The document discusses the special senses of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, and systems involved in taste and smell. Key points include: the eye captures light to form an image on the retina; sound waves are transmitted through the ear canal, eardrum, and small bones to inner ear fluid; the vestibular system detects head motion; taste buds detect five basic tastes; and smell receptors detect odors in the nasal cavity. Loss of smell during a cold is due to nasal congestion blocking odor molecules from reaching receptors.
This document provides an overview of the special senses - pain, vision, hearing and equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the key components and mechanisms of each sense. For vision, it outlines the structures of the eye, how light is captured and transmitted, and common disorders like cataracts. Regarding hearing, it explains the external, middle and inner ear, how sound is conducted through the ossicles and perceived. It also discusses the vestibular system and conditions like Meniere's disease. Taste and smell are described as chemical senses involving chemoreceptors that influence appetite and provide a quality check for ingestion.
The document summarizes the five basic human sense organs - eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose. It describes the main receptors in each sense organ and how they detect stimuli like light, sound, taste, touch, and smell and relay this information to the brain. It provides details on key structures and functions of the eye, ear, tongue, and skin in sensory detection and perception.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and structure of the sensory systems, including the eye, ear, nose, and tongue. It describes in detail:
- The three parts of the ear: outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear collects sounds and directs them to the middle ear, which transfers sounds to the inner ear for conversion into nerve impulses.
- The structures of the eye, including the sclera, choroid, iris, lens, retina, and extraocular muscles. The eye focuses light through the cornea and lens onto the light-sensitive retina to initiate vision.
- The nose contains olfactory receptors that detect smells and transmit signals to the brain.
This document discusses various somatic and special senses in humans. It describes the five special senses of smell, taste, vision, hearing and balance. It also discusses the general somatic senses of touch, pressure, heat and pain detected by receptors in the skin, muscles, and internal organs. For each sense, it outlines the key sensory structures, receptors, pathways and common disorders. It provides details on the anatomy and physiology of smell, taste, vision, hearing, balance and the skin's sensory functions.
In anatomy, special senses are the senses that have organs specifically devoted to them such as vision, gustation, olfaction, audition, and equilibrioception. These senses have specialized organs that detect and process stimuli and send signals to the brain which lead to the perception of that stimulus.
The document discusses the special senses of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, and systems involved in taste and smell. Key points include: the eye captures light to form an image on the retina; sound waves are transmitted through the ear canal, eardrum, and small bones to inner ear fluid; the vestibular system detects head motion; taste buds detect five basic tastes; and smell receptors detect odors in the nasal cavity. Loss of smell during a cold is due to nasal congestion blocking odor molecules from reaching receptors.
This document provides an overview of the special senses - pain, vision, hearing and equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the key components and mechanisms of each sense. For vision, it outlines the structures of the eye, how light is captured and transmitted, and common disorders like cataracts. Regarding hearing, it explains the external, middle and inner ear, how sound is conducted through the ossicles and perceived. It also discusses the vestibular system and conditions like Meniere's disease. Taste and smell are described as chemical senses involving chemoreceptors that influence appetite and provide a quality check for ingestion.
The document summarizes the five basic human sense organs - eyes, ears, tongue, skin, and nose. It describes the main receptors in each sense organ and how they detect stimuli like light, sound, taste, touch, and smell and relay this information to the brain. It provides details on key structures and functions of the eye, ear, tongue, and skin in sensory detection and perception.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and structure of the sensory systems, including the eye, ear, nose, and tongue. It describes in detail:
- The three parts of the ear: outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear collects sounds and directs them to the middle ear, which transfers sounds to the inner ear for conversion into nerve impulses.
- The structures of the eye, including the sclera, choroid, iris, lens, retina, and extraocular muscles. The eye focuses light through the cornea and lens onto the light-sensitive retina to initiate vision.
- The nose contains olfactory receptors that detect smells and transmit signals to the brain.
This document discusses various somatic and special senses in humans. It describes the five special senses of smell, taste, vision, hearing and balance. It also discusses the general somatic senses of touch, pressure, heat and pain detected by receptors in the skin, muscles, and internal organs. For each sense, it outlines the key sensory structures, receptors, pathways and common disorders. It provides details on the anatomy and physiology of smell, taste, vision, hearing, balance and the skin's sensory functions.
