1) The document reviews biological compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. 2) It describes the structures of proteins including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. 3) Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides that are made up of phosphate groups, sugars (ribose or deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases. DNA and RNA differ in their sugar and base components.

1. I. Review Biological Compounds
A. Types
category monomer polymer
Carbohydrate glucose starch
Lipids glycerol, fatty acid fat, oil
Protein amino acid protein
Nucleic Acid nucleotide DNA, RNA

2. B. Protein
A sequence of amino acids held together
by peptide bonds
There are 20 different types of amino acids
and the different arrangements of bonding
determines the protein

3. B1. Structure
1.Primary Structure
Sequence of amino acids = chain
2. Secondary Structure
Folds & bends due to amino acid interactions
3. Tertiary Structure
3-D shape (usually functional enzyme)
4. Quaternary Structure
More than one chain of amino acids

5. C. Nucleic Acids
1.Types
Monomer Polymer
DNA Nucleotide DNA
RNA Nucleotide RNA

6. 2. Components of nucleotides
a. Phosphate Group – symbol
O-
|
H- O- P=O
|
O-

7. b. 5 – Carbon Sugar
Deoxyribose Ribose
C5 C5
O O
C4 C1 C4 C1
C3 C2 C3 C2
HO H HO OH

8. c. Nitrogen Base
DNA RNA
Purines Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
(2 rings) Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Pyrimidine Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
(1 ring) Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)

9. 3. Base Pairing
A=T A=U
C=G C=G

10. D. Definitions
1.DNA – A double-helix molecule made of
DNA nucleotides.
2. Gene – A segment of the DNA molecule
that codes for a specific trait.

11. 3. Chromosome – A structure made up of
either 1 or 2 DNA molecules
(each
is a double helix)
1 DOUBLE HELIX 2 DOUBLE HELIX

12. II. DNA Structure
A.Nucleotides
Monomer (4 different types)
Bacteria has millions
Plants/animals has billions

13. purine (A), (G)
= 2 rings
5 N - BASE
4 1
pyrimidine (T)(U)(C)
3 2 = 1 ring

14. B. Double Helix Polymer
1.Backbone
The of one nucleotide (5’) binds with
deoxyribose sugar of another nucleotide
(3’).

15. Covalent bond
between the of
one nucleotide and
3rd carbon of
another nucleotide.

16. 2. N-Bases – N base of one nucleotide H bonds
to another N base on a separate nucleotide
DOUBLE HELIX

17. Nucleotides N bases paired
2 nm

18. III. DNA Replication
Copy the DNA strand (Genetic info) so that
when a cell divides (mitosis, meiosis) they
get an exact copy.
1. SEMICONSERVATIVE
REPLICATION

19. A. General
3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ 5’
A T AT AT
T A TA TA
GC GC GC
CG CG CG
T A TA TA
5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’
Parental DNA Enzyme reads template 3’ to 5’
Double Helix synthesizes new DNA 5’ to 3’

20. 3’ 5’
5’ 3’
STEP 1 DNA Helicase separates helix
by breaking the hydrogen bonds
DNA Helicase between the N-bases.
replication fork
3’ 5’
5’ 3’

21. STEP 2
DNA Polymerase
1. 2 Enzymes bond = 1 to each strand
2. Each enzyme reads the original 3’ to 5’
3. Each enzyme makes new DNA 5’ to 3’
4. Pairs free DNA nucleotides with parent strand
5. Bonds P to sugar to form backbone of new strand

22. 5’
3’ 5’ 3’
5’
3’
1.As drawn, upper DNA Polymerase synthesizes
new strand as it follows helicase.
2.As drawn, lower DNA Polymerase detaches as
come to unwound DNA helix

23. 5’
3’ 5’ 3’
5’ 5’
3’
Lower DNA Polymerase synthesize
fragments and the DNA Polymerase
detach off fragments.

24. 3’ 5’
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
5’ 3’
STEP 3
DNA Ligase - Joins the
backbone of the strands

25. Centromere – specific sequence of DNA that joins
two DNA molecules together.
DNA Polymerase proofreads as goes along (only 1
mistake/10, 000 pairs but enzymes find and repair
the mistakes).

