Marine scientists are proposing a functionalist approach to manage conflicts in the South China Sea. They propose declaring the disputed areas a neutral international marine park based on scientific findings that the South China Sea is a vital breeding ground and ecosystem. This would allow all claimant states to continue benefiting from its resources while avoiding potential conflicts. They cite examples from other bodies of water like the Antarctic Treaty that demilitarized the area and upheld collective utilization of resources through cooperation of scientists. This functionalist approach could help resolve disputes in the South China Sea incrementally through cooperation in non-political areas first.
Geopolitical Quandaries in the South China Sea: Options for the Philippines, ...Sam Rodriguez Galope
Geopolitical Quandaries in the South China Sea: Options for the Philippines, China and the US
Aileen S.P. Baviera, PhD
Asian Center, University of the Philippines
Geopolitical Quandaries in the South China Sea: Options for the Philippines, ...Sam Rodriguez Galope
Geopolitical Quandaries in the South China Sea: Options for the Philippines, China and the US
Aileen S.P. Baviera, PhD
Asian Center, University of the Philippines
intro duction of freign policy of pakistan,foreign policy of pakistan with u.s.a,foreign policy of pakistan with china,foreign policy of pakistan with russia,foreign policy of pakistan with central asian countries..
India and the Indian Ocean: Certain Issues relating to Non-Traditional SecurityNilendra Kumar
Indian Ocean plays a pivotal role in the global trade and economics and its strategic significance is also steadily increasing. Certain major aspects concerning non traditional security need in depth study and adoption of corrective measures by the Indian Ocean ring countries where India has to take a lead.
ASEAN, Asian Regionalism and Institutional GlobalismRyan Brack
A presentation on the differences in approach to creating a more cooperative political and fiscal framework for globalism arising from Regional identity.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle described humans as social animals, and
friendships and relations have existed between humans as long as humans have
existed. As organization developed in human affairs, relations between people also
became organized. Foreign policy thus goes back to primitive times. Foreign
Policy is defined as an extension of domestic policy for dealing with external
actors in order to pursue national interest of a country at the international level.
International system, regional setting, geopolitical compulsion, economic
interconnectedness and many other external factors play a vital role in shaping the
formulation of foreign policy.
Foreign policy
Generally we can say that foreign policy, also called foreign relations or foreign
affairs policy, consists of self-interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its
national interests and to achieve goals within its international relations milieu.
Foreign policy consists of the strategies it uses to protect its international and
domestic interests and determines the way it interacts with other state and non-state
actors.
[thoughtco.com/foreign-policy-definition-examples-4178057]
A foreign policy is a set of pre-established strategies designed and implemented
systematically to manage a country’s relationships with other nations. ( ★★For making this content author used various online resources, it is share here only for those who want to know something about it. This content is not the full of author's primary/ own creating/ intellectual property. )
Peace of Westphalia (1648) not only created the modern nation-state system in Europe but also stipulated the basic rules of statecraft.
Despite all the criticisms, the concept of state and nation took firm roots in most parts of the world, thanks to colonialism.
However, it is now facing existential challenges from different sources
This presentation is all about the modern nation-state system, its origin, essential elements, challenges it is facing, & its future prospects
Katarungang Pambarangay or barangay justice system is a community-based dispute settlement mechanism that is administered by the basic political unit of the country, the barangay. This system can improve the quality of domestic justice; it would reduce the number of indiscriminate filings of cases before the courts and reduce the number of cases filed there to the courts. The study explored the tales of the barangay officials in resolving community disputes in the urbanized barangays. The participants were selected through a snowball and purposive sampling. It based on the inclusion criteria: 1) Residing on working in the barangay 2) Member of the lupon tagamapayapa 3) Voluntarily participated and signed the informed consent. The selected participants were asked about their experiences in resolving community disputes in the interview. Based on the responses four emergent themes were developed namely: 1) Preservation relationship 2) Faster resolution of problems 3) Economically beneficial 4) Practical agreement. As a result, the researchers concluded that the data gathered from the survey questionnaire and the exclusive interview as a supplement and secondary source for the study implied a clear indication that members of the barangay and lupon tagapamayapa are doing their best in the discharge of their mandated powers and functions to fully serve the interest of their settlement in dealing with the resolution disputes of its experience constituents relatively with the segregation. Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from the study, the researchers would like to recommend that barangay officials have a positive mindset to settle barangays well and administer justice properly. Although it is difficult to contain their opponents' temper, barangay officials are focused on resolving their differences and reaching a negotiated agreement that works for all parties involved and has been successful, success in reaching a peaceful resolution without going to court.
intro duction of freign policy of pakistan,foreign policy of pakistan with u.s.a,foreign policy of pakistan with china,foreign policy of pakistan with russia,foreign policy of pakistan with central asian countries..
India and the Indian Ocean: Certain Issues relating to Non-Traditional SecurityNilendra Kumar
Indian Ocean plays a pivotal role in the global trade and economics and its strategic significance is also steadily increasing. Certain major aspects concerning non traditional security need in depth study and adoption of corrective measures by the Indian Ocean ring countries where India has to take a lead.
