Paper 1 and 2 background Let’s begin here with an excerpt from Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: artistry, choice, and leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley. Note the assumptions of the Political Frame, as you will use these to guide the writing of your Case: Assumptions of the Political Frame The political frame views organizations as living, screaming political arenas that host a complex web of individual and group interests. Five propositions summarize the perspective: 1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and interest groups. 2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality. 3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce resources—who gets what. 4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the most important asset. 5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and jockeying for position among competing stakeholders. All five propositions of the political frame came to the fore in the Challenger incident: 1. Organizations are coalitions. NASA did not run the space shuttle program in isolation. The agency was part of a complex coalition including contractors, Congress, the White House, the military, the media—even the American public. Consider, for example, why Christa McAuliffe–was aboard. Her expertise as a social science teacher was not critical to the mission. But the American public was bored with white male pilots in space. Human interest was good for both NASA and Congress; it built public support for the space program. McAuliffe's participation was a magnet for the media because it made for a great human interest story. Three years earlier, Sally Ride generated excitement as the first female astronaut. Now the idea of putting an ordinary citizen in space—especially a teacher—caught the public's imagination. Symbolically, Christa McAuliffe represented all Americans. Everyone flew with her. 2. There are enduring differences among coalition members. NASA's hunger for funding competed with the public's interest in lower taxes. Astronauts' concerns about safety were at odds with pressures on NASA and its contractors to maintain an ambitious flight schedule. 3. Important decisions involve allocating scarce resources. On the eve of the Challenger launch, key parties struggled to balance conflicting pressures. Everyone from Pres. Ronald Reagan to the average citizen was waiting for the first teacher to fly in space. Higher safety carried a high price—not just money, but further erosion of support from key constituents for both Morton Thiokol and NASA. Survivor, a pioneer of "reality" television, guaranteed political infighting because the rules allowed for only one winner. 4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict central and power the most important asset. The teleconference on the eve of the launch.

1. Paper 1 and 2 background
Let’s begin here with an excerpt from Bolman, L. G. & Deal, T.
E. (2003). Reframing organizations: artistry, choice, and
leadership (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley. Note the
assumptions of the Political Frame, as you will use these to
guide the writing of your Case:
Assumptions of the Political Frame
The political frame views organizations as living, screaming
political arenas that host a complex web of individual and group
interests. Five propositions summarize the perspective:
1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and
interest groups.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in
values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of
reality.
3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce
resources—who gets what.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict
central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the
most important asset.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and
jockeying for position among competing stakeholders.
All five propositions of the political frame came to the fore in
the Challenger incident:
1. Organizations are coalitions. NASA did not run the space
shuttle program in isolation. The agency was part of a complex
coalition including contractors, Congress, the White House, the
military, the media—even the American public. Consider, for
example, why Christa McAuliffe–was aboard. Her expertise as a
social science teacher was not critical to the mission. But the
American public was bored with white male pilots in space.
Human interest was good for both NASA and Congress; it built
public support for the space program. McAuliffe's participation

2. was a magnet for the media because it made for a great human
interest story. Three years earlier, Sally Ride generated
excitement as the first female astronaut. Now the idea of putting
an ordinary citizen in space—especially a teacher—caught the
public's imagination. Symbolically, Christa McAuliffe
represented all Americans. Everyone flew with her.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members.
NASA's hunger for funding competed with the public's interest
in lower taxes. Astronauts' concerns about safety were at odds
with pressures on NASA and its contractors to maintain an
ambitious flight schedule.
3. Important decisions involve allocating scarce resources. On
the eve of the Challenger launch, key parties struggled to
balance conflicting pressures. Everyone from Pres. Ronald
Reagan to the average citizen was waiting for the first teacher
to fly in space. Higher safety carried a high price—not just
money, but further erosion of support from key constituents for
both Morton Thiokol and NASA. Survivor, a pioneer of
"reality" television, guaranteed political infighting because the
rules allowed for only one winner.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict
central and power the most important asset. The teleconference
on the eve of the launch began as a debate between the
contractor and NASA. As a sole customer, NASA was in the
driver's seat. When managers at Morton Thiokol sensed NASA's
level of disappointment and frustration, they asked for time to
caucus. The scene shifted to a tense standoff between engineers
and managers. Engineers were unable leverage their expertise,
their primary source of power, into a sufficiently persuasive
case. Managers used their authority to recommend the launch
despite the opposition.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and
jockeying for position among competing stakeholders. Political
bargaining with the help of powerful allies got Morton Thiokol
into the rocket motor business. Thiokol's engineers had been
attempting to increase management's attention to the booster