In anatomy, special senses are the senses that have organs specifically devoted to them such as vision, gustation, olfaction, audition, and equilibrioception. These senses have specialized organs that detect and process stimuli and send signals to the brain which lead to the perception of that stimulus.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy and development of the special senses organs - the eye, ear, smell and taste. It describes the external structures of the eye including the eyelids, conjunctiva and muscles. Internally, it outlines the three tunics of the eyeball and discusses the retina, lens and pathway of light. For the ear, it details the outer, middle and inner structures and their role in sound transmission and reception. It also discusses the receptors for balance, smell and taste. Development of these special senses from infancy to aging is reviewed.
The Sensory Organs, Anatomy and FunctionJadeNovelo1
The three main senses organs are the eyes, ears, and skin.
The eyes contain light-sensitive receptors that detect light and transmit signals to the brain. These signals are interpreted as visual images. The ears contain receptors for both hearing and balance. They detect sound vibrations and head position. The skin is our largest sensory organ and contains receptors for touch, temperature, and pain that provide information about our external environment.
The document discusses the 5 basic human senses and related sensory organs. It describes the sensory receptors for smell (olfactory cells), hearing and balance (hair cells in the inner ear), sight (rods and cones in the retina), taste (taste buds on the tongue and palate) and touch (mechanoreceptors in the skin). For each sense, it outlines the key structures involved and how sensory stimuli are transmitted to the brain for perception.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the five special senses - vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. It provides details on the structure and function of the eye, ear, olfactory system, and somatosensory system. The eye section describes the external structures like the eyelids and lacrimal system, internal structures of the eyeball including the retina and lens, and eye reflexes. The ear section outlines the external, middle, and inner ear, describing the tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea, and vestibular system. The chemical senses of taste and smell are also summarized.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the eyelids. It describes the structures that make up the eyelids, including the tarsal plates, lacrimal papilla, lacrimal canaliculi, and orbicularis oculi muscle. It also discusses eyelid movements such as blinking, winking, peering, and forceful closure which are mediated by muscles like the levator palpebrae superioris and orbicularis oculi muscle. Various eyelid abnormalities and neurological control of eyelid muscles are also summarized.
The Eye notes physiology notes for medical studentskenosewe1
The document provides an outline on the special senses. It discusses the anatomy of the eye, including its accessory structures like the eyebrows and eyelids. It describes the three tunics that make up the eyeball: the outer fibrous layer, middle vascular layer, and inner neural layer. It also discusses the optical components that admit and focus light, including the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous body. The document outlines the physiology of vision including image formation and the visual pathway in the brain.
This chapter discusses the special senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It provides an overview of the anatomy and functions of the eye, ear, and sensory receptors for smell and taste. Common disorders are also mentioned for the eye and ear. The case study asks about why children get ear infections more than adults and the relationship between ear pain and appetite. Tylenol may be prescribed as it can help reduce fever and pain associated with ear infections.
Anatomy and physilogy of eye,nose and throatDeeps Gupta
The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye, nose, and throat. It details the structures of the eye including the outer fibrous layer, middle vascular layer, and inner nervous tissue layer. The physiology of vision is explained including refraction of light, focusing through accommodation of the lens, convergence of the eyes, photochemical activity in the retina, and processing in the brain. Accessory structures like the lacrimal apparatus, eyelids, conjunctiva, and taste buds are also outlined.
There are three main mechanisms of human behavior:
1) Receiving mechanisms (receptors) which receive stimuli through the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
2) Connecting mechanisms (connectors) which are the central and peripheral nervous systems that transmit sensory information to the brain and motor responses from the brain.
3) Reacting mechanisms (reactors) which are muscles and glands that produce behavioral responses through movement or internal secretions in response to sensory stimuli.
The orbital region contains the eyeballs and associated structures. The orbit is a pyramidal cavity with openings for nerves, vessels and ducts. It is formed by bones of the skull. Within the orbit are the eyeball, extraocular muscles, nerves and vessels. The eyeball has three coats and contains aqueous humor, vitreous body and lens. The eyelids and conjunctiva protect the front of the eyeball.
The document discusses the four traditional senses - smell, taste, sight, and hearing. It provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, sense of smell, and taste. For the eye, it describes the external structures, layers, internal structures like the retina, lens, and visual pathways. For the ear, it outlines the external, middle, and inner ear structures, along with the mechanisms of hearing and balance. It also discusses developmental aspects and potential imbalances for the special senses.
