Napier Grass or Giant King Grass is conceived as an viable alternative and long-term solution for biomass power plants.
•Natural hybrid of Pennisetum Purpureum
•Also known as elephant grass
• Not genetically modified
•Widely adaptive and stress resistant
•Modest need for fertilizer – basically a weed
•No pesticide needed in most cases
Potentiality of Biogas Production in Mubi Slaughtering Houses, Northeastern N...ijtsrd
Intensive demand heat and electricity by slaughtering houses required an improve understanding of existing production of biogas in order to increase their efficiency, productivity, flexibility and to maintain balance of the ecosystem. It is important for this study to find out how potentially the biogas production is to be harvested for heat and electricity in Mubi slaughtering houses. It was found that the estimated volume of biogas, were viable for harvesting 167.47 KWh m3 and 83.73 kWh m3 of heat and electricity respectively for Mubi North, while 167.47 KWh m3 and 10.11 kWh m3 of heat and electricity for Mubi South daily. Therefore, authors recommends for further studies, if were implement to achieve maximum yield of biogas. A. S. Umar | N. W. Silikwa "Potentiality of Biogas Production in Mubi Slaughtering Houses, Northeastern Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38019.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/physics/other/38019/potentiality-of-biogas-production-in-mubi-slaughtering-houses-northeastern-nigeria/a-s-umar
Napier Grass or Giant King Grass is conceived as an viable alternative and long-term solution for biomass power plants.
•Natural hybrid of Pennisetum Purpureum
•Also known as elephant grass
• Not genetically modified
•Widely adaptive and stress resistant
•Modest need for fertilizer – basically a weed
•No pesticide needed in most cases
Potentiality of Biogas Production in Mubi Slaughtering Houses, Northeastern N...ijtsrd
Intensive demand heat and electricity by slaughtering houses required an improve understanding of existing production of biogas in order to increase their efficiency, productivity, flexibility and to maintain balance of the ecosystem. It is important for this study to find out how potentially the biogas production is to be harvested for heat and electricity in Mubi slaughtering houses. It was found that the estimated volume of biogas, were viable for harvesting 167.47 KWh m3 and 83.73 kWh m3 of heat and electricity respectively for Mubi North, while 167.47 KWh m3 and 10.11 kWh m3 of heat and electricity for Mubi South daily. Therefore, authors recommends for further studies, if were implement to achieve maximum yield of biogas. A. S. Umar | N. W. Silikwa "Potentiality of Biogas Production in Mubi Slaughtering Houses, Northeastern Nigeria" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-1 , December 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38019.pdf Paper URL : https://www.ijtsrd.com/physics/other/38019/potentiality-of-biogas-production-in-mubi-slaughtering-houses-northeastern-nigeria/a-s-umar
Dr. Navin Sharma is Biofuel Programme Manager with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) based in India. He holds a Ph D in Applied Biology from the University of Cambridge and has carried out his Postdoctoral work at the University of York. Navin has over 23 years of experience in industrial R&D working with two major FMCG companies: Unilever and ITC. He is currently leading a biofuels initiative being implemented in South Asia, Latin America and Africa. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/cop12
Biomass used intelligently to recover its energy content while disposing waste safely is a solution to climate change challenge and alternate to fossil fuel utilization.
Bridging the gaps: Challenges and Opportunities CGIAR
Bridging the gaps between AR and ARD Challenges and Opportunities- presented by Alain Vidal, Senior Advisor, Capacity Development and Partnerships, CGIAR Consortium at the AKIS-ARCH Workshop, Brussels, 26-27 May 2014
Mr. Oliver Frith is the Acting Programme Director at the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) and based in Beijing, China. He has an MSc in Environmental Change and Management from Oxford University and an MA in Natural Sciences from Cambridge. He has worked at INBAR’s Beijing Headquarters for over 7 years, managing and advising livelihood development and environmental projects in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Renewable Energy and Agriculture: A Partnership for Sustainable DevelopmentIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTARCT: Agriculture is the sole provider of human food. Most farms machines are driven by fossil fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and in turn, accelerate climate change. Such environmental damage can be mitigated by the promotion of renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, and biofuels. These renewable resources have a huge potential for agriculture industry. The concept of sustainable agriculture lies on a delicate balance of maximizing crop productivity and maintaining economic stability, while minimizing the utilization of finite natural resources and detrimental environmental impacts. Sustainable agriculture also depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas, which is used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer and mineral ores, e.g phosphate or fossil fuel used in diesel generator for water pumping for irrigation.Hence, there is a need for promoting use of renewable energy systems for sustainable agriculture e.g solar photovoltaic water pumps and electricity, greenhouse technologies, solar dryers for post harvest processing and solar hot water heaters. In remote agricultural lands, the underground submersible solar photovoltaic water pump is economically viable and also an environmentally friendly option as compared with a diesel generator set. This article details the role of renewable energy in farming by connecting all aspects of environment, societal change and ecology
Dr. Navin Sharma is Biofuel Programme Manager with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) based in India. He holds a Ph D in Applied Biology from the University of Cambridge and has carried out his Postdoctoral work at the University of York. Navin has over 23 years of experience in industrial R&D working with two major FMCG companies: Unilever and ITC. He is currently leading a biofuels initiative being implemented in South Asia, Latin America and Africa. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/cop12
Biomass used intelligently to recover its energy content while disposing waste safely is a solution to climate change challenge and alternate to fossil fuel utilization.