ASEAN, Asian Regionalism and Institutional GlobalismRyan Brack
A presentation on the differences in approach to creating a more cooperative political and fiscal framework for globalism arising from Regional identity.
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle described humans as social animals, and
friendships and relations have existed between humans as long as humans have
existed. As organization developed in human affairs, relations between people also
became organized. Foreign policy thus goes back to primitive times. Foreign
Policy is defined as an extension of domestic policy for dealing with external
actors in order to pursue national interest of a country at the international level.
International system, regional setting, geopolitical compulsion, economic
interconnectedness and many other external factors play a vital role in shaping the
formulation of foreign policy.
Foreign policy
Generally we can say that foreign policy, also called foreign relations or foreign
affairs policy, consists of self-interest strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its
national interests and to achieve goals within its international relations milieu.
Foreign policy consists of the strategies it uses to protect its international and
domestic interests and determines the way it interacts with other state and non-state
actors.
[thoughtco.com/foreign-policy-definition-examples-4178057]
A foreign policy is a set of pre-established strategies designed and implemented
systematically to manage a country’s relationships with other nations. ( ★★For making this content author used various online resources, it is share here only for those who want to know something about it. This content is not the full of author's primary/ own creating/ intellectual property. )
Peace of Westphalia (1648) not only created the modern nation-state system in Europe but also stipulated the basic rules of statecraft.
Despite all the criticisms, the concept of state and nation took firm roots in most parts of the world, thanks to colonialism.
However, it is now facing existential challenges from different sources
This presentation is all about the modern nation-state system, its origin, essential elements, challenges it is facing, & its future prospects
Katarungang Pambarangay or barangay justice system is a community-based dispute settlement mechanism that is administered by the basic political unit of the country, the barangay. This system can improve the quality of domestic justice; it would reduce the number of indiscriminate filings of cases before the courts and reduce the number of cases filed there to the courts. The study explored the tales of the barangay officials in resolving community disputes in the urbanized barangays. The participants were selected through a snowball and purposive sampling. It based on the inclusion criteria: 1) Residing on working in the barangay 2) Member of the lupon tagamapayapa 3) Voluntarily participated and signed the informed consent. The selected participants were asked about their experiences in resolving community disputes in the interview. Based on the responses four emergent themes were developed namely: 1) Preservation relationship 2) Faster resolution of problems 3) Economically beneficial 4) Practical agreement. As a result, the researchers concluded that the data gathered from the survey questionnaire and the exclusive interview as a supplement and secondary source for the study implied a clear indication that members of the barangay and lupon tagapamayapa are doing their best in the discharge of their mandated powers and functions to fully serve the interest of their settlement in dealing with the resolution disputes of its experience constituents relatively with the segregation. Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from the study, the researchers would like to recommend that barangay officials have a positive mindset to settle barangays well and administer justice properly. Although it is difficult to contain their opponents' temper, barangay officials are focused on resolving their differences and reaching a negotiated agreement that works for all parties involved and has been successful, success in reaching a peaceful resolution without going to court.
Department of MBA Review literature course management theory and practice the title conflict management.Conflict management is one of the most broadly researched topics in the area of organizational behavior. Conflict management has become the center of gravity of human activities. For example, Pondy had sorted these definitions into several categories: antecedent conditions, emotions, perceptions and behaviors. Rather than pick one of these specific definitions, Pondy had argued for the adoption of a broad working definition of conflict as the entire process that encompassed these phenomena. The inevitability of conflict in social relations has made conflict management an essential element for human adaptability and survival. This is because the approach adopted to mitigate conflict will determine one’s survival instinct and adjustment patterns in terms of how to live amicably with people to achieve set goals. The issue is that to live amicable with people call for the understanding of conflict dynamics and its management approaches in society. This paper presents a review of past literature on conflict management in organizations. The purpose of the review is to identify research gaps and concepts of conflict management. On the basis of previous literature review, it has been found that only conflict and conflict management, the conflict resolutions are also important predictors of organizational success. This literature review offers a synthesis of the past and contemporary studies about conflict and conflict management.5.1.1 concept of conflict management
The essence of conflict seems to be disagreement, contradiction, or incompatibility. Thus, "conflict" refers to any situation in which there are incompatible goals, cognitions, or emotions within or between individuals or groups that lead to opposition or antagonistic interaction. They recognize three basic types of conflict: Goal conflict is a situation in which desired end states or preferred outcomes appear to be incompatible. Cognitive conflict is a situation in which ideas or thoughts are inconsistent. Affective conflict is a situation in which feelings or emotions are incompatible; that is, people literally become angry with one another. Conflict is very common in organizational settings. This is not necessarily a negative feature; the resolution of conflict often leads to constructive problem-solving.
As a term, "conflict management" refers to a process whereby disputes are reduced, thereby bringing about a positive change in behaviour. As an approach, it is a systematic method of dealing with the causes, symptoms, dynamics, transformations, containment, settlement, and resolution.
5.1.2 Theory of conflict management
The theory in the area of conflict management has become much more extensive and sophisticated. Important developments in this area include Sheppard's (1984) framework for classifying the interventions of third parties into the conflict process and a more complex anal.