3. joint problem for many months. But acknowledging a problem,
in addition to costing substantial time and money, risked
eroding Morton Thiokol's credibility. A large and profitable
contract was hanging in the balance.
The assumptions of the political frame outline sources of power
dynamics. A coalition forms because of interdependence among
its members; they need one another, even though their interests
may only partly overlap. The assumption of enduring difference
implies that political activity is more visible and dominant
under conditions of diversity than of homogeneity. Agreement
and harmony are easier to achieve when everyone shares similar
values, beliefs, and culture.
The concept of scarce resources suggests that politics will be
more salient and intense in difficult times. Schools and
colleges, for example, have lived through alternating times of
feast and famine in response to peaks and valleys in economic
and demographic trends. When money and students are plentiful
(as they were in the 1960s and again in the 1990s),
administrators spend time determining which buildings to erect
and programs to initiate. Conversely, when resources dry up,
conflict mushrooms and administrators often succumb to
political forces they neither understand nor control.
Another key political issue is power—its distribution and
exercise. Power in organizations is basically the capacity to get
things done. Pfeffer (1992, p. 30) defines power as "the
potential ability to influence behavior, to change the course of
events, to overcome resistance, and to get people to do things
they would not otherwise do." Russ (1994, p. 38) puts it more
strongly as the ability to "make one's will prevail and to attain
one's goal." Social scientists have often emphasized tight
linkage between power and dependency: if A has something B
wants, A has leverage. In much of organizational life,
individuals and groups are interdependent; they need things
from one another, and power relationships are multidirectional.
From the view of the political frame, power is a "daily
mechanism of our social existence" (Crozier and Friedberg,

4. 1977, p. 32).
The final proposition of the political frame emphasizes that
goals are set not by fiat at the top but through an ongoing
process of negotiation and interaction among key players. To
illustrate, consider another example: a commitment China made
in December 2001 to promote its accession to the World Trade
Organization. The Chinese government promised to get serious
about protecting intellectual property, ensuring that products
carrying labels such as Coca-Cola, Microsoft, Sony, and Rolex
were authentic. The central government passed laws, threw the
book at the occasional unlucky offender, blustered in the media,
and put pressure on local governments. Yet six months later,
name-brand knockoffs and pirated software were still on sale all
over China, even a few blocks from Tiananmen Square”
(Bolman & Deal, 2003, pp. 186-9).
Let’s continue our discussion with this interesting presentation
on the Political Frame:
Jacobs, R.M. (n.d.). Theories of practice: The political frame.
Villanova University. Retrieved on May 1, 2014 from
http://www83.homepage.villanova.edu/richard.jacobs/MPA%20
8002/Powerpoint/8002%20MPA/political.ppt
Finally, be sure to review the following presentation relating to
power, politics, and conflict:
Hogan, R.L. (n.d). Chapter 9: Power, conflict, and coalitions.
Eastern Illinois University. Retrieved on May 12, 2014 from
http://www.eiu.edu/~lhogan/Bolman%20&%20Deal%20ch09.ppt

5. PAPER 1
Begin by visiting the Walt Disney Company website:
The Walt Disney Company. (2014). Retrieved on May 8, 2014
from http://thewaltdisneycompany.com/
The following articles provide a good starting point concerning
former CEO Eisner’s tenure with the Walt Disney Company:
White, D. (2005, Oct 01). When Mickey finally turned on his
master. Michael Eisner's reign at Disney is over. Dominic White
reports. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved from Proquest.
Consider Michael Karpeles’ article relating to politics in the
Disney boardroom:
Karpeles, M. D. (2005). Boardroom lessons from the
Disney/Ovitz case. Corporate Board, 26(155), 6-10. Retrieved
on June 10, 2014 from EBSCO – Business Source Complete.
Finally, read the following case study:
Forbes, W., & Watson, R. (n.d.). Destructive corporate
leadership and board loyalty bias: A case study of Michael
Eisner’s long tenure at Disney Corporation. City University
London. Retrieved on June 10, 2014 from
http://www.cass.city.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/56372/2

