1) The document reviews biological compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
2) It describes the structures of proteins including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.
3) Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides that are made up of phosphate groups, sugars (ribose or deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases. DNA and RNA differ in their sugar and base components.
DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves many enzymes. It begins at a replication origin where the DNA unwinds. RNA primers are added and DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primers to synthesize new DNA strands. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments that are later joined. Transcription and translation then convert gene information into proteins.
Central dogma and transcription slidesQuanina Quan
The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology and transcription, specifically describing the process of transcription which involves DNA being used as a template to produce a complementary RNA copy. It explains transcription occurs differently in eukaryotes versus prokaryotes, with the main steps being initiation, elongation, and termination for both, though eukaryotes have additional post-transcriptional modification steps.
Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
No, not all mutations are passed on to the next generation. Mutations that occur in somatic (non-reproductive) cells are not passed on, while mutations in germline (reproductive) cells have the potential to be inherited by offspring.
1. DNA contains the genetic code and instructions for making proteins, which it stores in the cell nucleus. 2. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries the code to the cytoplasm. 3. In translation, ribosomes use mRNA to produce proteins according to the genetic code by linking amino acids specified by mRNA codons. 4. Newly formed proteins travel to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body for processing and packaging before use in the cell.
The document describes the process of transcription and translation. DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated by ribosomes into a protein. The mRNA binds to transfer RNA (tRNA) which brings amino acids. The mRNA sequence AUG UAG CUA GC codes for the polypeptide chain Met Ile Asp. The DNA and mRNA are then destroyed after protein synthesis is complete.
The document discusses the process by which genes are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into proteins. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated on ribosomes into amino acid chains that fold into functional proteins. The genetic code is explained, where triplets of nucleotides in mRNA (codons) encode for specific amino acids. The nearly universal nature of the genetic code is also covered.
DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves many enzymes. It begins at a replication origin where the DNA unwinds. RNA primers are added and DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primers to synthesize new DNA strands. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments that are later joined. Transcription and translation then convert gene information into proteins.
Central dogma and transcription slidesQuanina Quan
The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology and transcription, specifically describing the process of transcription which involves DNA being used as a template to produce a complementary RNA copy. It explains transcription occurs differently in eukaryotes versus prokaryotes, with the main steps being initiation, elongation, and termination for both, though eukaryotes have additional post-transcriptional modification steps.
Transcription is the process of making mRNA from DNA. It involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA complementary copy of the DNA strand. Translation is the process of using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. During transcription, introns are removed from pre-mRNA and exons are joined to form mature mRNA. If the parent DNA strand is A A T G C A G T, the complementary mRNA strand will be U U A C G U C A.
No, not all mutations are passed on to the next generation. Mutations that occur in somatic (non-reproductive) cells are not passed on, while mutations in germline (reproductive) cells have the potential to be inherited by offspring.
1. DNA contains the genetic code and instructions for making proteins, which it stores in the cell nucleus. 2. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) which carries the code to the cytoplasm. 3. In translation, ribosomes use mRNA to produce proteins according to the genetic code by linking amino acids specified by mRNA codons. 4. Newly formed proteins travel to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body for processing and packaging before use in the cell.
The document describes the process of transcription and translation. DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated by ribosomes into a protein. The mRNA binds to transfer RNA (tRNA) which brings amino acids. The mRNA sequence AUG UAG CUA GC codes for the polypeptide chain Met Ile Asp. The DNA and mRNA are then destroyed after protein synthesis is complete.
The document discusses the process by which genes are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into proteins. It explains that DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated on ribosomes into amino acid chains that fold into functional proteins. The genetic code is explained, where triplets of nucleotides in mRNA (codons) encode for specific amino acids. The nearly universal nature of the genetic code is also covered.
This document discusses RNA processing in eukaryotic cells. It describes how the primary transcript is modified through capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being exported to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. Capping adds a 5' methylguanosine cap. Polyadenylation adds a poly-A tail to the 3' end. Splicing removes introns and joins exons with the help of spliceosomes that contain snRNPs. These processing steps increase mRNA stability and translatability.
#2 donohue dna, protein synthesis and biotechMaria Donohue
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function, explaining that DNA contains genetic information that is copied through DNA replication and used to direct protein synthesis. It describes the basic units of DNA including nucleotides, bases, and the DNA double helix, and explains how genes are expressed through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins. The document also discusses DNA analysis techniques like DNA fingerprinting used in forensics.
RNA and protein synthesis involves two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, DNA is used as a template to produce mRNA through the enzymatic action of RNA polymerase. The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and binds to ribosomes for translation. During translation, tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codon sequence. The amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide or protein chain. Translation stops when a stop codon is reached.