What: An effective policy for the development of SMEs needs to focus on identifying real constraints and determine how these could be realistically addressed. The most productive and reliable way of identifying such constraints and possible solutions is through public–private sector interaction and dialogue. UNCTAD undertook a survey of good practice and set up a project entitled “Enhancing public–private sector dialogue in LDCs”. This survey aims to distil key principles of effective dialogue that will serve as benchmarks for evaluating the practice of public–private sector dialogue and interaction. Who: Useful for anyone teaching on how to strengthen public–private sector interaction. How: Can be used as by teachers to assign students to conduct surveys using this model.
Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships in Development Sector: A Conceptual Framework Shipra Sharma
The MSP paradigm emerged in response to the failure of both the structural (that over-emphasize the role of government in facilitating development process) and the neo-classical or neo-liberal theories of development (that negate the role of the government and regard free market economy as the key to economic development) to effectively address the complexities of development.
Paper 1 and 2 backgroundLet’s begin here with an excerpt from .docxbunyansaturnina
Paper 1 and 2 background
Let’s begin here with an excerpt from Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: artistry, choice, and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley. Note the assumptions of the Political Frame, as you will use these to guide the writing of your Case:
Assumptions of the Political Frame
The political frame views organizations as living, screaming political arenas that host a complex web of individual and group interests. Five propositions summarize the perspective:
1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and interest groups.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality.
3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources—who gets what.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the most important asset.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders.
All five propositions of the political frame came to the fore in the Challenger incident:
1. Organizations are coalitions. NASA did not run the space shuttle program in isolation. The agency was part of a complex coalition including contractors, Congress, the White House, the military, the media—even the American public. Consider, for example, why Christa McAuliffe–was aboard. Her expertise as a social science teacher was not critical to the mission. But the American public was bored with white male pilots in space. Human interest was good for both NASA and Congress; it built public support for the space program. McAuliffe's participation was a magnet for the media because it made for a great human interest story. Three years earlier, Sally Ride generated excitement as the first female astronaut. Now the idea of putting an ordinary citizen in space—especially a teacher—caught the public's imagination. Symbolically, Christa McAuliffe represented all Americans. Everyone flew with her.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members. NASA's hunger for funding competed with the public's interest in lower taxes. Astronauts' concerns about safety were at odds with pressures on NASA and its contractors to maintain an ambitious flight schedule.
3. Important decisions involve allocating scarce resources. On the eve of the Challenger launch, key parties struggled to balance conflicting pressures. Everyone from Pres. Ronald Reagan to the average citizen was waiting for the first teacher to fly in space. Higher safety carried a high price—not just money, but further erosion of support from key constituents for both Morton Thiokol and NASA. Survivor, a pioneer of "reality" television, guaranteed political infighting because the rules allowed for only one winner.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central and power the most important asset. The teleconference on the eve of the launch.
Micro, Small, and Medium Sized Enterprises’ (MSMEs) Participation in Peacebui...Dr. Amarjeet Singh
The academic literature has provided substantial
amount of suggestions on broad concepts of business fostering
peace in the community just by doing its operations properly.
However, many could contend if these businesses could be
urged to perform larger roles as agents for peace.
Consequently, the desire to have businesses, particularly the
Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise (MSME), to act as key
players in peacebuilding largely depends on the understanding
of what could motivate them in acting such key role and what
could possibly hinder them in doing the same. Thus, this study
is an exploration of the motivators and challenges of MSMEs
in acting as main agents for peacebuilding. The study utilized
a descriptive research design involving thirty conveniently
sampled MSMEs in Butuan City, Philippines. A researchermade questionnaire was used as data gathering tool. A
multivariate analysis was done to analyse the effect of
participation and perceived risk in the identified motivators
and barriers. The results of the study revealed thatinternal
motivators are the greatest motivators in acting for peace.In
addition, financial and political reasons are strong barriers for
MSMEs to participate in peacebuilding. Finally, the study
found that Level of Perceived Risk and Participation
significantly affects the type of motivators and barriers
MSMEs face in peacebuilding movements.
Tackling the World's Biggest Problems With Robust ActionJoel Gehman
By Fabrizio Ferraro, Dror Etzion, and Joel Gehman
With some issues, the stakes are so high and the details so complex that tackling them requires finding ways for many people, companies and governments to work together.
This article summarizes our award-winning 2015 article -- "Tackling Grand Challenges Pragmatically: Robust Action Revisited" -- which was published in Organization Studies.
Updates on Threats of Violent Extremism in the PhilippinesRommel Banlaoi
Lecture delivered at a Public Forum on Violent Extremism organized by the Department of International Studies and International Studies Society of Miriam College on 11 March 2019.
Marawi City Siege and Threats of Narcoterrorism in the PhilippinesRommel Banlaoi
Threats of narcoterrorism have received very serious attention in the Philippine when the Philippine government under the administration of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte vigorously raised the menace in the aftermath of the 2 September 2016 Davao City bombing and the 23 May 2017 Marawi City siege. Though narcoterrorism has been a global problem since the 1980s, it takes almost four decades for the Philippine government to realize the gravity of this threat only in the aftermath of the siege of Marawi City by armed groups claiming to be part of the Islamic State (IS), more known initially as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). As a result, the Duterte Administration securitized narcoterrorism in his National Security Policy 2017-2022 and National Security Strategy 2018 declaring drugs and terrorism as national security threats.