Special Senses eye, ear , nose, tongue pptRupaSingh83
The document discusses the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and ear. The eye contains three layers - outer, middle and inner layers. The ear is divided into outer, middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea for hearing and semi-circular canals for balance. Sensory receptors in these organs detect stimuli and transmit signals to the brain.
Unit 4; Special Senses, Educational Platform.pptxZiaUddin5613
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the special senses, including the ear, eye, taste, smell, and touch. It describes the structure and function of the external, middle, and inner ear. It explains how sound is transmitted through the ear and the physiology of hearing and balance. It also details the anatomy of the eye, including its layers, chambers, muscles, and optical components. It discusses image formation through refraction, accommodation, and pupil constriction.
The document discusses the senses and sensory organs. It describes the five special senses - sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. It explains that sensory receptors convert stimuli into nerve impulses. The main sensory receptors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Each sense organ contains specific receptors - for example, rods and cones in the eye and hair cells in the ear. The document then provides detailed descriptions of the eye, tongue, nose, skin and ear as sensory organs.
The document describes the five basic human sense organs - eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin. It provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, and nose. For the eye, it outlines the external structures, internal chambers, muscles that control eye movement, blood supply, nerves and vision process. For the ear, it discusses the external, middle and inner ear structures, hearing process, and tests for hearing. For the nose, it details the internal nasal cavity structures and their roles in respiration and smell. The tongue and skin are briefly mentioned as the other two sense organs for taste and touch respectively.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, and taste. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue. For vision, it outlines the structures of the eye like the retina, cornea, lens, as well as how light is focused and transmitted as nerve impulses. For hearing and equilibrium, it discusses the outer, middle and inner ear structures, how sound is transmitted through the ossicles and processed in the cochlea and vestibule. It also explains smell and the olfactory receptors and pathways. Finally, it covers taste buds and the four basic taste sensations.
The document summarizes the anatomy and function of the human eye and ear. It describes the major parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how vision occurs as light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, where it is converted to electrical signals sent to the brain. It also outlines the three main parts of the ear - external, middle, and inner ear - and describes how sound waves are captured, vibrations are transmitted through the bones of the middle ear, and nerve signals are sent to the brain for interpretation of sounds.
The document summarizes the anatomy and function of the human eye and ear. It describes the major parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how vision occurs as light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, where it is converted to electrical signals sent to the brain. It also outlines the three main parts of the ear - external, middle, and inner ear - and describes how sound waves are captured, vibrations are transmitted through the bones of the middle ear, and nerve signals are sent to the brain for interpretation of sounds.
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about anatomy of skeletomuscular system.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy and development of the special senses organs - the eye, ear, smell and taste. It describes the external structures of the eye including the eyelids, conjunctiva and muscles. Internally, it outlines the three tunics of the eyeball and discusses the retina, lens and pathway of light. For the ear, it details the outer, middle and inner structures and their role in sound transmission and reception. It also discusses the receptors for balance, smell and taste. Development of these special senses from infancy to aging is reviewed.
The Sensory Organs, Anatomy and FunctionJadeNovelo1
The three main senses organs are the eyes, ears, and skin.
The eyes contain light-sensitive receptors that detect light and transmit signals to the brain. These signals are interpreted as visual images. The ears contain receptors for both hearing and balance. They detect sound vibrations and head position. The skin is our largest sensory organ and contains receptors for touch, temperature, and pain that provide information about our external environment.
The document discusses the 5 basic human senses and related sensory organs. It describes the sensory receptors for smell (olfactory cells), hearing and balance (hair cells in the inner ear), sight (rods and cones in the retina), taste (taste buds on the tongue and palate) and touch (mechanoreceptors in the skin). For each sense, it outlines the key structures involved and how sensory stimuli are transmitted to the brain for perception.
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the five special senses - vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. It provides details on the structure and function of the eye, ear, olfactory system, and somatosensory system. The eye section describes the external structures like the eyelids and lacrimal system, internal structures of the eyeball including the retina and lens, and eye reflexes. The ear section outlines the external, middle, and inner ear, describing the tympanic membrane, ossicles, cochlea, and vestibular system. The chemical senses of taste and smell are also summarized.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the eyelids. It describes the structures that make up the eyelids, including the tarsal plates, lacrimal papilla, lacrimal canaliculi, and orbicularis oculi muscle. It also discusses eyelid movements such as blinking, winking, peering, and forceful closure which are mediated by muscles like the levator palpebrae superioris and orbicularis oculi muscle. Various eyelid abnormalities and neurological control of eyelid muscles are also summarized.