26. END RESULT
3’ 5’
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
5’ 3’

27. I. Central Dogma
One gene one protein (really = polypeptide)
General:
1. A functional protein may be > 1 chain
2. Not all proteins are enzymes

28. 3. 1 gene = 100’s-1000’s of nucleotides
4. 1000’s genes per chromosome
5. Start Stop on mRNA
AUG UAG, UAA, UGA

29. A. Nucleus
3’ 5’
DNA T A C C T A C G G’
5’ 3’
A T G G A T G C C
TRANSCRIPTION copy information from
DNA gene into mRNA
A U G G A U G C C
mRNA 5’ 3’

30. B. Cytoplasm – the mRNA leaves the nucleus
by pores & goes to ribosome in the cytoplasm
rRNA –
makes up part of the ribosome
TRANSLATION
tRNA -
carries specific
amino acids Amino Acid

31. Converts the information from
mRNA into a protein
primary structure of a protein
secondary structure of a protein
tertiary structure of a protein

32. II. Protein Synthesis
A. DNA vs. RNA
double strand single strand
thymine uracil
deoxyribose ribose

33. B. RNA types
1.mRNA (messenger RNA)
Copy (where U replaces T) of DNA template
gene (carries DNA code to the ribosme).
Enzyme reads the DNA 3’ to 5’ but lays the
new nucleotides down 5’ to 3’ = makes
mRNA 5’ to 3’

34. mRNA (messenger RNA)
start stop
5’ A U G G A U G C C U A G 3’
CODON (corresponds to one amino acid)
Start codon Stop codon
AUG UAG
UGA
UAA

35. 2. rRNA = Ribosomal RNA
Make ribosomes by combining two
subunits (small and large)
Where protein synthesis occurs.

36. Ribosome structure (two subunits)
small subunit
large subunit
1st binding site 2nd binding site
catalytic site

37. 3. tRNA = Transfer RNA
Brings amino acids to mRNA/rRNA
Anticodon = three consecutive nucleotides
on tRNA and pair to the codon on mRNA
Codon = AUG
Anticodon = UAC
Amino Acid = Met = methionine

38. Structure anticodon
UAC
Amino Acid

39. TRANSCRIPTION
1. Where Occurs nucleus
2. General DNA mRNA
Only one side of DNA Helix is copied into
mRNA (not always the same side for
different genes).

40. 3. Parts of Transcription
INITIATION
a. RNA Polymerase binds to a promotor
(TATA*****), which tells the enzyme that the
gene starts on the complimentary strand of
the DNA Helix.

41. CONTINUE INITIATION
b. RNA Polymerase reads the template 3’ to 5’
but bonds new nucleotides for mRNA 5’ to 3’

42. PROMOTOR
5’ 3’
T A T A A T G C A A C T A T A A
3’ A T A T T A C G T T G A T A T T 5’
RNA Polymerase (enzyme)

43. ELONGATION
a. RNA Polymerase unwinds DNA Helix
b. RNA Polymerase moves along the DNA Helix
and reads the template 3’ to 5’

44. c. RNA Polymerase adds (bonds together) free
RNA nucleotides 5’ to 3’
d. Continues until enzyme reaches stop on DNA

45. 5’ 3’
T A T A A T G C A A C T A T A A
3’
C A A
A T A T T AC G T T G A T A T T
3’ 5’
G
U
5’ A
The RNA Polymerase (blue) is reading the
DNA gene (bottom black) from 3’ to 5’ but
adding new nucleotides (RNA) from 5’ to 3’.
As it does this it is producing the mRNA
(RED) 5’ to 3’.

46. U A A
A
U
C
A
A
C
G
U
A
The RNA Polymerase continues to add RNA
nucleotides until it reaches a stop.

47. 5. Termination
a. Once the RNA Polymerase reaches this
point it detaches from the DNA (which
reforms the double helix). What is formed is
called a transcription unit.

48. b. RNA SPLICING
1.Need to remove introns
2.Need to bond together exons
3.Need to add cap and tail
4.Then have mRNA

49. DNA
mRNA
5’ GPPP A U G C A A C U A U A A
AAAAAA3’

50. TRANSLATION
Where: Cytoplasm
General:
mRNA moves into the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes “read” the mRNA.
Produce a protein.

51. 1. INITIATION
Use:
tRNA-aa complex
Ribsomes
mRNA

52. NIT
SMALL SUBU
5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C
mRNA
tRNA LARGE SUBUNIT
AA1
1ST tRNA enters the site in the large subunit of the ribosome.
Bonds to the mRNA with the small subunit.

53. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C G U U
AA1 AA2
2nd tRNA bonds to the second site in the ribosome.

54. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C G U U
AA1 AA2
In the catalytic site AA1 is bonded to AA2.

55. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
U A C
AA1 AA2
Ribosome moves toward the 3’ end of the mRNA.
Causes the 1st tRNA to leave and the 2nd site to be open.

56. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
3rd tRNA enters the open site on Ribosome.

57. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
The AA1-AA2 bond to AA3.

58. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
Ribosome moves down mRNA
toward the 3’ end.

59. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
Causes 3rd tRNA to move in 1st site and 2nd tRNA leave ribosome sites.
Reaches stop codon on the mRNA.

60. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
All detach.