Bridging the gaps: Challenges and Opportunities CGIAR
Bridging the gaps between AR and ARD Challenges and Opportunities- presented by Alain Vidal, Senior Advisor, Capacity Development and Partnerships, CGIAR Consortium at the AKIS-ARCH Workshop, Brussels, 26-27 May 2014
Mr. Oliver Frith is the Acting Programme Director at the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) and based in Beijing, China. He has an MSc in Environmental Change and Management from Oxford University and an MA in Natural Sciences from Cambridge. He has worked at INBAR’s Beijing Headquarters for over 7 years, managing and advising livelihood development and environmental projects in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Renewable Energy and Agriculture: A Partnership for Sustainable DevelopmentIJMERJOURNAL
ABSTARCT: Agriculture is the sole provider of human food. Most farms machines are driven by fossil fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and in turn, accelerate climate change. Such environmental damage can be mitigated by the promotion of renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, and biofuels. These renewable resources have a huge potential for agriculture industry. The concept of sustainable agriculture lies on a delicate balance of maximizing crop productivity and maintaining economic stability, while minimizing the utilization of finite natural resources and detrimental environmental impacts. Sustainable agriculture also depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas, which is used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer and mineral ores, e.g phosphate or fossil fuel used in diesel generator for water pumping for irrigation.Hence, there is a need for promoting use of renewable energy systems for sustainable agriculture e.g solar photovoltaic water pumps and electricity, greenhouse technologies, solar dryers for post harvest processing and solar hot water heaters. In remote agricultural lands, the underground submersible solar photovoltaic water pump is economically viable and also an environmentally friendly option as compared with a diesel generator set. This article details the role of renewable energy in farming by connecting all aspects of environment, societal change and ecology
Biomass Energy Sustainable Solution for Greenhouse Gas Emis.docxhartrobert670
Biomass Energy: Sustainable
Solution
for Greenhouse Gas
Emission
A.K.M. Sadrul Islama* and M. Ahiduzzamanb
abMechanical & Chemical Engineering Department,
Islamic University of Technology, Board Bazar, Gazipur-1704, Bangladesh
*Corresponding Author: Email- [email protected]
Abstract. Biomass is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide is produced after combustion of biomass. Over a
relatively short timescale, carbon dioxide is renewed from atmosphere during next generation of new growth of
green vegetation. Contribution of renewable energy including hydropower, solar, biomass and biofuel in total
primary energy consumption in world is about 19%. Traditional biomass alone contributes about 13% of total
primary energy consumption in the world. The number of traditional biomass energy users expected to rise from 2.5
billion in 2004 to 2.6 billion in 2015 and to 2.7 billion in 2030 for cooking in developing countries. Residential
biomass demand in developing countries is projected to rise from 771 Mtoe in 2004 to 818 Mtoe in 2030. The main
sources of biomass are wood residues, bagasse, rice husk, agro-residues, animal manure, municipal and industrial
waste etc. Dedicated energy crops such as short-rotation coppice, grasses, sugar crops, starch crops and oil crops are
gaining importance and market share as source of biomass energy. Global trade in biomass feedstocks and processed
bioenergy carriers are growing rapidly. There are some drawbacks of biomass energy utilization compared to fossil
fuels viz: heterogeneous and uneven composition, lower calorific value and quality deterioration due to uncontrolled
biodegradation. Loose biomass also is not viable for transportation. Pelletization, briquetting, liquefaction and
gasification of biomass energy are some options to solve these problems. Wood fuel production is very much steady
and little bit increase in trend, however, the forest land is decreasing, means the deforestation is progressive. There is
a big challenge for sustainability of biomass resource and environment. Biomass energy can be used to reduce
greenhouse emissions. Woody biomass such as briquette and pellet from un-organized biomass waste and residues
could be used for alternative to wood fuel, as a result, forest will be saved and sustainable carbon sink will be
developed. Clean energy production from biomass (such as ethanol, biodiesel, producer gas, bio-methane) could be
viable option to reduce fossil fuel consumption. Electricity generation from biomass is increasing throughout the
world. Co-firing of biomass with coal and biomass combustion in power plant and CHP would be a viable option for
clean energy development. Biomass can produce less emission in the range of 14% to 90% compared to emission
from fossil for electricity generation. Therefore, biomass could play a vital role for generation of clean energy by
reducing fossil energy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The main barriers to expansio ...
Energy consumption pattern in wheat production in sindhsanaullah noonari
Wheat (Triticum aestivium L.) is the main staple food for most of the population and largest grain source o the
country. It occupies the central position in formulating agricultural policies. It contributes 13.1 percent to the
value added in agriculture and 2.7 percent to GDP. Area and production target of wheat for the year 2012-13 had
been set at 9045 thousand hectares and 25 million tons, respectively. Wheat was cultivated on an area of 8805
thousands hectares, showing a decrease of 3.6 percent over last year’s area of 9132 thousand hectares. However,
a bumper wheat crop of 24.2 million tons has been estimated with 3.9 percent increase over the last year’s crop
of 23.3 million tons. The prospects for wheat harvest improved with healthy fertilizer off-take and reasonable
rainfall during pre-harvesting period. Energy is a necessary of life for human beings all over the world due to its
function in strengthening the security and contentment of the people. Energy demand is growing with the
passage of time due to infrastructural and industrial development. Energy is required to perform all the human
activities. It is need for food preparation, water heating and cooling, for lighting, for production of goods etc.
The study was focused on all types of energy (fossil fuels, chemicals, animals dung, animate etc). A sample of
60 farmers was selected from study area. A pre tested questioner was used to collect data from selected
respondents through personal interviews. Descriptive statistics and Cobb-Douglas production function was
applied to analyze the data. Result shows that wheat farmer achieved highest amount of net energy which was
calculated as small, medium and large farmers is 1368336.88, 1698003.79 and1702527.75 MJ/acre respectively.
In production of wheat large, medium and small farmers achieve amount of net energy which was calculated
41525.06, 38590.99, 39095.33 MJ/acre. The impact of various energy inputs on yield was studied. The share of
various energy types in total cost of production was estimated. Commercial energy (diesel and electricity)
consumed highest amount of energy in production of wheat.