The Eye notes physiology notes for medical studentskenosewe1
The document provides an outline on the special senses. It discusses the anatomy of the eye, including its accessory structures like the eyebrows and eyelids. It describes the three tunics that make up the eyeball: the outer fibrous layer, middle vascular layer, and inner neural layer. It also discusses the optical components that admit and focus light, including the cornea, aqueous humor, lens, and vitreous body. The document outlines the physiology of vision including image formation and the visual pathway in the brain.
This chapter discusses the special senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It provides an overview of the anatomy and functions of the eye, ear, and sensory receptors for smell and taste. Common disorders are also mentioned for the eye and ear. The case study asks about why children get ear infections more than adults and the relationship between ear pain and appetite. Tylenol may be prescribed as it can help reduce fever and pain associated with ear infections.
Anatomy and physilogy of eye,nose and throatDeeps Gupta
The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye, nose, and throat. It details the structures of the eye including the outer fibrous layer, middle vascular layer, and inner nervous tissue layer. The physiology of vision is explained including refraction of light, focusing through accommodation of the lens, convergence of the eyes, photochemical activity in the retina, and processing in the brain. Accessory structures like the lacrimal apparatus, eyelids, conjunctiva, and taste buds are also outlined.
There are three main mechanisms of human behavior:
1) Receiving mechanisms (receptors) which receive stimuli through the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.
2) Connecting mechanisms (connectors) which are the central and peripheral nervous systems that transmit sensory information to the brain and motor responses from the brain.
3) Reacting mechanisms (reactors) which are muscles and glands that produce behavioral responses through movement or internal secretions in response to sensory stimuli.
The orbital region contains the eyeballs and associated structures. The orbit is a pyramidal cavity with openings for nerves, vessels and ducts. It is formed by bones of the skull. Within the orbit are the eyeball, extraocular muscles, nerves and vessels. The eyeball has three coats and contains aqueous humor, vitreous body and lens. The eyelids and conjunctiva protect the front of the eyeball.
The document discusses the four traditional senses - smell, taste, sight, and hearing. It provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, sense of smell, and taste. For the eye, it describes the external structures, layers, internal structures like the retina, lens, and visual pathways. For the ear, it outlines the external, middle, and inner ear structures, along with the mechanisms of hearing and balance. It also discusses developmental aspects and potential imbalances for the special senses.
Special Senses eye, ear , nose, tongue pptRupaSingh83
The document discusses the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eye and ear. The eye contains three layers - outer, middle and inner layers. The ear is divided into outer, middle and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea for hearing and semi-circular canals for balance. Sensory receptors in these organs detect stimuli and transmit signals to the brain.
Unit 4; Special Senses, Educational Platform.pptxZiaUddin5613
This document provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the special senses, including the ear, eye, taste, smell, and touch. It describes the structure and function of the external, middle, and inner ear. It explains how sound is transmitted through the ear and the physiology of hearing and balance. It also details the anatomy of the eye, including its layers, chambers, muscles, and optical components. It discusses image formation through refraction, accommodation, and pupil constriction.
The document discusses the senses and sensory organs. It describes the five special senses - sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. It explains that sensory receptors convert stimuli into nerve impulses. The main sensory receptors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Each sense organ contains specific receptors - for example, rods and cones in the eye and hair cells in the ear. The document then provides detailed descriptions of the eye, tongue, nose, skin and ear as sensory organs.
The document describes the five basic human sense organs - eye, ear, nose, tongue, and skin. It provides detailed information on the anatomy and physiology of the eye, ear, and nose. For the eye, it outlines the external structures, internal chambers, muscles that control eye movement, blood supply, nerves and vision process. For the ear, it discusses the external, middle and inner ear structures, hearing process, and tests for hearing. For the nose, it details the internal nasal cavity structures and their roles in respiration and smell. The tongue and skin are briefly mentioned as the other two sense organs for taste and touch respectively.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the special senses - vision, hearing, equilibrium, smell, and taste. It describes the anatomy and physiology of the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue. For vision, it outlines the structures of the eye like the retina, cornea, lens, as well as how light is focused and transmitted as nerve impulses. For hearing and equilibrium, it discusses the outer, middle and inner ear structures, how sound is transmitted through the ossicles and processed in the cochlea and vestibule. It also explains smell and the olfactory receptors and pathways. Finally, it covers taste buds and the four basic taste sensations.