As a concept, narcoterrorism remains to be very nebulous. As a threat, it arguably presents panoply of complex security challenges for law enforcement not only for the Philippines but also for the international community.
Other countries have been combating narcoterrorism for years with mixed results and unintended consequences. Based on great lessons learned from exemplary practices of other countries and cognizant of the Philippines’ own unique situations and experiences, the Duterte government needs to develop a more humane and socially responsible innovative anti-narcoterrorism approach that applies not only a strong law enforcement but also a decisive treatment through rehabilitation and care.
Search and Society: Reimagining Information Access for Radical FuturesBhaskar Mitra
The field of Information retrieval (IR) is currently undergoing a transformative shift, at least partly due to the emerging applications of generative AI to information access. In this talk, we will deliberate on the sociotechnical implications of generative AI for information access. We will argue that there is both a critical necessity and an exciting opportunity for the IR community to re-center our research agendas on societal needs while dismantling the artificial separation between the work on fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics in IR and the rest of IR research. Instead of adopting a reactionary strategy of trying to mitigate potential social harms from emerging technologies, the community should aim to proactively set the research agenda for the kinds of systems we should build inspired by diverse explicitly stated sociotechnical imaginaries. The sociotechnical imaginaries that underpin the design and development of information access technologies needs to be explicitly articulated, and we need to develop theories of change in context of these diverse perspectives. Our guiding future imaginaries must be informed by other academic fields, such as democratic theory and critical theory, and should be co-developed with social science scholars, legal scholars, civil rights and social justice activists, and artists, among others.
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
"Impact of front-end architecture on development cost", Viktor TurskyiFwdays
I have heard many times that architecture is not important for the front-end. Also, many times I have seen how developers implement features on the front-end just following the standard rules for a framework and think that this is enough to successfully launch the project, and then the project fails. How to prevent this and what approach to choose? I have launched dozens of complex projects and during the talk we will analyze which approaches have worked for me and which have not.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Dev Dives: Train smarter, not harder – active learning and UiPath LLMs for do...UiPathCommunity
💥 Speed, accuracy, and scaling – discover the superpowers of GenAI in action with UiPath Document Understanding and Communications Mining™:
See how to accelerate model training and optimize model performance with active learning
Learn about the latest enhancements to out-of-the-box document processing – with little to no training required
Get an exclusive demo of the new family of UiPath LLMs – GenAI models specialized for processing different types of documents and messages
This is a hands-on session specifically designed for automation developers and AI enthusiasts seeking to enhance their knowledge in leveraging the latest intelligent document processing capabilities offered by UiPath.
Speakers:
👨🏫 Andras Palfi, Senior Product Manager, UiPath
👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
Assuring Contact Center Experiences for Your Customers With ThousandEyes
A Functionalist Approach in the South China Sea Disputes
1. A FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH
TO THE MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTS
IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA:
OPTION FOR CHINA AND ASEAN CLAIMANTS*
Rommel C. Banlaoi
INTRODUCTION proposes the adoption of a functionalist
option to manage existing conflicts in
One of the major irritants in the South China Sea.3
China-ASEAN relations is the on-going
dispute in the South China Sea. Because A FUNCTIONALIST APPROACH TO
of the intransigence of claimants, the THE MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTS
dispute already resulted in some
military clashes prompting some experts The functionalist approach is an
and practitioners to describe the area as approach in international relations that
a potential trigger of major conflicts in grapples with the process of regional
the Asia Pacific region.1 cooperation and integration. The
approach is based on the assumption
How to manage the conflict in that the cooperation among nations in
the area has been baffling the minds of functional areas limits the possibility of
strategic analysts and practitioners in the war and conflicts among cooperating
region. But there are scholars who have nations. As the habit of cooperation in
proposed some policy options to functional areas deepens and widens,
manage the conflict.2 This paper prospects for integration becomes more
and more promising, which may in turn
*Paper prepared for presentation during lead to a more stable and peaceful
the Fourth China-ASEAN Research Institutes regional and international security
Roundtable at the University of Hong Kong from
18-20 October 2001. This paper was also based on
environment.
the author’s paper entitled, “A Functionalist
Approach to the Management of Conflicts in the Cooperation in Low Politics
South China Sea: Option for the ASEAN Regional
Forum”, NDCP Occasional Paper, Vol. IV, No. 8
David Mitrany, in his book A
(August 2001).
Working Peace System, introduces and
1Ralph A. Cossa, "Security Implications
of Conflict in the South China Sea: Exploring
Potential Triggers of Conflict", A Pacific Forum
CSIS Special Report ", PacNet Newsletter #16.