Organic Farming: History and Techniques
`
For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159`
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Biomass for fuel use may be derived from fuelwood and other sources in India. This was a by-product of other primary activities like agriculture, forestry, trees outside forests and food processing. Barriers need to be overcome to develop a sustainable bioenergy system.
Evaluation of the Growth and Yield Performances of Maize in a Soybean Culture...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Around 70% of producers (farmers, tribals on forest land etc.) population in India comes under the category of small (19%) and marginal (51%) farmers. These categories of farmers have land holding of around 1 hectare and implementing existing policies to allot Govt. land to them (Booklet no. 434, Agricultural situation in India: ASIS-6). This population is mostly, poor, hungry, malnourished, illiterate, isolated, deep in debt, having lost their knowledge to follow their agro-ecology, having fallen into global investment in the market oriented development research, with extension focused on adapting and converting to high cost, high risk green revolution/Biotechnologies systems. This is the cause of their distress and the agrarian crisis in India. So, if we want our agriculture to again contribute significantly to the development and growth by becoming sustainable in the long term, we need to assist/facilitate by meeting the needs of the producer community so that they once again follow their producer oriented, low cost, low risk, agro ecology, primarily to meet their nutrition, food and cash requirements as this is the target population (mostly women and youth) that has capabilities and if given proper resources to develop their capacities
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...zinabu wolde
The study reviewed Land use practices in Gedeo Zone Dilla Zuria woreda to assess its role and achievements in ensuring good food security since 2014 in which the people of Gedeo were being practice on. The objectives were to (1) identify the land Use practice that have been used over time; (2) identify the problem of current land Use practice in the area (3) identify the challenges of the practice in the soil; (4) determine the extent of use of land use practice from historical approaches in maintaining good service and (5) make recommendations for further improvement of land use practice. Primary sources, Published and unpublished secondary sources revealed that several agricultural approach were being undertaken in order to make clear land use practice of the area. One of the basic approaches undertaken today was Agroforestry practice, which culturally tied with Nation of Gedeo. Land use practice dealt with challenges of previous and current approaches of land use practice. Aspects of challenges to effective Land use practice in area were administrative or management, farmer awareness, and in general, attitudinal change of farmers in the area. Natural resource management such as integrated watershed management, soil and water conservation practice, consequence of improper land use practice are discussed and recommended for further improvement of land use practice in the study area.
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
SAP Sapphire 2024 - ASUG301 building better apps with SAP Fiori.pdfPeter Spielvogel
Building better applications for business users with SAP Fiori.
• What is SAP Fiori and why it matters to you
• How a better user experience drives measurable business benefits
• How to get started with SAP Fiori today
• How SAP Fiori elements accelerates application development
• How SAP Build Code includes SAP Fiori tools and other generative artificial intelligence capabilities
• How SAP Fiori paves the way for using AI in SAP apps
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
Climate impact / sustainability of software testing discussed on the talk. ICT and testing must carry their part of global responsibility to help with the climat warming. We can minimize the carbon footprint but we can also have a carbon handprint, a positive impact on the climate. Quality characteristics can be added with sustainability, and then measured continuously. Test environments can be used less, and in smaller scale and on demand. Test techniques can be used in optimizing or minimizing number of tests. Test automation can be used to speed up testing.
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey 2024 by 91mobiles.pdf91mobiles
91mobiles recently conducted a Smart TV Buyer Insights Survey in which we asked over 3,000 respondents about the TV they own, aspects they look at on a new TV, and their TV buying preferences.
In his public lecture, Christian Timmerer provides insights into the fascinating history of video streaming, starting from its humble beginnings before YouTube to the groundbreaking technologies that now dominate platforms like Netflix and ORF ON. Timmerer also presents provocative contributions of his own that have significantly influenced the industry. He concludes by looking at future challenges and invites the audience to join in a discussion.
Communications Mining Series - Zero to Hero - Session 1DianaGray10
This session provides introduction to UiPath Communication Mining, importance and platform overview. You will acquire a good understand of the phases in Communication Mining as we go over the platform with you. Topics covered:
• Communication Mining Overview
• Why is it important?
• How can it help today’s business and the benefits
• Phases in Communication Mining
• Demo on Platform overview
• Q/A
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
Alt. GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using ...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Removing Uninteresting Bytes in Software FuzzingAftab Hussain
Imagine a world where software fuzzing, the process of mutating bytes in test seeds to uncover hidden and erroneous program behaviors, becomes faster and more effective. A lot depends on the initial seeds, which can significantly dictate the trajectory of a fuzzing campaign, particularly in terms of how long it takes to uncover interesting behaviour in your code. We introduce DIAR, a technique designed to speedup fuzzing campaigns by pinpointing and eliminating those uninteresting bytes in the seeds. Picture this: instead of wasting valuable resources on meaningless mutations in large, bloated seeds, DIAR removes the unnecessary bytes, streamlining the entire process.
In this work, we equipped AFL, a popular fuzzer, with DIAR and examined two critical Linux libraries -- Libxml's xmllint, a tool for parsing xml documents, and Binutil's readelf, an essential debugging and security analysis command-line tool used to display detailed information about ELF (Executable and Linkable Format). Our preliminary results show that AFL+DIAR does not only discover new paths more quickly but also achieves higher coverage overall. This work thus showcases how starting with lean and optimized seeds can lead to faster, more comprehensive fuzzing campaigns -- and DIAR helps you find such seeds.
- These are slides of the talk given at IEEE International Conference on Software Testing Verification and Validation Workshop, ICSTW 2022.
1. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Integration of Biogas Technology into Farming System of the three
Northern Regions of Ghana
Emmanuel Amankwah
Email: trustee7a@ yahoo.com
Abstract
This article takes a look at the possible integration of biogas technology into farming system of the three northern
regions of Ghana. The nexus between animal husbandry and crop production is a key to improving agricultural
productivity in the study areas. The research involves a thorough study of the farming system in the three northern
regions and an extensive review of literature on biogas technology. During the research, it was revealed that the
three northern regions which have the largest concentration of livestock hardly use the enormous manure generated
by these livestock efficiently to improve the condition of their soils which lack basic nutrients such as Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K) needed for high crop yield. Farmers in the regions thus depend largely on
chemical fertilizers. The research compares the use of digested slurry and raw manure, nutritional values of different
animals’ slurry and outlines the efficiencies of biogas in different equipment. The paper discusses the processes in
biogas production as a source of energy in farming communities, outlines the basic farming systems in the three
northern regions, the composition and application of biogas and the digested slurry, and summarizes the micro and
macro benefits of the biogas technology. It was concluded with some recommendations.
Key words: biogas production, slurry application, eco-farming, livestock and chemical fertilizer
1.0 Introduction
There are various renewable energy sources such as hydro, solar, wind, and biomass that have the potential for
exploitation in Ghana. There are also numerous technologies for harnessing these inexhaustible renewable energy
resources. This study looks at the possibility of integrating biogas technology in our farming systems using animal
and agricultural wastes to generate energy (biogas) for agricultural production. Biogas is one of the most important
bio-energy in the world today which can be used in place of natural gas (Hobson et al. 1981). As the world yearns
for the use of renewable energy in place of fossil fuels, coal and nuclear energy due to their environmental
consequences, the use of biogas energy in agriculture to boost food production cannot be downplayed. Developing
countries having the world largest population, high population growth, low standard of living, low technological
advancement, and low energy use have the arduous responsibility to produce more energy for their economic
growth. Renewable energy such as biogas could therefore be the best way forward especially for rural farming
communities.
Biogas can be produced from simple organic raw materials such as animal dung, food wastes, agricultural residues,
municipal waste materials and human wastes. The biogas generated from these materials could be used for
electricity and heat generation, pressurized for use in public transport and as a fuel for cooking in homes - a
substitute for natural gas. The issue of waste disposal, sanitation and environmental problems coupled with the high
cost of fossil fuel make biogas production a better choice. Many of the farming communities are far away from the
national grid and cannot even dream of getting connected thus the use of biogas technology in these communities
could address their energy challenges. Already agriculture is known to contribute significantly to the global climate
change; nevertheless, the transformation of animal wastes and other agricultural wastes will reduce the impact
agriculture has on the environment. The issue of climate change with its concomitant challenges due to increasing
CO2 in the atmosphere could be addressed by the use of renewable energy resources such as biogas. The world
today is experiencing global warming due to the use of fossil fuel and wood fuel but the use of biogas do not
contribute to global warming neither does the methane produced has any effect on the atmosphere. The integration
of biogas technology into agriculture popularly called biological or ecological farming will improve the income
levels of farmers and facilitate the achievement of effective and low-cost productivity in our agricultural system.
Biogas technology can provide the link between animal husbandry and crop farming thus playing an important role
in self-sustaining eco-farming.
76
2. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
1.2 Problem statement
The Idea of renewable energy resources in Ghana started some years ago, however its exploitation has far been left
behind. Renewable energy is now seen as the way forward for energy supply especially in rural communities.
Agricultural communities in rural areas produces a chunk of the food for the nation yet lack the energy needed to
process and add value to the food they produce. The main source of energy for the rural dwellers is wood fuel and
charcoal which increases deforestation leading to the degradation of the environment. It was estimated that Ghana
used about 18million tonnes of wood fuel in 2000 and the total energy consumption of Ghana during 1999 was
7,108 metric tons of which 5,196 metric tons were from traditional sources (Trossero, 2002).
The bulk of wood fuels amounting to 90 percent are obtained directly from the natural forest and approximately 60
percent of the world’s total wood removals from forest and outside forests are used for energy purposes. The
developed countries use only 30 percent of wood produced for energy whiles the developing countries use about 80
percent for the same purpose (ibid). It was estimated that 6.5 million hectares of forest in Ghana have been
deforested at an alarming rate of 22,000 hectares per annum and the rest is being encroached upon. As at 1985,
12,000,000 m3 of fuel wood and charcoal were consumed, forming about 70% of the country’s energy consumption
(Okoth-Ogendo & Ojwang, 1985). According to Aprovecho Institute (1984), developed countries use
155,000,000m3 of wood as firewood of which 0.4% of all energy used is equivalent to 10% of total wood used
while developing countries use 1.2billion cubic metres of wood for firewood of which 25% of all energy use of
firewood is equivalent to 90% of total wood used.
Considering the above trend of wood consumption, it is important to consider a cheap but reliable alternative source
of energy such as biogas. It is worth noting that most of the wood fuel is used in rural communities as energy for
cooking. Farmers in the rural communities also engage in charcoal production especially during the lean season
which is transported to the cities for consumption. Integration of biogas technology into the farming system will
reduce the use of firewood for cooking and reduce the involvement of farmers in charcoal production as they are
likely to be busy on their farms. It is estimated that about 70% of Ghana’s population are rural dwellers that use
wood fuel as their main source of energy for their domestic and commercial activities. Farming communities in the
three northern regions namely; Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions cannot boast of basic energy on their
farms to process their crops. Lack of basic energy coupled with the use of wood fuel and charcoal call for the need
to integrate biogas technology into the farming systems to meet those challenges.