The document summarizes the anatomy and function of the human eye and ear. It describes the major parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how vision occurs as light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, where it is converted to electrical signals sent to the brain. It also outlines the three main parts of the ear - external, middle, and inner ear - and describes how sound waves are captured, vibrations are transmitted through the bones of the middle ear, and nerve signals are sent to the brain for interpretation of sounds.
The document summarizes the anatomy and function of the human eye and ear. It describes the major parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, and optic nerve. It explains how vision occurs as light enters the eye and is focused on the retina, where it is converted to electrical signals sent to the brain. It also outlines the three main parts of the ear - external, middle, and inner ear - and describes how sound waves are captured, vibrations are transmitted through the bones of the middle ear, and nerve signals are sent to the brain for interpretation of sounds.
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about anatomy of skeletomuscular system.
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about anatomy of Genitourinary system
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about anatomy of nervous system
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about anatomy of respiratory system.
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about Cardiac system anatomy.
This lecture help the students such as medical ,nursing , and any health care provider to understand the basic information about musculoskeletal system.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph organs like the spleen and thymus, and diffuse lymphoid tissue like the tonsils and bone marrow. It drains fluid from tissues, absorbs fat in the intestines, and is involved in immunity. Lymph nodes filter lymph and activate lymphocytes. The spleen phagocytoses old blood cells and microbes, stores blood, and supports immune response and erythropoiesis. The thymus gland processes lymphocytes to distinguish self from foreign tissue.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system. It discusses:
1) Nerve impulses are tiny electrical charges that maintain their strength as they travel along neurons. Some neurons initiate impulses while others relay them.
2) Neurons have the properties of irritability and conductivity. An action potential is initiated by stimulation and transmitted via ion movement across the neuron membrane.
3) Cerebrospinal fluid supports and protects the brain/spinal cord, maintains pressure, and exchanges substances. It is produced and absorbed continuously.
4) The cerebrum is involved in mental activities, sensory perception, and muscle control. Specific areas correspond to motor/sensory functions for different body parts.
The cardiovascular system consists of the circulatory system (heart and blood vessels) and lymphatic system (lymph nodes and vessels). The heart pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic circulation and deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary circulation. It has four chambers and uses electrical signals and mechanical contractions to circulate blood continuously. The cardiac cycle involves atrial and ventricular systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). Cardiac output is determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Venous return, arterial pressure, blood volume, respiration, and skeletal muscle pumps influence blood flow.
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Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
6. • Every sound produces sound waves or vibrations in
the air, which travel at about 332 meters (1088 feet)
per second. The auricle, because of its shape,
concentrates the waves and directs them along the
auditory meatus causing the tympanic membrane to
vibrate.
• Tympanic membrane vibrations are transmitted and
amplified through the middle ear by movement of the
ossicles. At their medial end the footplate of the
stapes rocks to and from in the oval window, setting
up fluid waves in the perilymph of the scala vestibuli.
The fluid wave is finally expended into the middle ear
by vibration of the membrane of the round window.
• The semicircular canals have no auditory function
although they are closely associated with the
cochlea. They provide information about the position
of the head in space, contributing to maintenance of
posture and balance.
7.
8. • The semicircular canals and the vestibule (utricle
and saccule) are concerned with balance. Any
change of position of the head causes movement in
the perilymph and endolymph, which bends the
hair cells and stimulates the sensory nerve endings
in the utricle, saccule and ampullae.
• The resultant nerve impulses are transmitted by
the vestibular nerve which joins the cochlear nerve
to form the vestibulocochlear nerve. The vestibular
branch passes first to the vestibular nucleus, then
to the cerebellum.
• The cerebellum also receives nerve impulses from
the eyes and proprioceptors (sensory receptors) in
the skeletal muscles and joints. Impulses from
these three sources are coordinated and efferent
nerve impulses pass to the cerebrum and to
skeletal muscles.
• This results in awareness of body position,
maintenance of upright posture and fixing of the
eyes on the same point, independently of head
movements.
11. • Before reaching the retina, light rays pass successively through the
conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous fluid, lens and vitreous body. They are all
denser than air and, apart from the lens, they have a constant refractory
power, like that of water.
• Light rays entering the eye need to be bent (refracted) to focus them on
the retina.
• The lens is a biconvex elastic transparent body suspended behind the iris
from the ciliary body by the suspensory ligament. To increase the
refractive power the ciliary muscle contracts, releasing its pull on the
suspensory ligament and the anterior surface of the lens bulges forward,
increasing its convexity. This focuses light rays from near objects on the
retina.