April 17, 1998. 3Rommel C. Banlaoi, "The ASEAN
2 See for example, Lu Ning, Flashpoint Regional Forum and the Management of Conflicts
Spratlys (Singapore: Dolphin Trace Press Pte Ltd, in the South China Sea," NDCP Occasional Paper,
1995) and Mark Valencia, Mark Jon M. Van Dyke Vol. IV, No. 4 (March 2001), pp. 25-26.
and Noel A. Ludwig, Sharing the Resources of the
South China Sea, Paperback edition. Hawaii:
University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
1
2. popularizes the functionalist approach.4 governments.6 These tasks can best be
Otherwise known as functionalism, it addressed by highly trained specialists
offers alternative approach to the or experts than by politicians.
management of inter-state conflicts
through cooperation in low-politics and Mitrany believes that "the
non-controversial areas.5 emergence of technical issues would
lead first to the felt of perceived need for
Mitrany believes that the collaborative action, devoid of a
attainment of world peace can be made political, or conflictual, content" and
possible through cooperative therefore can be assigned to technical
undertakings in various functionalist experts "whose approaches were
areas such as education, health, essentially based on apolitical
economics, environment, science and considerations."7
technology, culture and sports. He
argues that international conflicts can be Cooperation among political
avoided and managed through elite, on the other hand, is hard to
international cooperation not among prosper, according to Mitrany, as they
political elite but among technical people carry controversial agenda such as
with no political agenda nor political security and politics. Political elite
motives such as engineers, scientists, seldom agree with each other not only
economists, academics, and medical because of their varying political
specialists. motives and agenda but also because
they view security and politics from
Mitrany adheres to the idea that different philosophical and ideological
cooperation among technicians brings perspectives.
more cooperation as they carry non-
controversial agenda acceptable to all The Doctrine of Ramification
parties concerned. Experts and technical
people also have the capability to Crucial to the understanding of
develop common standards, by virtue of Mitrany’s functionalist approach is the
their respective disciplines, to guide doctrine of ramification. The doctrine
their cooperative undertakings. states that "Successful cooperation in one
functional setting would enhance
Cooperation Among Experts and incentive for collaboration in other
Specialists fields". The doctrine also posits that the
"perceived need in one functional task
According to Mitrany, the would itself contribute to a change in
complexity of governmental systems in attitudes in favor of even greater
the twentieth century has increased the cooperation over a widening spectrum
technical/functionalist tasks facing of issues."8
6See James E. Dougherty and Robert L.
4DavidMitrany, A Working Peace System Pfaltzgraft Jr., Contending Theories of International
(London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, Relations: A Comprehensive Survey, Fourth Edition
1943). (New York: Addison-Wesley Educational
Publishers, Inc., 1997), Chapter 10.
5David Mitrany, "The Functionalist
Approach to World Organization", International 7 Ibid., p. 422.
Affairs, XXIV (July 1948).
2
3. Guided by the doctrine of Cooperation Among Relevant
ramification, Mitrany emphasizes that Elite
the broadening and widening of
cooperation diminishes the prospect for Unlike Mitrany who pays prime
and eventually eliminate war through an importance on the role of technical
incremental transformation from people and experts, Haas posits that
adversarial to cooperative pattern of European integration has proceeded as a
behavior. The transformation of result of the work of relevant elite in the
behavioral pattern is incremental or government and private sectors who
gradual because the ramification effect supported integration for pragmatic
takes time. Apparently, the doctrine of reasons.11
ramification works in tandem with the
doctrine of incrementalism which also For example, the removal of
states that the broadening and widening barriers to coal and steel trade would
of cooperation is a gradual process. increase markets and profits beneficial to
stakeholders. Haas underscores that
The Neo-Functionalist Approach elite "anticipating that they will gain
from activity within a supranational
Another variant of functional organizational framework are likely to
approach is the neo-functional approach seek out similarly minded elite across
first introduced by Ernst Haas and later national frontiers."12 This leads to more
adopted and improved by Philippe cooperation.
Schmitter, Leon Linberg, Joseph Nye,
Robert Keohane and Lawrence As a result of the learning
Scheineman. 9 process of cooperation, Haas assumes
that power-oriented governmental
In his work, The Uniting of activities may eventually lead to a
Europe, Haas identifies the political, welfare-oriented action – a functionalist
social and economic forces that led to the oriented action. As players realize the
creation of the European Coal and Steel importance of cooperation through
Community (ECSC), the forerunner of increased commitment to a larger
the European Union (EU).10 Haas argues organizational unit, the learning process
that the decision to integrate Western of cooperation may lead to greater
Europe is not based on altruistic integration.13 Haas points out that the
considerations but on the expectations of "Integrative lessons learned in one
gain or loss held by dominant groups functional context will be applied in
and forces within the unit to be others, thus eventually supplanting
integrated. international politics."14
11Ibid., p. 13.
8Ibid.
12See Dougherty and Pfaltzgraft, p. 423.
9Fora more elaborate discussion, see
Dougherty and Pfaltzgraft (1997). 13Ibid.
10Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe: 14Robert Pfatlzgraft, Jr. Britain Faces
Political, Social and Economic Forces, 1950-1957 Europe, 1957-1967 (Philadelphia: University of
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958). Pennsylvania Press, 1969), p. 48.
3
4. The Spill-Over Effect parts of the world’s ocean which is a
bone of contention among stakeholders.