1.3 Perspective of Agriculture in the three Northern Regions
The major employment and economic activities in the region is agriculture. About 70% of the northerners are
employed in the agriculture sector alone. The three regions cannot boast of any industry apart from the cotton
industry which is now defunct. They therefore mainly depend on agriculture for their survival. Livestock rearing is
an integral part of the farming system in the three northern regions. Most households keep some animals, mainly
cattle, poultry, pigs, sheep and goats (Otchere et al. 1997b). The northern regions have a relatively high
concentration of livestock: 75% of the countries cattle and 50% of its small ruminants are found in the regions.
Smallholders use animals to supplement family diet and to generate occasional cash income (Atengdem & Dery,
1998).
The two forms of farming systems in the three northern regions are compound and bush farming. The main source
of organic matter for soil improvement is animal dung from kraals and pens. Compost, pit garbage and crop residues
are seldom used (Antwi et. al. 1996 and Adolph et. al. 1993). Compound farms are dominant in communities with
limited croplands and fairly large, dispersed settlements (Adolph et. al. 1993). On the other hand bush farms are
larger and further away from the houses than compound farms. Animal traction and other labour saving devices are
used on the bush farms. In some villages, however, the use of hoe for tillage is still very common (Atengdem &
Dery 1998 and Antwi et. al. 1996). Soil fertility is a major constraint for agricultural production in the three northern
regions (Runge-Metzger & Diehl, 1993).
Organic matter content in the surface soil horizons is very low due to the high temperatures and annual grass
burning. The nutrients status such as Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K) and Nitrogen (N) of the soils is therefore low.
The high intensity of rainfall within a 4 to 5 month period coupled with sparse grass cover results in considerable
sheet erosion and leaching of the soil. Chemical fertilizer use is therefore very common in the regions.
77
3. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
2.0 Overview of biogas production and slurry application
2.1 Microbiology and Biochemistry of Anaerobic Digestion
The process involved in the anaerobic degradation of organic materials is both biologically and chemically
complicated as it involves so many possible intermediate of reactions. The accomplishment of microbiological
breakdown of organic material in an anaerobic environment can only be done by micro-organisms (bacteria), which
ultimately result in biogas production. These bacteria are aerobic bacteria, facultative anaerobic bacteria and
anaerobic bacteria, which are responsible for the production of the biogas. The aerobic bacteria grows in the
presence of oxygen, the facultative anaerobic bacteria metabolizes and grows with or without oxygen while the latter
grows only in the absence of oxygen (Hobson et al. 1981).
The process is divided into three stages namely Hydrolysis, Acid formation and Methane producing stages (GTZ-
GATE).
2.1.1 Hydrolysis or Liquidation Stage
Fats, which are also called lipids, are found in most digester feed stocks, as they are constituents not only of animal
matter but also of organic materials. The lipids in a digester feedstock are mainly compounds of glycerol and long-
chain fatty acids while others contain more complex molecules. The long-chain fatty acids can be in saturated or
unsaturated forms. Irrespective of the number of chains, there is a breakdown of complex long chains organic
molecules into simpler shorter molecules by the action of extra cellular enzymes. There are specific enzymes
involved in the breakdown of these organic molecules. For instance, starch and glycogen, which are carbohydrates,
are hydrolyzed to a disaccharide by the action of amylase – one of the enzymes.
Lipases and esterases hydrolyze fats and lipids (oil) and these enzymes are specific in their reaction. The enzyme
trypsin is specific for bonds involving the amino acids (Fruton & Simmonds, 1959). The enzymes are also
responsible for the conversion of proteins into peptides and amino acids so is the conversion of polysaccharides to
monosaccharides.
2.1.2 Acid Formation Stage
This second stage involved the conversion of the fermented intermediate materials into acetic acid (CH 3COOH),
Hydrogen (H2) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) by bacteria, which react in acidic medium. The bacteria (acidogenic and
acetogenic) use up all the oxygen present creating an anaerobic environment for the methane-producing micro-
organisms to react afterwards. They also reduce the compounds with a low molecular weight into alcohols, organic
acids, amino acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, sulphide and traces of methane. The removal of the oxygen is
characterized by extremely small changes in energy per unit substrate decomposed (McCarty, 1971).
2.1.3 Methane Formation
The final stage of the process is the methane producing stage, which involves methane-producing bacteria called
methanogenic bacteria. Methane forming bacteria are sensitive to pH and conditions should be mildly acidic (pH
6.6-7.0) and certainly not below pH 6.2 (Twidell & Weir, 1986). These bacteria convert the compounds formed
during the second stage into a low molecular weight such as methane and carbon dioxide in the absence of oxygen.
Both acidogenic and acetogenic bacteria and the methanogenic bacteria act in support of one another in that the
anaerobic condition created could be poisonous to those bacteria if not used up by other bacteria while the
methanogenic bacteria could not also operate without such an environment. The reaction is as shown below:
Organic matter = anaerobic = CH4 + CO2 + H2 + H2S (Price & Cheremisinoff, 1981)
Microorganisms
2.2 Factors that Affect Biogas Production
There are many factors that affect biogas production and these factors may have either positive or negative impacts
on the biogas production. The optimum level of each of the following factors will form the best environment for an
efficient and reliable performance of the biogas plant. These factors affect the bacteria at the various stages
78
4. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
differently. Biogas digestion is a microbial process, and for that matter requires the maintenance of suitable growth
conditions for biogas producing bacteria. The common factors involved in microbiological methanation are:
Temperature
There are three main temperature mediums for the production of biogas in the digester which are
Psychrophilic, Mesophilic and Thermophilic temperatures.
Nutrients Availability
The waste to be fed into the digester must contain a reasonable amount of nutrient suitable for the growth of the
organisms.
