NGN
network domains.
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8. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
IV. Functional Architecture Of NGN
Figure 4.1 NGN Functional Architecture
Functional Architecture of NGN as shown in Figure 4.1 consists of three gateways as under
A) PDN Gateway (P-GW)
B) Serving Gateway (S-GW)
C) Mobility Management Entity (MME)
(A) PDN Gateway (P-GW): - The core network (called EPC in SAE) is responsible for the overall control of
the UE and establishment of the bearers.in addition to these nodes, EPC also includes other logical nodes and
functions such as the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) and the Policy Control and Charging Rules Function
(PCRF). Since the EPS only provides a bearer path of a certain QoS, control of multimedia applications such as
VoIP is provided by the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), which is considered to be outside the EPS itself. The
PDN Gateway is responsible for IP address allocation for the UE, as well as QoS enforcement and flow-based
charging according to rules from the PCRF. It is responsible for the filtering of downlink user IP packets into
the different QoS-based bearers. This is performed based on Traffic Flow Templates (TFTs). The P-GW
performs QoS enforcement for guaranteed bit rate (GBR) bearers. It also serves as the mobility anchor for
interworking with non-3GPP technologies such as CDMA2000 and WiMAX networks.
(B) Serving Gateway (S-GW): - All user IP packets are transferred through the Serving Gateway, which serves
as the local mobility anchor for the data bearers when the UE moves between eNodeBs. It also retains the
information about the bearers when the UE is in the idle state (known as ―EPS Connection Management —
IDLE‖ [ECM-IDLE]) and temporarily buffers downlink data while the MME initiates paging of the UE to
reestablish the bearers. In addition, the S-GW performs some administrative functions in the visited network
such as collecting information for charging (for example, the volume of data sent to or received from the user)
and lawful interception. It also serves as the mobility anchor for interworking with other 3GPP technologies
such as general packet radio service (GPRS) and UMTS.
(C) Mobility Management Entity (MME): - The Mobility Management Entity (MME) is the control node that
processes the signaling between the UE and the CN. The protocols running between the UE and the CN are
known as the Non Access Stratum (NAS) protocols. The main functions supported by the MME can be
classified as
(i) Functions related to bearer management – This includes the establishment, maintenance and release of the
bearers and is handled by the session management layer in the NAS protocol.
(ii) Functions related to connection management – This includes the establishment of the connection and
security between the network and UE and is handled by the connection or mobility management layer in the
NAS protocol layer
V. Convergence and NGN
Convergence in network technologies services and in terminal equipment is at the basis of change in
innovative offers and new business models in the communications sector. The utilization of the term
―convergence‖ represents the shift from the traditional ―vertical silos‖ architecture, i.e. a situation in which
different services were provided through separate networks (mobile, fixed, CATV, IP), to a situation in which
communication services will be accessed and used seamlessly across different networks and provided over
multiple platforms, in an interactive way. Today‘s consumers demand is for communications: one-way (video,
traffic reports, location, etc,), two-way (traditional voice, e-mail, etc.), symmetrical (traditional voice calls, e-
mails, etc) or asymmetrical (file downloads, movies, etc.). The communications may be fixed, mobile,
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9. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
interactive, or unidirectional. With the technology and the move to IP protocol, all of these features can be
handled in a few devices and networks – maybe only one. The full integration and convergence of the networks
is only beginning to emerge.
V.I WHAT IS CONVERGENCE
The path towards convergence was led mainly by the increasing digitalisation of content, the shift
towards IP-based networks, the diffusion of high-speed broadband access, and the availability of multi-media
communication and computing devices. Convergence is taking place at different levels:
(i) Network convergence – It is driven by the shift towards IP-based broadband networks. It includes fixed-
mobile convergence and ‗three-screen convergence‘ (mobile, TV and computer).
(ii) Service convergence – It enables stemming from network convergence and innovative handsets, which
allows the access to web-based applications, and the provision of traditional and new value-added services from
a multiplicity of devices.
(iii)Industry/market convergence – It brings together in the same field industries such as information
technology, telecommunication, and media, formerly operating in separate markets.
(iv) Legislative, institutional and regulatory convergence – It includes protocols taking place between
broadcasting and telecommunication regulation. Policy makers are considering converged regulation to address
content or services independently from the networks over which they are provided (technology neutral
regulation).
(v) Device convergence –It helps devices to include together a microprocessor, a screen, storage, input device
and some kind of network connection so that together they provide multiple communication functions and
applications.