Important to the understanding
of Haas neo-functionalist approach is the Managing the South China Sea
concept of spill-over. The spill-over effect, Conflicts: Lessons from Other Seas
or what Mitrany calls as ramification
effect, states that cooperation in one In the Baltic Sea, marine
functional area may lead to further scientists have been involved in various
cooperation in other areas that may forms of cooperation in marine policy.
include the political area. This "gradual These marine scientists have played a
politicization" of relevant players may vital role in enacting national legislation
lead to the deepening and widening of in various regional agreements aiming
integration process. to manage disputes over continental
shelf boundaries in the Baltic Sea.16
In the “gradual politicization Disputes have also been mitigated by a
process”, functional issues previously web of both bilateral and multilateral
considered "technical" and "non- agreements initiated by experts and
controversial" become "political" because specialists with the support of political
in reaction to initial "technical" purposes, leaders.
relevant players eventually agree to
apply the spectrum of political means In the Mediterranean Sea, marine
deemed appropriate to attain them.15 scientists took an active part in
numerous cooperative actions by the
MANAGING CONFLICTS IN coastal states to protect the environment.
THE SOUTH CHINA They participated in the making of the
SEA THE FUNCTIONALIST WAY Barcelona Convention for the Protection
of the Mediterranean Sea and its five
There are functional areas where protocols.17
experts and elite in China and ASEAN
claimants may cooperate to manage In the North Sea, marine
conflicts in the South China. Marine regionalism may also be seen through
scientists in China and ASEAN the efforts of the marine scientists to
claimants involved in various types of arrive at a comprehensive sea-use
research in the South China Sea may planning which aims to develop a
contribute to the management of “balanced and effective battery of
conflicts in the South China Sea. Marine instruments for both national and
scientists in these countries may learn
lessons from a group of marine scientists
engaged in research in the Baltic Sea, the
North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea , the 16See Ton Ijstra, “Development of
Arctic Sea, and the Antarctic Ocean. Resource Jurisdiction in the EC’s Regional Seas:
National EEZ Policy of EC Member States in the
This group of marine scientists advance Northeast Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea, and
the idea of marine regionalism, which the Baltic Sea”, Ocean Development and
provides a framework for a coordinated International Law, Vol. 23 (1992).
marine scientific research in various
17 Ibid. Also in Mark Valencia, Jon M.
Van Dyke and Noel A. Ludwig, Sharing the
Resources of the South China Sea, Paperback edition
(Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), p.
15Dougherty and Pflatzgraft, p. 423. 150.
4
5. international administration and Through their reliable scientific findings,
management” of the North Sea.” experts and scientists push for the
collective protection of the Antarctic
In the Antarctic Ocean, the Treaty for the benefit of all claimant
Antarctic Treaty is an excellent model states. Instead of competing for the
where marine scientists in the South resources of the Antarctic, experts and
China Sea may learn a lot of lessons scientists propose a model that upholds
from. According to Jim Barnes, the the collective utilization of Antarctica
Treaty can serve as a practical model to and its resources through “joint
resolve disputes in the South China management”. Experts and scientists
Sea.18 also uphold the idea of making the
Antarctic a pristine world park and “a
The Antarctic Treaty Model center for peaceful scientific inquiry.”
(ATM) provides a model to manage Thus, the Antarctic Treaty guarantees for
conflicts. The ATM, which was signed the collective governance of the
in 1959, calls for the eventual Antarctic Ocean.
demilitarization of the area. As a
demilitarized area, the twelve claimant
states are strongly urged to prohibit Marine Scientists and Functionalism in
“any measures of military rule, such as the South China Sea
the establishment of military bases and
fortifications, the carrying out military Learning lessons from the other
maneuvers, and the testing of any types Seas particularly the Antarctic Ocean,
of weapon.”19 there is now a proposal among marine
scientists engaged in scientific research
The ATM also upholds the in the South China Sea to declare the
collective utilization of the resources in disputed area a neutral area. There is a
Antarctica. For any disputes that may move among marine scientists to
arise, the ATM mandates the use of convert the South China Sea into a
“negotiation, inquiry, mediation, marine park.21
conciliation, arbitration, judicial
settlement, or other peaceful means of This proposal is based on the
their own choice” to manage conflicts in scientific findings that the South China
the area20 Sea is known breeding ground for tuna
fish and other fish resources that migrate
What is notable in the ATM is the into nearby fishing areas of claimant
vital role played by experts and states.
scientists in convincing political leaders
to eschew political issues in the area and Marine scientists also describe
to start cooperating in functional areas. the South China Sea as “the center of
marine generic richness and diversity in
18Jim Barnes, “Using the Antarctic Treaty the world” and a macro-ecosystem
as the Basis for Resolving the Spratly Islands characterized by “high bio-diversity and
Dispute” (14 May 1999).
19See Article XI, Section 1 of the 1959 21John .W. McManus, “The Spratly
Antarctic Treaty. Islands: A Marine Park Alternative” ICLARM
Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 3 (July 1992). Also see his
20Ibid. “The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park”, Ambio,
Vol. 23, No. 3 (1994), pp. 181-186.