Retention time (flow-through time)
The retention time depends on the material and the temperature present. Two methods of determining the retention
time are batch or continue type facility. Batch method is the best way to measure retention time but continue type
method will only give an approximation or mean retention time which is given by
Digester volume
Daily feed rate
Level of pH
An appropriate pH level is very important for an effective performance of the methanogenic bacteria. The optimum
pH for the methanogenic bacteria is 7 or about 7.2 (Ghosh & Klaus, 1978). The ideal pH value for methane
formation lies within 6.5-7.5. Animal dung and night soil have normally this ideal range of pH value (Moulik,
1990).
Nitrogen inhibition and C/N ratio
Nitrogen and carbon are basic ingredients needed by microorganisms for their metabolic activities. The optimum
level of C/N ratio for the perfect operation of the methanogenic bacteria is approximately 8 – 20 and this value
varies from one case to another.
Others are inhibitory factors such as detergent in sewage sludge, heavy metals, moisture content and cations which
may also affect the production of biogas. According to Sasse, 1988, the substrate - water ratio is 1:3, which depends
on the material input.
3.0 Composition and Characteristics of Biogas
Biogas has almost the same characteristics as natural gas. It is pressure and temperature dependent and also affected
3
by moisture content. Biogas has a heat value of 6kWh/m3 which is equivalent to 21,600kJ/m3 whiles that of natural
3
gas is 11kWh/m3 . It is also a clean and odourless combustible gas (like natural gas) which is produced when
organic matter from plant and animal wastes are anaerobically fermented or digested by methanogenic bacteria
(Pokharel & Yadav, 1991). The dominant gases are CH4 and CO2. It burns with3 a clear blue flame with no smoke,
has a flame temperature of about 800 0C with a calorific value of 5650 Kcal /m3 of gas (Pokharel & Yadav, 1991).
The gas is almost 20% lighter than air and has an ignition temperature of 650 – 750 0C (Moulik, 1990). The major
drawback of biogas is its lower energy content compared to natural gas due to the varying amount of CO2 and other
trace gases. Nonetheless, the liquefaction of biogas can be performed successfully, if the raw biogas is cleaned up
and the methane content improved. However, the presence of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) and moisture in the biogas
forms corrosive acids which may lead to corrosion and wear on engines, burners and lamps thus the need to remove
them. The presence of H2S can be identified using lead acetate paper that turns black upon exposure to the biogas.
H2S is poisonous, smell like a rotten egg and form weak acid with water, and explode with air. Nevertheless there
are various methods for removing H2S. Among these are the use of iron oxide filters, dry desulphurization using
ferrous substance and quicklime or slaked lime is also used in removing the presence of H 2S especially in small-
scale production. Air can also be doped into the gasholder, which will reduce about 80% of the H2S into elementary
sulphur that is deposited within the plant (Klaus, 1988). The reaction is as shown below: FeO + H2S = FeS +H2O;
2FeS + O2 = 2FeO +2S (Sasse, 1988). The chemical composition and efficiency of biogas in different equipment are
indicated on table 1 and figure 1 respectively in the appendix.
3.1 Slurry as by-product from biogas production
Besides the biogas produced, the slurry which is a byproduct is a very good source of fertilizer for crop production.
Its advantages far outweigh the raw manure and chemical fertilizers in term of quality and crop yield. According to
79
5. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Ames (1976), the slurry contains excellent nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, S and other trace elements. The
short-term fertilizer worth of the slurry is doubled while the long-term effects are reduced to half after digestion. The
chemical composition of the slurry of some animal manure is presented in table 2 in the appendix.
Pantastico (1976) also made relevant analysis of the organic nutrients in slurry and came out with the following
estimation that waste from animals, plants, and humans could supply developing countries with six to eight time
more nutrients than they derive from chemicals fertilizers. Comparism of slurry from digester and the raw manure
has also been made and in table 3 in the appendix.
Besides the gas generated from the digester, the byproduct also provide a better alternative for crop production thus
given a double benefit of the manure. Using sludge from anaerobic digester poses fewer problems if any at all than
using aerobically treated wastes because the smaller amount of bacteria matter minimizes both smells and insect
development. Integrating livestock production into our farming system will help farmers to maximize profits in their
farming business. Farmers can produce organic food products which are of quality and have better prices thus
improving their income levels. The biogas produced can also be fed into biogas generators to provide lights and run
other equipments on the farm.
Many writers and authors have come to the conclusion that the use of recycled organic nutrients or digested slurry
represents a better alternative to the use of chemical inputs for soil improvement and crop yield. Increase in nutrient
value of the slurry has improved the physical and chemical properties of the soil, hence boosting crop production.
However, studies have shown that about 16% of the nitrogen present in the digester sludge is present as dissolved
ammonia, which evaporates on standing (Idnani & Varadarajan 1974). It is therefore suggested that the slurry should
be covered from the direct sun in order to preserve its fertilizer quality. Proper storage and application method
should therefore be observed to minimize volatilization losses. The digester slurry must be kept moist or buried
under soil to preserve its nutritional value.
3.2 Macro and Micro benefits of biogas production
There are two main ways of evaluating biogas technology; macro and micro economic analyses. The former
compares cost of the programme to the benefits for the country or society. For instance, improvement in the standard
of living of rural dwellers, preservation of the forest and clean environment (sanitation) while the micro-economic
analysis looks at a single investment at a specific location and within a definite set of macro-conditions. It also
judges the profitability of the programme from the point of view of the user. For instance, sanitation and hygiene,
high crop yields and energy supply. The direct relationship between them is that micro economic conditions provide
information for the macro conditions. Barnett et al. (1978) suggested that the evaluation of biogas technology should
be treated or handled initially at the micro level. The benefits of biogas technology can be classified broadly under
the following: Social and Economic, Ecological, Heath and Sanitary, and Environmental benefits.