Directions to "An Illustrated DNA Tale" a comical guide to protein synthesis. Students design a comic strip using non-science terms to depict a "tale" paralleling protein synthesis.
The document provides information about protein synthesis, including:
1. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA into proteins at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. Key molecules involved include DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and amino acids. DNA contains the genetic code. mRNA carries the code to the ribosomes. tRNA brings amino acids and pairs with mRNA codons.
3. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA onto mRNA. During translation, ribosomes read mRNA and link amino acids using tRNA.
Transcription is the process of copying a section of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain by a ribosome, starting at a START codon and stopping at a STOP codon. The document provides an overview of transcription and translation and encourages practicing replicating DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and protein sequences.
The document discusses gene regulation and the central dogma of biology. It explains that genes can be switched on or off, with some genes used by cells and others not. A gene has an operator region that binds a repressor protein, preventing RNA polymerase from initiating transcription when the repressor is bound (gene is off). When the repressor is not bound, RNA polymerase can initiate transcription (gene is on). The central dogma holds that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein.
Gene Expression 1: RNA and Protein SynthesisRobin Seamon
1. Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA's genetic code into mRNA and the subsequent translation of mRNA into proteins.
2. During transcription, the DNA double helix is unzipped and an mRNA copy is produced in the nucleus using RNA polymerase.
3. The mRNA copy is then used as a template during translation as ribosomes match tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons to assemble amino acids into proteins.
1. The document describes the three main steps in protein synthesis: transcription, RNA processing, and translation.
2. Transcription involves copying a segment of DNA into a complementary mRNA molecule. RNA processing removes introns from pre-mRNA, joining exons to create mature mRNA.
3. Translation uses the mRNA to sequence amino acids via tRNA molecules on ribosomes, forming proteins according to the genetic code.
This document provides an overview of protein synthesis which occurs in four main steps: transcription, charging of tRNAs, translation, and post-translational modifications. During transcription, the gene is transcribed into mRNA. tRNAs are charged with specific amino acids through the action of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. Translation then occurs on ribosomes, where the mRNA codon sequence is read and amino acids are added to the growing polypeptide chain in the correct order. Translation involves initiation, elongation, and termination steps.
DNA contains the master code for proteins. During transcription, mRNA is created by copying sections of DNA, which carry the code for proteins. Translation then uses the mRNA code to assemble amino acids brought by tRNA molecules. The amino acids bond together through peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains, also known as proteins, according to the mRNA instructions. This allows DNA to direct the synthesis of proteins through intermediate RNA molecules.
Ribosomes play a key role in protein synthesis by using messenger RNA (mRNA) to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains. The mRNA code is read in three-letter sequences called codons that each specify a single amino acid. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids to the ribosome according to their complementary anticodons. Through a series of steps, the ribosome links amino acids together until a stop codon is reached, completing translation and protein production according to the DNA's genetic instructions.
RNA plays an important role in decoding the genetic instructions contained in DNA and directing protein production. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries copies of gene instructions from DNA to the ribosomes, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which makes up part of the ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA), which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes during protein production according to the mRNA instructions. RNA is produced from DNA in a process called transcription, in which RNA polymerase uses a DNA strand as a template to make a complementary RNA molecule.
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function, including:
- DNA is a double-helix structure with bases pairing between strands.
- DNA replication is semiconservative and involves unwinding of the strands followed by synthesis of new strands using the old strands as templates.
- Gene expression involves two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins in the cytoplasm using transfer RNA and ribosomes.
- Gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including chromatin structure, transcription factors, RNA processing, and mRNA translation controls.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each strand as a template to create a new partner strand through complementary base pairing. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the new strands to replicate the DNA. This ensures each daughter cell has an exact copy of the original DNA.
1) Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains through the process of translation.
2) Messenger RNA carries codons that are read by ribosomes to direct the binding of transfer RNA molecules and the addition of amino acids to form a polypeptide chain.
3) The central dogma of molecular biology is that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, with DNA containing the genetic instructions and proteins performing most functions in cells.
Splicing , Spliceosome , Remove Introns
Remove of Intron and joining the exon together
Three Classes of RNA Splicing
Group I introns
Group II introns
Nuclear pre-mRNA
DNA contains the genetic code that is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated into proteins. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome for protein production. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps join mRNA to transfer RNA (tRNA) during protein synthesis. TRNA transports amino acids to the ribosome where they are linked together based on the mRNA codon sequence.