(vi)Converged user experience:-It makes unique interface between end-users and telecommunications, new
media, and computer technologies. The process towards convergence has been based on an evolution of
technologies and business models, rather than
a revolution. This process has led to entry of new players into the market, increasing competition among players
operating in different markets and the necessity for traditional operators to co-operate with companies
previously in other fields. As a result, convergence has become an important part for the telecommunication
sector.
Table 5. Comparison between existing network and IP-based converged network
Existing Next generation converged
Networks Networks
Single purpose Multi-purpose networks
networks
PSTN, cellular, IP network (providing voice,
broadcast video and mobile services)
Narrowband Broadband
Vertical Silos Destroys
compartmentalization
i.e,Traditional boundaries
between industry segments
(e.g., telephony, cableTV,
broadcasting, wireless) are
blurring and Need to re-think
market definitions (product
definition and geographic
boundaries definition)
Network-service New services and content
link developed independently of the
network
Operators Increased consumer control
control services
to end users
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10. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
VI. NGN Drivers and Its Impact on Telecom Sector
NGN is an evolutionary process and it can be expected that operators will take different migratory
paths, switching to NGN while gradually phasing out existing circuit networks, or building a fully-IP enabled
network from the outset. Telecommunication operators across the world have been faced with a decline in the
number of fixed-line telephone subscribers, coupled with a decrease in average revenue per user (ARPU), as a
result of competition from mobile and broadband services. Traditional sources of revenue (voice
communications) have declined rapidly and fixed-lines operators are subject to an increase in competitive
pressure in the market to lower tariffs and offer innovative services. This has generated pressure from the
investors‘ community to decrease the cost and complexity of managing multiple legacy networks, by
disinvesting from non-core assets and reducing operational and capital expenses. The investment in developing
NGN is motivated by several factors, which are given below
Table 6. Reasons for NGN Networks
TECHNOLOGICAL ECONOMIC SOCIAL REASONS
REASONS REASONS
Obsolescence of legacy Erosion of Demand for innovative,
networks, plus cost and fixed line voice high bandwidth,services
complexity in managing call (HDTV, VoIP, etc).
multiple legacy revenues.
networks.
Lower capital and Competitive Demand for more
operational expenses. pressure from targeted or
new entrants in personalised content (on-
high-margin demand multimedia
sectors of the services, mobility).
market
Increased centralization Saturation of Demand for increased
of routing, switching and both Fixed and interactivity: possibility
transmission, lower Mobile to interact actively with
transmission costs over telephone the service, growing
optical networks. services. interest for user-created
content.
IP-based networks Retain and Demand for evolved and
enable the expand users‘ more
provision of cheaper base flexible forms of
VoIP lower customer communications,
services as a churn including instant
replacement for messaging, video-
PSTN voice services. conferencing, P2P, etc.
IP-based networks Ability to Business demand for
enable the expand into integrated services,
provision of a wider new particularly in case of
range of market multi-national structures.
services, and allow segments
bundling of services
(triple and quadruple
play).
Evolution and Possibility of Guaranteeing a flexible
convergence of investment in and secure access to
terminal equipment. phased centralized resources and
approach for intelligence.
investment,
initially
targeting more
densely
populated
areas, and then
gradually
expanding in
other areas
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VII. MIGRATION TOWARDS NGN
Next Generation Networks do not represent a specific technology but rather a system and a market
concept enabled by combination of different advance technologies. The basic features of NGN are range of
access platforms, independence and range of service architecture, different migration paths and timing.
The drivers for migrating to NGN are different for different players viz. reducing their network infrastructure
and maintenance costs, enabling faster service deployment for the provisioning of enhanced services and
therefore creating new sources of revenue. The high flexibility, low cost and wide support throughout the world
for the Internet Protocol makes it the best option for building NGNs, even though it has some limitations that
need to be overcome for example the lack of guaranteed QoS and security requirements. Network operators will
potentially choose a different migration path depending on their existing assets. Each path may therefore involve
different technologies and happen at different pace. For circuit-switched network operators, a multi-service
network for converged services and more revenues represents the main driver for the migration to NGNs.
However, a migration also imposes various direct and indirect costs including network upgrades, staff retraining
costs, organization process changes, etc. Moreover, some circuit-switched networks specially the cellular mobile
systems are still in a very good state and provide quality telephony services, which are currently difficult to
replicate on a large-scale in IP based networks.
Packet-switched data networks rely on several technologies and a number of protocol stacks are used
depending on the service delivered and the functionality offered by each protocol, e.g. ―IP over SDH over
DWDM‖, or ―IP over ATM over SDH over DWDM‖, or ―IP over Ethernet over SDH over DWDM‖. The
migration towards NGN for these types of networks means a simplification of the network and more flexibility.