5
6. fisheries productivity” due to the Within the parks, all economic activity
“intrinsic connectivity of coral reefs, sea- should be prohibited except environment-
grass, and mangrove forests.”22 Because friendly tourism. The Spratlys are thus given
the South China Sea is the locus of back to their original inhabitants.26
complex ecological connectivities, the
area has been considered a “savings
bank” of all claimant states.23 Dr. Celso R. Roque, President of
the World Wide Fund for Nature
By turning the South China Sea Philippines (WWF Philippines), also
into a neutral international marine park, subscribes with the proposal to convert
marine scientists and experts firmly the South China Sea into a marine park
believe that “all claimants could with the Antarctic Treaty as a model. In
continue to benefit from the living the WWF study, Roque underscores:
resources emanating from the area.”24
By so doing, they argue that “a host of The main idea of an approach based
potential conflicts could be avoided” on the Antarctic Treaty Model (ATM) and
including the tens of millions of dollars its protocols is the moratorium on all claims
being spend annually on maintaining to sovereignty for a long period, sauy 30-50
garrisons of troops that are used to years. The Spratly Islands and vicinity will
guard against every claimant states.25 be considered, in ther interregnum, as an
International Marine Park or World
This proposal is gaining support Heritage Site. The principal purpose of the
from other scholars abroad. Stein site will be for conservation and scientific
Tonnesson, Director of the International research. Fisheries may be allowed in
Peace Research Institute based in Oslo accordance with a sustainable management
and who has been writing intensively regime. Mineral activities will also be
about the issue of the South China Sea, suspended for the duration of the Treaty.
agrees to the functionalist approach of Demilitarization of the entire area is
managing conflicts in the South China imperartive. The claimants and other
Sea. In one of his writings, Tonnesson stakeholders such as the scientific
strongly propose that: community may agree on a Framework of
Joint Management.27
All claimants transfer their alleged
sovereignty over the Spratlys to a regional or In his letter to then Philippine
international authority, which is set up to Defense Secretary Orlando S. Mercado,
administer a system of marine nature parks. Roque contends that the ATM will be
beneficial to all parties, without
permanently giving up claims to
22 Miguel D. Fortes, “The Role of Marine sovereignty. Roque even recommended
Environmental Science in the Western Philippine to Mercado to get cabinet approval of
Seas”, University of the Philippines Marine
Science Institute (Unpublished, 1999), p.
23See Clarita R. Carlos, “Ecological 26Stein Tonnesson, “Here’s How to Settle
Connectivity in the South China Sea” (National the Rocky Disputes in the South China Sea” in
Defense College of the Philippines, unpublished International Herald Tribune,m (6 September 2000).
paper, 2001). Also see “Settling South China Sea disputes", The
Straits Times (7 September 2000).
24McManus, p. 6.
27Letter of Dr. Celso R. Roque to then
25Ibid. Secretary Orlando S. Mercado on 1 July 1999.
6
7. the ATM approach to the ASEAN which sovereignty in the South China Sea .
will draft a Treaty on the South China Participants rather focus on other
Sea.28 subjects that may trigger cooperation
rather than conflict on the issue. Their
The Role of Experts, Non-Governmental activities include mutual sharing of
Players an Governments in Managing scientific findings and legal opinions.
Conflicts in the South China Sea
Aside from the Workshop,
Functionalism pays attention to experts and practitioners from the
the vital role of experts, non- United Nations Environmental
governmental players and even Programme (UNEP) initiated a project
governments in the management of on the South China Sea with the aim of
conflicts. In the South China Sea, offering alternative approach to manage
experts, non-governmental players and conflicts in the disputed territoy. UNEP
even some government officials have project led to the development of the
been initiating functionalist projects to Strategic Action Program for the South
manage conflicts in the area. China Sea. Officials from Cambodia,
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philipines, and
Aiming to manage potential Thailand signed the Strategic Action
conflicts in the South China Sea, two Program for implementation.
experts (Ambassador Hasji, Djalal of
Indonesia and Prof. Ian Townsend- However, political problems in
Gault of Canada) initiated a series of China prevented the program to be
informal multilateral workshops on the implemented. Although Chinese
issue. Internationally known as the experts and officials were involved in
Workshop on Managing Potential the preparation stages, the Chinese
Conflicts in the South China Sea, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs refused to
series of meetings started in 1990 two sign. According to Tom Naes of the
years after the military confrontation University of Oslo, “The UNEP
between China and Vietnam over the initiative, which was aimed at
issue of the Spratlys. improving management and protection
of the marine environment of the South
The primary objective of the China Sea, ran into difficulties because
Workshop was to initially gather the China has unresolved sovereignty
parties for discussions on how to conflicts with its Southeast Asian
manage the conflict in the South China neighbors.” 29 Despite that, ASEAN
Sea in the light of the provisions of the experts and officials continue to engage
1982 United Nations Convention on the China in various peaceful and
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Since its confidence building talks through the
creation, four technical working groups
have been created dealing with legal
matters and scientific research. All 29 Tom Næss, Environment and Security in
meetings of the Workshop uphold some the South China Sea Region: The Role of Experts,
functionalist assumptions when the Non-Governmental Actors and Governments in
participants set aside the sensitive and Regime Building Processes .A thesis for the Cand.