The document summarizes the autonomic nervous system, including its neurotransmitters, receptors, effects on different organs, and control. Cholinergic fibers release acetylcholine and act through nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Adrenergic fibers release norepinephrine and act through alpha and beta receptors. The parasympathetic division generally has inhibitory effects, while the sympathetic division has excitatory effects on target organs. Cortical centers can provide some voluntary control over autonomic functions through biofeedback training.
This document provides an overview of general science topics including:
1. The characteristics of life such as complex organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth and development, response to stimuli, reproduction, and evolution.
2. The scientific method which involves making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments and controls, evaluating results, and publishing theories.
3. Different levels of biological complexity from the chemical and cellular levels up to the ecosystem level.
4. Some modern scientists that helped advance fields like classification (Linnaeus), cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann), evolution (Darwin), and genetics (Mendel).
Blood flow, pressure, and resistance are key components of circulation. Resistance depends on vessel length and diameter, with smaller diameters resulting in greater resistance. Blood pressure includes systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures. The circulatory system is regulated through neural, chemical, and renal mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Issues like hypotension, hypertension, and shock can occur if regulation is compromised.
This document discusses RNA processing in eukaryotic cells. It describes how the primary transcript is modified through capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before being exported to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. Capping adds a 5' methylguanosine cap. Polyadenylation adds a poly-A tail to the 3' end. Splicing removes introns and joins exons with the help of spliceosomes that contain snRNPs. These processing steps increase mRNA stability and translatability.
#2 donohue dna, protein synthesis and biotechMaria Donohue
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function, explaining that DNA contains genetic information that is copied through DNA replication and used to direct protein synthesis. It describes the basic units of DNA including nucleotides, bases, and the DNA double helix, and explains how genes are expressed through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins. The document also discusses DNA analysis techniques like DNA fingerprinting used in forensics.
RNA and protein synthesis involves two main steps: transcription and translation. During transcription, DNA is used as a template to produce mRNA through the enzymatic action of RNA polymerase. The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and binds to ribosomes for translation. During translation, tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome according to the mRNA codon sequence. The amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide or protein chain. Translation stops when a stop codon is reached.
Directions to "An Illustrated DNA Tale" a comical guide to protein synthesis. Students design a comic strip using non-science terms to depict a "tale" paralleling protein synthesis.
The document provides information about protein synthesis, including:
1. Protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA into proteins at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
2. Key molecules involved include DNA, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, and amino acids. DNA contains the genetic code. mRNA carries the code to the ribosomes. tRNA brings amino acids and pairs with mRNA codons.
3. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps. During transcription, RNA polymerase copies DNA onto mRNA. During translation, ribosomes read mRNA and link amino acids using tRNA.
Transcription is the process of copying a section of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain by a ribosome, starting at a START codon and stopping at a STOP codon. The document provides an overview of transcription and translation and encourages practicing replicating DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and protein sequences.
The document discusses gene regulation and the central dogma of biology. It explains that genes can be switched on or off, with some genes used by cells and others not. A gene has an operator region that binds a repressor protein, preventing RNA polymerase from initiating transcription when the repressor is bound (gene is off). When the repressor is not bound, RNA polymerase can initiate transcription (gene is on). The central dogma holds that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein.
Gene Expression 1: RNA and Protein SynthesisRobin Seamon
1. Gene expression involves the transcription of DNA's genetic code into mRNA and the subsequent translation of mRNA into proteins.
2. During transcription, the DNA double helix is unzipped and an mRNA copy is produced in the nucleus using RNA polymerase.
3. The mRNA copy is then used as a template during translation as ribosomes match tRNA anticodons to mRNA codons to assemble amino acids into proteins.
1. The document describes the three main steps in protein synthesis: transcription, RNA processing, and translation.
2. Transcription involves copying a segment of DNA into a complementary mRNA molecule. RNA processing removes introns from pre-mRNA, joining exons to create mature mRNA.
3. Translation uses the mRNA to sequence amino acids via tRNA molecules on ribosomes, forming proteins according to the genetic code.
This document provides an overview of protein synthesis which occurs in four main steps: transcription, charging of tRNAs, translation, and post-translational modifications. During transcription, the gene is transcribed into mRNA. tRNAs are charged with specific amino acids through the action of aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. Translation then occurs on ribosomes, where the mRNA codon sequence is read and amino acids are added to the growing polypeptide chain in the correct order. Translation involves initiation, elongation, and termination steps.
DNA contains the master code for proteins. During transcription, mRNA is created by copying sections of DNA, which carry the code for proteins. Translation then uses the mRNA code to assemble amino acids brought by tRNA molecules. The amino acids bond together through peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains, also known as proteins, according to the mRNA instructions. This allows DNA to direct the synthesis of proteins through intermediate RNA molecules.