Building an NGN network also means that the network needs to support converged services including voice and
real-time applications. The migration of packet-based networks towards NGN can follow several strategies that
could possibly be combined. A migration to NGN could also involve a move towards the next version of the
Internet Protocol, IPv6.
NGN concept also implies many different types of ―Convergence‖;
1. PSTN/ISDN convergence with IP based networks.
2. Fixed – Mobile convergence (FMC).
3. Broadcast (Cable) – Telecommunications convergence.
4. Web based services convergence
The convergence towards Next Generation Networks also requires that customers of different market players,
using different network technologies, can communicate with each other and access resources on another market
player‘s network. This requires the interworking of different Naming, Addressing and Numbering systems. Two
main standardised numbering solutions, which can be discussed for NGN, are ENUM and TIPHON.
In order to convert a PSTN network to NGN network three parts has to convert from PSTN to NGN. Firstly call
control mechanism of PSTN has to be converted to soft switch where all the functionalities are governed by a
single call server, secondly circuit based switching has to be replaced by IP based switching governed by
MPLS(Multi protocol Label Switching) where switching is done by routers so that the congestion of the data
should be minimal and data can be forwarded by any path, several paths are designed by routers and the
call/data will move by the shortest path available and with fastest speed. Thirdly PSTN interfaces are changed
by NGN gateways. These gateways work on standard protocols as defined by industry standard so as to reduce
the time taken by the data to reach the destination as well as they are supported by IP platform. Further the TDM
transport network has been converted to a common IP MPLS platform in order to have a common platform for
transporting all types of data and information. The designed migration of PSTN to NGN is shown in Figure 7.1
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12. Convergence Towards Next Generation Wireless Networks
PSTN to NGN
Figure 7.1 PSTN to NGN Migration
A fully converged NGN Architecture is presented in Figure 7.2, which shows a converged network along with
its protocols and its key IMS components
Figure 7.2 A Fully Converged NGN Network
The description of IMS components of an NGN network is given below
Table 7. IMS Key Components
Network Function Role Origin
Call Session Control Handles SIP Proxy Servers,
Function (CSCF) registration Developed from
of end points, scratch
routing of
SIP signaling
messages
Home Subscriber One-stop HLR from mobile
Server (HSS) database for network
user
information
Media Gateway Softswitch Softswitch
Control Function Media
(MGCF) Gateway
Control
Application Server Provide Feature Servers,
(AS) service logic Feature sets from
for Softswitches
applications
Policy Decision Provides Existing Policy
Function (PDF) QoS Managers, from
scratch
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VIII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This paper gives an indepth knowledge of PSTN and NGN systems. An ongoing research is presented
for the wireline and wireless systems, describing the features of both the systems. This paper summarizes the
key challenges and benefits for Service Providers (SPs) that plan to migrate from PSTN to NGN
The PSTN convergence is necessary to help SPs lower their overall cost structure. Migrating the PSTN
traffic to NGN will increase the utilization in NGN and help SPs' lower NGN cost structure.
SPs are rolling out major broadband access transformation programs. A strategy that couples the PSTN
migration and the access transformation will help minimize the PSTN migration costs.
A seamless co-existence of NGN with some consolidated/integrated parts of the PSTN is a more realistic
target over the short and intermediate terms. A key limitation in the delivery of hybrid services is the
distribution of point codes in NGN.
A staged migration to a target converged NGN architecture is recommended. Further the need of
convergence is explained, showing why now it has became necessary to shift from PSTN to NGN by giving
the reasons on social, technological and economic front. This paper is a research work of the practical
systems of communication. A lot of detailed work has been given on NGN systems in this paper but some
issues such as on secure interoperability between and among the networks, the pricing of both the wholesale
and retail services, and on the open or closed architecture of the systems are remaining which will be covered
as future work.
In conclusion, we believe that maintaining the status quo has increasingly become cost prohibitive for the
service providers. As the number of PSTN lines continues to drop as a result of wireless substitution and VolP
over broadband adoption, service providers need to transform the legacy PSTN network with new technologies
to lower their cost structure. NGN has emerged as the prevalent consensus in the telecom industry. Strategies
that couple the PSTN migration with broadband access transformation can significantly reduce the cost of
migration and is proven to result in a positive business case. Therefore, we conclude that the industry has
reached the tipping point for large-scale migrations of the PSTN services to NGN systems.
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