6. A_Forbes.pdf
Case Assignment
After you have reviewed the contents of the Walt Disney
Company website, completed the above readings and those
provided at the Background page of Module 3, and performed
additional research from the library and the internet, write a 6-
to 7-page paper in which you do the following:
Using the following five assumptions of the Political Frame,
complete an in-depth assessment of the Walt Disney Company:
1. Organizations are coalitions of diverse individuals and
interest groups.
2. There are enduring differences among coalition members in
values, beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of
reality.
3. Most important decisions involve allocating scarce
resources—who gets what.
4. Scarce resources and enduring differences make conflict
central to organizational dynamics and underline power as the
most important asset.
5. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining, negotiation, and
jockeying for position among competing stakeholders.

7. PAPER 2
In the Module 3 SLP, you will write a 3- to 4-page paper in
which you will apply the Political Frame to the organization in
which you are currently employed (or in which you have worked
previously).
Assignment
The Module 3 SLP requires that you write a 3- to 4-page paper,
in which you address the following:
After giving a brief description of the organization in which you
presently work (or in which you have previously worked), apply
the Political Frame to 2-3 examples of political behaviors that
are presently occurring – or have occurred – within your
organization.
Keys to the Assignment
The key aspects of this assignment that should be covered in
your paper include the following:
· Briefly describe your organization – name, what it does, size
(number of employees, annual revenue, relative market share,
etc.);
· Choose 2 or 3 examples of political activities within your
organization. These might include, e.g., networking and
coalition building, informal communications, bargaining and
negotiation (for power or for resources), etc. etc.
· Using Bolman and Deal’s Political Frame as a lens, discuss
the relative impact of the political characteristics or events you
have identified (do the political behaviors you have cited have

8. negligible impact on the organization as a whole, or are do they
have more significant impact instead?).
· What are the consequences and outcomes of the political
behaviors you have identified? Are they positive or negative,
good or bad for the company for the short-term? For the longer
run (decisions that benefit the short-term are often in conflict
with longer-term outcomes, and vice-versa)? Explain.

9. PAPER 3 and 4 Background
All readings are required unless noted as “Optional” or “Not
Required.”
High and Low Context
The definitive work on context was originated by anthropologist
Edward T. Hall. He differentiated between high- and low-
context cultures. Context refers to the background or framework
within which communication takes place.
High-context cultures place a high value on relationships.
Business transactions cannot be successful unless based on a
foundation of trust, so taking the time to build trust is an
essential first step to any commercial activity. Hall explained
that these cultures are collectivistic, placing greater value on
group harmony than individual success.
Because these cultures are intuitive, people rely on impressions
and feelings more than reason or logic. What is expressed in
words is less important than the context—things like gestures,
tone of voice, general affect, or even the speaker’s family
history and position in society. These cultures tend to be
homogeneous, and enjoy a shared history.

10. High-context communication tends to be indirect. However, if
you force a direct yes or no answer, the response is likely to be
yes (even if the “real” answer is no), lest the speaker risk
offending you. Outsiders may find high-context communication
to be overly formal and even obsequious. Flowery language,
self-effacement, and elaborate apologies are common. Clusters
of high-context cultures can be found in Asia, Africa, South
America, and the Middle East.
Low-context cultures are logical, evaluative and analytic.
Decisions are made not on intuition or emotion, but facts and
data. Business transactions are consummated with explicit
contracts and written agreements, a practice which persons from
high-context cultures may interpret as signifying a lack of trust.
Low-context cultures tend to be individualistic.
Communications tend to be straightforward, direct, and action-
oriented. Arguments are linear. Language is efficient and
precise, and statements are taken literally. Clusters can be found
in Western Europe and North America.
The following video offers more insight into high- and low-
context communication:
Schwander, J. (2013). Low and High Context Culture:
Interpersonal communication. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uMGu89XBcT0
Application: Negotiation
The following article by Brett is an excellent overview of how
negotiations are influenced by culture. There is an excellent
section on the role high and low context plays in negotiation
strategies and tactics.
Brett, J. M. (2000). Culture and negotiation. International
Journal of Psychology 35(2), 97–104. Retrieved from:
http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic551848.files/Brett.pdf
Relationship to Time
Hall also did a considerable amount of work on the topic of
time and how it is perceived in different cultures. He proposed
that time is experienced along a continuum, from monochronic
(time is linear) to polychronic (time is simultaneous).