• Abnormal refraction within the eye is corrected using biconvex or
biconcave lenses.
• Pupil size influences accommodation by controlling the amount of light
entering the eye.
• The iris consists of one layer of circular and one of radiating smooth
muscle fibres. Contraction of the circular fibres constricts the pupil, and
contraction of the radiating fibres dilates it. The size of the pupil is
controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation
dilates the pupils and parasympathetic stimulation causes constriction.
12. Extraocular muscles of the eye
The eyeballs are moved by six extrinsic
muscles, attached at one end to the eyeball
and at the other to the walls of the orbital
cavity. There are four straight (rectus)
muscles
and two oblique muscles. They are:
• medial rectus
• lateral rectus
• superior rectus
• inferior rectus
• superior oblique
• inferior oblique.
Movement of the eyes to look in a particular
direction is under voluntary control, but
coordination of movement, needed for
convergence and accommodation to near or
distant vision, is under autonomic
(involuntary) Control.
13.
14. Accessory organs of the eye
The eye is a delicate organ which is protected
by several structures:
• eyebrows : They protect the anterior aspect of
the eyeball from sweat, dust and other foreign
bodies.
• eyelids and eyelashes: protect the eye from
injury.
• Reflex closure of the lids occurs when the
conjunctiva or eyelashes are touched, when
an object comes close to the eye or when a
bright light shines into the eye — this is
called the conjunctival or corneal reflex.
• Blinking at about 3- to 7-second intervals
spreads tears and oily secretions over the
cornea, preventing drying.
15. • lacrimal apparatus: For each eye this consists
of:
• 1 lacrimal gland and its ducts
• 2 lacrimal canaliculi
• 1 lacrimal sac
• 1 nasolacrimal duct.
The fluid that fills the conjunctival sac consists
of tears and the oily secretion of tarsal glands
and is spread over the cornea by blinking. The
functions of this mixture of fluids include:
• washing away irritating materials, e.g. dust, grit
• the bactericidal enzyme lysozyme prevents
microbial infection.
• its oiliness delays evaporation and prevents
drying of the conjunctiva
• nourishment of the cornea.
16. Physiology of olfactory
The nasal cavity has a dual function: a
passageway for respiration and sense of
smell.
Olfactory nerves (first cranial nerves).
These are the sensory nerves of smell. They
originate as specialized olfactory nerve
endings (chemoreceptors) in the mucous
membrane of the roof of the nasal cavity.
All odorous materials give off volatile
molecules, which are carried into the nose
with the inhaled air and stimulate the
olfactory chemoreceptors when dissolved
in mucus.
17. • The air entering the nose is warmed and
convection currents carry eddies of inspired
air to the roof of the nasal cavity. 'Sniffing'
concentrates volatile molecules in the roof of
the nose. This increases the number of
olfactory receptors stimulated and thus the
perception of the smell. The sense of smell
may affect the appetite. If the odors are
pleasant the appetite may improve and vice
versa. When accompanied by the sight of
food, an appetizing smell increases salivation
and stimulates the digestive system. The
sense of smell may create long-lasting
memories, especially to distinctive odors, e.g.
hospital smells, favorite or least-liked foods.
• Inflammation of the nasal mucosa prevents
odorous substances from reaching the
olfactory area of the nose, causing loss of the
sense of smell (anosmia). The usual cause is
the common cold.
18. Physiology of taste
Taste buds contain sensory receptors
(chemoreceptors) that are found in the papillae
of the tongue and widely distributed in the
epithelia of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx and
epiglottis. They consist of small sensory
nerve endings of the glossopharyngeal, facial
and vagus nerves (cranial nerves VII, IX and X).
Nerve impulses are generated and conducted
along the glossopharyngeal, facial and vagus
nerves before synapsing in the medulla and
thalamus.
Their destination is the taste area in the parietal
lobe of the cerebral cortex where taste is
perceived.
19. Four fundamental sensations of taste
have been
described — sweet, sour, bitter and salt.
some tastes consistently stimulate taste
buds in specific parts of the tongue:
• sweet and salty, mainly at the tip
• sour, at the sides
• bitter, at the back.
The sense of taste triggers salivation and
the secretion of gastric juice. It also has
a protective function, e.g., when foul-
tasting food is eaten then reflex gagging
or vomiting may be induced.
The sense of taste is impaired when the
mouth is dry because substances can be
'tasted' only if they are in solution.