Polit. degree at the Department of Political
highly controversial issue of
Science, University of Oslo, December 1999.
Published in the SUM Dissertations & Thesis
series as No. 1/2000 (ISSN 0806-475X). Also see in
28Ibid. http://www.sum.uio.no/southchinasea/.
7
8. ARF and the South China Sea Working Group in managing conflicts
Workshops. in the South China Sea.
Another initiatives undertaken FUNCTIONALIST OPTION FOR
by experts to manage conflicts in the CHINA AND ASEAN CLAIMANT
South China Sea is the formation of the STATES
Association of Southeast Marine
Scientists (ASEAMS) in 1986. The To effectively manage conflicts
ASEAMS aims to provide independent, in the South China Sea, China and the
expert scientific advice regarding ASEAN claimants may seriously adopt
programs being implemented in the the functionalist option. The various
East Asian Sea region including the collaborative efforts initiated by the
South China Sea. Its participants Council for Security Cooperation in the
included not only marine experts but Asia Pacific (CSCAP), the Indonesian-
also members of non-governmental Canadian Workshops on the South
organizations (NGOs) and China Sea and other Tract Two
intergovernmental organizations activities in the region are proper venue
(IGOs). However, the ASEAMS was where experts and scholars in China
dissolved in 1996 due to funding and ASEAN claimants may cooperate
constraints. in managing disputes in the South
China Sea.
Aside from the above-
mentioned initiatives of marine experts, Eschewing the discussion on
there are still a lot of initiatives from the sovereignty aspect of the South
other groups. These initiatives are China Sea issue is a very useful
discussed in the study of Tom Naes strategic move to lay down the proper
who examines the extent to which framework for a fruitful cooperation in
maritime experts and organizations functional areas.
working with environmental issues can
facilitate the establishment of an ocean Rather than focusing on the
management regime in the South China ownership of territory, China and
Sea. ASEAN claimants shall push for
Describing how scientists maritime security. Rather than focusing
interact at the regional level, Naes on a highly sensitive issue of
articulates some functionalist sovereignty, the China and ASEAN
assumptions when he tries to “discuss claimants shall uphold cooperation in
the likelihood that the regional scientific navigation, communication, shipping
community will obtain political enough and environmental research.31
influence (sic) to make environmental
questions take precedence in regional Shelving the sovereignty issue
politics.”30 He also describes the factors and upholding the functionalist issues
that prevent scientists from influencing may provide peaceful solution of the
decision-makers in so far as ocean South China Sea conflict. This is an
management is concerned. Naes also
discussed the role of the Council for
Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific 31See Ramses Amer, “Towards a
(CSCAP) Maritime Cooperation Declaration on Navigational Rights in the Sea-
lanes of the Asia Pacific”, Contemporary
30Ibid., p. 4. Southeast Asia, Vol. 20, No. 1 (April 1998).
8
9. alternative option for China and
ASEAN claimants.
To manage the South China Sea SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
conflict the functionalist way, China
and ASEAN claimants shall create a By upholding functionalism –
climate of cooperation dominated by the low politics approach, China and
low politics. To do this, China and ASEAN claimants may manage existing
ASEAN claimants shall encourage more conflicts in the South China Sea through
the participation of like-minded the development of habits of cooperation
scientists and experts engaged in among experts, scientists and political
various functionalist areas of research. leaders. By enhancing regional
As experiences of other regions have cooperation in low politics area,
shown, the establishment of like- cooperation in high politics area may
minded group of scientists and experts eventually occur. As articulated by then
engaged in functional cooperation in Philippine Defense Secretary Mercado:
conflict ridded area has changed the
both the normative and casual beliefs of The regional “low politics” approach
decision-makers.32 This like-minded is appropriate for the short-and-medium-
group of scientists and experts has term objectives…in the South China Sea.
formed an “epistemic community” This will enhance the use of “high politics”
which is an integrated, transnational approach in the long-term. By promoting
network of scientists that can influence habits of cooperation or building confidence
decision makers.33 through the “low politics” approach, “high
politics” issues will have greater access of
China and ASEAN claimants resolution.34
may capitalize on these experiences.
They shall exert efforts to provide a
climate of cooperation in the disputed
area dominated not by high politics but
by low politics. They may also
encourage the development of an
“epistemic community” to help all
claimants functionally manage the
conflict in the South China Sea.
32Tom Naes, “Epistemic Communities
and Environmental Cooperation in the South
China Sea” (Paper presented during the
Workshops on the Conflict in the South China Sea
held in Oslo, Norway on 24-26 April 1999).
33Ibid. Also see Peter Haas (ed), 34 Orlando S. Mercado, “Philippine
Knowledge, Power and International Coordination: Defense Policy on the South China Sea” (Paper
International Organization, Special Issue, Vol. 46, presented on 20 October 1999 at the Department
No. 1 (Winter 1992). of Foreign Affairs during the Forum entitled “The
South China Sea: Problems and Prospects).
9
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