11. In monochronic culture, people tend to do just one thing at a
time. Schedules and time commitments are taken very seriously
and interruptions are not valued.
Polychronic cultures are characterized by people doing many
things at the same time. Interruptions are handled with ease as
plans can be changed easily and often. Relationships are more
salient than schedules, so promptness is less important than the
bond between the individuals involved.
Interactions between the two cultural types can be frustrating.
Monochronic individuals cannot understand why a meeting
doesn’t start on time and is continually interrupted with phone
calls. They can interpret such behavior as insulting, indicating
disinterest or disrespect.
On the other hand, an individual from a polychromic culture
cannot understand why schedules and task completion takes
such precedence over relationships. He or she may not think
that measuring output in terms of time is relevant.
Hall’s writings bring to life this type of culture clash over the
way time is conceptualized. Since he was trained as an
anthropologist, his writings on the topic take on a decidedly
ethnographic flavor. The following slide show provides a bit of
background on Hall and his writings on time orientation.
Add, M. M. (2013). Monochronic and Polychronic Time, Prezi.
Retrieved from http://prezi.com/e08xcxjafzli/monochronic-and-
polychronic-time-article-summary/
Application: Diplomacy and Cultural Differences in
Communication
The following interview with Dr Hans J. Roth, Ambassador for
Cross-Border Cooperation at the Swiss Federal Department of
Foreign Affairs, highlights the challenges that are created by
divides in the ways people communicate and think about space
and time.
Roth, H. J. (2012). Culture, space, and time—Problems in
intercultural communication, The International Relations and
Security Network. Retrieved from
http://www.isn.ethz.ch/Digital-

12. Library/Articles/Detail/?ots783=4888caa0-b3db-1461-98b9-
e20e7b9c13d4&id=154696
Gestures, Personal Space and Eye Contact
Over 90% of what you communicate is non-verbal—through
gestures, body language, and tone of voice. This section
considers the question of what are you communicating through
your body language—or non-verbal behavior. These messages
can vary across cultures and convey very different meanings
depending on which cultures are interacting. So it is important
to be well versed on what different types of non-verbals
actually mean in different cultures.
The following video focuses on gestures, and how the same
gestures can have different meaning in different cultures, with
footage of people “acting naturally” in various cultures.
Initially the video is a bit burred, but it quickly clears.
Morris, D. (2011). The Human Animal: A Personal View of the
Human Species. Retrieved from:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fRQSRed58XM
Here is a short “cheat sheet” on the meaning of common
gestures and non-verbal behavior across cultures:
Diversity Tip Sheet: Cross-Cultural Communication:
Translating Nonverbal Cues. (2008). Diversity Council.
Retrieved from
http://media.wix.com/ugd/585763_8ea8dab2b7574c1a85d491bea
aa90a5f.pdf
Social Identity: Gender and Ethnicity
The last factor that we will examine in the context of cross-
cultural communication is the area of social identity on styles of
verbal and non-verbal communication. Social identity is a broad
term that signifies any group or collective of which an
individual feels a part. So, for example, your social identity
might be female, baby boomer, African American, Buddhist,
and/or Texan. When we communicate and interact with others,
it often highlights the ways in which people from other identity
groups are similar or different from our own. Indeed, it is
common to assume greater similarity from a member of one of

13. our own identity groups and greater difference between
members of other groups. Although there are many bases of
social identity, in this module, we will focus on two key
identities—that of gender and ethnicity.
Research studies have found numerous differences between men
and women in the realm of communication—even across
cultures. Differences have been found in pronunciation (females
have better pronunciation than males), intonation (women’s
pitch is higher), vocabulary (women use more adjectives),
diminutives (women use more), pronouns (women prefer first-
person plural while men tend to use the first-person singular for
self and second-person singular for others).
Other types of gender differences in communication involve
greater use of modulation by women (“I might be wrong, but
…”) whereas men are more direct. Women also tend to ask more
questions as a way of engaging others in conversation, whereas
men frequently view asking questions as a sign of ignorance or
weakness. Men use imperative sentences more often when
issuing orders, but women will modify the tone by using
adverbs like “maybe,” “perhaps,” or “probably.”
Reference: Xia, X. (2013). Gender differences in using
language. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(8), 1485–
1489.
Deborah Tannen, a noted writer in the area of gender
differences in communication, developed Genderlect Theory,
which held that it is best to approach communication between
genders as a cross-cultural activity because men and women
have different approaches to communicating, including different
dialects. While her theory gained widespread notoriety, it has
not been widely adopted by the academic or scholarly
community.
Furthermore, Tannen’s work has been criticized as being “male-
centric,” recommending that women adopt more forceful and
direct methods of communicating. More recent work on gender
and communication suggests that in a globalized and service-
oriented economy, advantage can be gained by a communication