4.0 Discussions, Conclusion and Recommendations
4.1 Discussions
4.1.1 Slurry from the anaerobic digester
It has been proved that biogas technology is indeed a reliable source of energy that can improve farming activities
and increase the income of farmers. The comparism made by Chengdu (1980) and cited by Sasse (1988) clearly
indicate that the slurry has more nutritional value and improve crop yield than the normal manure. It also improves
the physical and chemical conditions of the soil, creates conducive environment for the micro- organisms in the soil
and reduces insect infestation. It is worth noting that, the slurry will provide better alternative for food production.
The use of slurry could also promote organic farming which is the preferred option. The slurry also contains
excellent nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg) and other
trace elements. The short-term fertilizer worth of the slurry is doubled while the long-term effects are reduced to half
after digestion. As stated above, the use of slurry will help farmers than the raw manure which are hardly applied
appropriately. The effects associated with raw manure are drastically reduced and this improves the quality of food
produced.
80
6. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Relevant analysis conducted on the organic nutrients (slurry) and chemical fertilizers by Pantastico (1976) indicated
that organic matter will have six to eight times more nutrients than they derive from chemical fertilizers. The use of
chemical fertilizer has dominated the agricultural sector of late. Despite the improvement in food production, the use
of chemical fertilizer has many side effects such as water pollution and reduction of the quality of food produced. It
has been established that the nutritional value of slurry far outweigh raw manure and chemical fertilizers.
It is already established that raw manure contains salts due to cattle ration thus heavy application to soils will
increase the salinity which destroys the soil in the long run. Meanwhile, the digested slurry contains a small fraction
of salt which is far lower than the raw manure making it an ideal fertilizer for plants growth. It is therefore
imperative to encourage farmers to include livestock production into their farming systems and establish biogas
technologies on their farms so that the slurry is used to increase food production.
4.1.2 Gas generated from the anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion of agricultural waste produces biogas which could be used in gas generators to provide
electricity for the farmers and their families. The presence of power will reduce boredom on the farm and increase
night activities in farming communities especially in a farm stead. Students in those farming communities can study
comfortably in the night like their counterparts in the cities. The gas could also be used for cooking instead of
firewood and charcoal thus saving our forest from further degradation. Werner et al. (1989) estimated that a simple
8 - 10 m3 biogas plant produces 1.5-2 m3 and 1001 digested-slurry fertilizer per day using dung from 3-5 head of
cattle or 8 - 12 pigs. With that much biogas, a family of 6 - 8 persons can cook 2-3 meals or operate one refrigerator
all day and two lamps for 3 hours or operate a 3 kW motor generator for 1 hour. This implies that simple biogas
plant could be planted in every farm of about seven or more cattle which in the long term promote eco-farming
where husbandry is integrated into crop farming.
4.2 Conclusion
The nexus between animal husbandry and crop farming is very important to promote biogas technology in rural
farming communities. It could be deduce for the above discussions that the application of biogas technology has
enormous benefits and has the potential to change our agricultural system in Ghana and improve rural lives. Apart
from the use of the gas to provide electricity and operate basic electrical appliances, the gas could run on generators
to process food crops and as cooking fuel for the family; the slurry could also be used to improve crop yields which
benefits supersede raw manure and chemical fertilizers.
Biogas technology also improves the environment, health and sanitation, the ecological environments and promotes
social and economic lives of the rural folks. The three northern regions have suitable environment, raw materials in
terms of livestock availability and the farming environment for biogas technology. It is therefore imperative for
government and other relevant stakeholders to support and encourage the integration of biogas technology into the
farming systems of the three northern regions.
4.3 Recommendations
The following recommendations are drawn for consideration.
1. Farmers should be given loans to increase their livestock capacity, build proper stables for the animals as
well as available veterinary services.
2. Exemptions of tax on materials made purposely for biogas plants most especially generators that run on
biogas and provide subsidies to farmers who practice eco-farming.
3. Since agricultural communities far from the national grid can hardly enjoy electricity, cheap and simple
biogas designs should be made available to them at affordable prices.
4. Government or donor agencies should support renewable energy projects especially biogas and make it
cheaper and affordable to the rural communities.
5. Trained extension agents should advice farmers to improve the breed of animals, disease control and
prevention, vaccination, feeding to enhance the live weight and health of the animals.
6. Farmers should be assisted to establish intensive fodder plots and also to incorporate forage legumes into
the farming systems to improve ruminant nutrition.
81
7. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to staff of Ministry of Agriculture and farmers who provided
information for this research. I also want to thank numerous authors who work tirelessly to provide books and
articles on biogas technology whose works were made reference to. May God bless you all.
References:
Adolph, B. et al. (1993), Coping with Uncertainty, Challenges for Agricultural Development in the Guinea Savanna
Zone of the Upper West Region, Ghana. ICRA, Working Document Series 28.
Ames, G.C.W. (1976), Can organic manures improve crop production in Southern India? Compost Science, 17(2)
Antwi, B. et al. (1996), Survey of Soil and Water Conservation Methods in the Fulo and Bekpong Catchments,
Upper West Region, Ghana. Working Document 1. (Unpublished).
Aprovecho Institute, (1984), Fuel-Saving Cook stoves, A Publication of the Deutsches Zentrum für
Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE in: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
Atengdem, P.B. & Dery, A.B. (1998), Development and transitions of farming systems in Northern Ghana: a
historical perspective. Report to ILEIA/NGLWG.
Barnett, A., Pyle, L. & Subramanian, S.K., (1978), Biogas Technology in the Third World: A Multidisciplinary
Review. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC.
Biogas composition, (http://www.biogas-renewable-energy.info/biogas_composition.html, (accessed 23 Aug. 2011).