14. approach that is more empathetic and inclusive.
For a brief sketch of the differences in male and female
communication styles, read:
Gillespie, D. (2013). Communication styles: Understanding
gender differences. WorkHealthLife blog. Retrieved from
http://blog.workhealthlife.com/2013/03/communication-styles-
understanding-gender-differences/
For a more thorough, cross-cultural exposition of the social,
historical, and cultural influences on gender and communication
view the following video. Some segments are serious, some are
funny; the segment beginning at 12:10 is a good example. The
video is rather lengthy but worth the time, and it raises some
controversial issues. Do you agree?
Archer, D. (2013). Gender and communication: male female
differences in Language and non-verbal communication.
Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9iNSSOoNRe8
The United States is a country characterized by a great deal of
ethnic diversity, and so it is particularly important to consider
the extent to which ethnic identity influences communication.
Ethnic identity is often subsumed under the term “social
identity,” which can mean any social group with which one
identifies. Just as with the above factors, identity issues in
communication also concern differences in the way the world is
conceived or experienced. These differences can lead to
misunderstanding or unsuccessful communication when the
viewpoint of the “other” is assumed to be the same as that of
one’s own group.
Ethnic identities are “socially constructed.” That is, how we
think about our ethnicity is influenced by the environment in
which we grow up, are educated, and choose to live as adults.
Who we interact with and our relationship to the dominant or
majority ethnic group can shape the content and strength of our
own ethnic identities.
The following animated PowerPoint presentation illustrates the
complexity of ethnic identity. It is taken from Chapter 4 of

15. Understanding Intercultural Communication by Stella Ting-
Toomey and Leeva Chung. Take your time when viewing the
slides. Because it is animated, the tendency is to click fast, but
you will get more out of it if you slow down and take the time
to understand each slide.
McKissick, C. (2013). Chapter 4: What are the keys to
understanding cultural and ethnic identities? Retrieved from
http://prezi.com/qxa61oj8zv_k/ch-4-what-are-the-keys-to-
understanding-cultural-and-ethni/
PAPER 3
The SLP for this module involves taking a look at the
stereotypes we have of our own culture—and that of another
culture. Begin by assessing your stereotypes by filling out the
following instrument: Assessing Your Stereotypes. Then, in

16. your weekly journal, reflect on the following questions:
1. What was the score for your own group? For the other group?
2. What did the Assessing Your Stereotypes instrument reveal
about the stereotypes you hold about your own and the other
culture?
3. How can the concept of social identity be used to explain
your scores?
4. What other insights have you gained about stereotypes from
this questionnaire, the readings, and other aspects of the course
so far that will be valuable to you in leading across different
cultures?
The following reading on Social Identity Theory may help you
address questions 3 and 4 above:
McLeod, S. (2008) Social Identity Theory. Simply Psychology.
Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-
identity-theory.html
POWER POINT 4
You will engage in your cross-cultural experience. To document
your experience, prepare a 5-minute video or a PowerPoint
presentation with photos (at least 6 slides) describing the
experience. This assignment should be strictly factual, as if you
were preparing a news story on the event. You want to convey
to the reader the look and feel of the contact experience or
event. Concentrate on “who, what, when, where, and how.” The
“why” question is what we will focus on in the Module 4 Case
Assignment.
Assignment Expectations

17. · Your presentation should be professionally prepared, as if you
were making a presentation to your boss.
· Presentations should be thoroughly edited and error-free.
· Any photos should be accompanied by descriptions naming the
participants and circumstances.
· PowerPoint presentations may include voice-overs or other
audio (e.g., music representative of the culture.)