Biogas: Strom und Wärme aus dem Kreislauf der Natur (2004), Ökoenergie Nummer 45b. Zul.-
Nr.01Z023218V/Verlagspostamt 1010 Wien/P.b.b
Cheremisinoff, P.N. & Morresi, A.C., (1976), Energy from Solid Wastes. New York, Dekker.
Fruton, J.S. & Simmonds, S., (1959), General Biochemistry. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Ghosh, S. & Klass, D.L. (1978), Process Biochemistry. pg 13, 15
GTZ-GATE (1999), Biogas Digest (Volume 1). Biogas Basics, ISAT.
Hobson, P.N., Bousfield, S. & Summer, R. (1981), Methane Production from Agricultural and Domestic Wastes.
Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London.
Idnani, M.A. & Acharya, C.N. (1963), Biogas plants (installation, operation, maintenance and use). ICAR, New
Delhi.
Idnani, MA. & Varadarajan, S. (1974), Fuel gas and manure by anaerobic fermentation of organic materials. ICAR
Technical Bulletin No. 46.
Klaus von Mitzlaff. (1988), Engines for biogas, A Publication of the Deutsches Zentrum für
Entwicklungstechnologien _ GATE , a Division of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ) GmbH.
McCarty, P.L. (1971), In Faust, S.J. & Hunter J. V. (eds), Organic compounds in aquatic environments.
Moulik, T.K. (1990), India institute of management, Ahmedabad, In: International Conference on Biogas.
Okoth-Ogendo, H.W.O & Ojwang, J.B. (1995), (eds). A Climate for Development, Climate Change Policy Options
for Africa. African Centre for Technology Studies, Kenya.
Otchere, E.O., Karbo, N. & Bruce. J. (1997b), Cattle rearing in the Northern Region of Ghana.
Pantastico, J.B. (1976), Historical account of plant nutrition and soil fertility studies. In Philippines CARR,
Philippines
Pokharel, R.K. & Yadav R.P. (1991), Application of Biogas Technology in Nepal: Problems and Prospectus.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Price, E. C. & Cheremisinoff, P.N. (1981), Biogas Production and Utilization. Ann Arbor Science.
Runge-Metzger, A. & Diehl, L. (1993), Farm Household Systems in Northern Ghana. A case study in farming
systems oriented research for the development of improved crop production systems.
Sasse, L. (1988), Biogas Plants, A Publication of the Deutsches Zentrum für Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE in:
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
Sasse, L., Kellner, C. & Kimaro, A. (1991), Improved Biogas Unit for Developing Countries. A Publication of the
Deutsches Zentrum für Entwicklungstechnologien - GATE in: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH.
82
8. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Taiganides, E.P. & Hazen, T.E. (1966), Properties of farm animal excreta. Trans. ASAE.
Trossero M. A. (2002), Wood fuel use in Ghana: an outlook for the future. Unasylav 211, Vol. 53. Energy
Commission-Renewable Energy Division
Twidell, J.W. & Weir,A.D .(1986), Biogas as Renewable Energy Resource.
Werner, U., Stöhr, U. & Hees, N. (1989), Biogas Plants In Animal Husbandry. A Publication of the Deutsches
Zentrum für Entwicklungstechnologien _ GATE , a Division of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Williamson, G. & Payne, W.J.A. (1977), An Introduction to Animal Husbandry in the Tropics, London, New York.
83
9. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Appendix
Table 1: Chemical composition of biogas
Wastewater
Components Household Agricultural Waste of agri-
treatment plants
(% vol.) waste wastes food industry
sludge
Methane (CH4) 50-60 60-75 60-75 68
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 38-34 33-19 33-19 26
Nitrogen (N2) 5-0 1-0 1-0 -
Oxygen (O2) 1-0 < 0,5 < 0,5 -
Water Vapour (H2O) 6 (à 40 ° C) 6 (à 40 ° C) 6 (à 40 ° C) 6 (à 40 ° C)
Total 100 100 100 100
H2S mg/m3 100 - 900 1000 - 4000 3000 – 10 000 400
NH3 mg/m3 - - 50 - 100 -
Source: http://www.biogas-renewable-energy.info/biogas_composition.html
Table 2: Chemical composition (%) some organic manure (slurry)
Animal manure Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K)
Cattle dung and urine mixed 0.60 0.15 0.45
Horse dung and urine mixed 0.70 0.25 0.55
Sheep dung and urine mixed 0.95 0.35 1.00
Human urine 1.0 – 1.2 0.1 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.3
Night soil 1.2 – 1.3 0.8 – 1.0 0.4 – 0.5
Settled sludge (dry) 2 – 2.5 1 – 1.2 0.4 – 0.5
Activated sludge (dry) 5–6 3 – 3.5 0.5 – 0.7
Source: Ames 1976
Table 3: Comparism of slurry from digester and raw manure
Tested plants Quantity of Yield Increase (%)
slurry
3 With slurry With manure
m /ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha
Sweet potato 17 24,000 21,500 3,500 12
Rice 15 6,500 6,000 500 8
Corn (Maize) 22.5 5,000 4,600 400 9
Cotton 22.5 1,300 1,200 100 8
Source: (Chengdu, 1980) cited by Sasse, 1988
It is observed from the table 3 in annex 1 that there are 12, 9, and 8 percent increment of crop yield using the slurry
from the biogas digester as compare to the raw manure.
84
10. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.2, No.4, 2011
Figure 1: Efficiencies of biogas in various equipment
Efficiencies of biogas in various equipment
32%
Stoves
Engines
52% Lamps
Heat-Power combination
14%
2%
Source: Sasse et al, 1991
It could be observed from the chart that the use of biogas in heat-power combination and stoves are the best options
which farmers actually need. The heat-power combination will provide the farmer with light and energy for
processing of food products. The stoves will also help the farmer to cook thus reducing the reliance on wood fuel
and charcoal.
85