Ribosomes play a key role in protein synthesis by using messenger RNA (mRNA) to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains. The mRNA code is read in three-letter sequences called codons that each specify a single amino acid. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids to the ribosome according to their complementary anticodons. Through a series of steps, the ribosome links amino acids together until a stop codon is reached, completing translation and protein production according to the DNA's genetic instructions.
RNA plays an important role in decoding the genetic instructions contained in DNA and directing protein production. There are three main types of RNA - messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries copies of gene instructions from DNA to the ribosomes, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which makes up part of the ribosomes, and transfer RNA (tRNA), which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes during protein production according to the mRNA instructions. RNA is produced from DNA in a process called transcription, in which RNA polymerase uses a DNA strand as a template to make a complementary RNA molecule.
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function, including:
- DNA is a double-helix structure with bases pairing between strands.
- DNA replication is semiconservative and involves unwinding of the strands followed by synthesis of new strands using the old strands as templates.
- Gene expression involves two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, and translation of mRNA to proteins in the cytoplasm using transfer RNA and ribosomes.
- Gene expression is regulated at multiple levels including chromatin structure, transcription factors, RNA processing, and mRNA translation controls.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each strand as a template to create a new partner strand through complementary base pairing. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the new strands to replicate the DNA. This ensures each daughter cell has an exact copy of the original DNA.
1) Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains through the process of translation.
2) Messenger RNA carries codons that are read by ribosomes to direct the binding of transfer RNA molecules and the addition of amino acids to form a polypeptide chain.
3) The central dogma of molecular biology is that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, with DNA containing the genetic instructions and proteins performing most functions in cells.
Splicing , Spliceosome , Remove Introns
Remove of Intron and joining the exon together
Three Classes of RNA Splicing
Group I introns
Group II introns
Nuclear pre-mRNA
DNA contains the genetic code that is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated into proteins. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome for protein production. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps join mRNA to transfer RNA (tRNA) during protein synthesis. TRNA transports amino acids to the ribosome where they are linked together based on the mRNA codon sequence.
The document summarizes the autonomic nervous system, including its neurotransmitters, receptors, effects on different organs, and control. Cholinergic fibers release acetylcholine and act through nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Adrenergic fibers release norepinephrine and act through alpha and beta receptors. The parasympathetic division generally has inhibitory effects, while the sympathetic division has excitatory effects on target organs. Cortical centers can provide some voluntary control over autonomic functions through biofeedback training.
This document provides an overview of general science topics including:
1. The characteristics of life such as complex organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth and development, response to stimuli, reproduction, and evolution.
2. The scientific method which involves making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments and controls, evaluating results, and publishing theories.
3. Different levels of biological complexity from the chemical and cellular levels up to the ecosystem level.
4. Some modern scientists that helped advance fields like classification (Linnaeus), cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann), evolution (Darwin), and genetics (Mendel).
Blood flow, pressure, and resistance are key components of circulation. Resistance depends on vessel length and diameter, with smaller diameters resulting in greater resistance. Blood pressure includes systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures. The circulatory system is regulated through neural, chemical, and renal mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Issues like hypotension, hypertension, and shock can occur if regulation is compromised.
- The chemical senses of taste and smell detect chemicals through receptors in the tongue and nose. Taste receptors are located in gustatory hairs on the tongue and adapt rapidly, while smell receptors are in the olfactory epithelium.
- Vision involves the detection of light, which is refracted and focused by the eye's lens onto the retina. Photoreceptors contain photopigments that transduce light into nerve signals.
- Hearing detects sound waves that excite hair cells in the cochlea. The inner ear also contains receptors for static and dynamic equilibrium that help with balance and orientation. Homeostatic imbalances can impair these senses.
The intrinsic conduction system consists of specialized noncontractile cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulses throughout the heart in a sequential manner. Impulses travel through autorhythmic cells like the sinoatrial node, then through the atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers to trigger rhythmic contractions. Defects can cause arrhythmias like fibrillation. The cardiac cycle involves systole, diastole, and the flow of blood through the heart, regulated by the medulla oblongata and monitored by electrocardiograms.
The document summarizes key concepts about excretion by the kidneys. It discusses glomerular filtration which forms filtrate from blood plasma, and the tubular reabsorption and secretion processes that modify the filtrate to form urine and remove wastes. Specifically, it describes the mechanisms of passive and active transport that allow reabsorption of useful solutes and water back into blood from the filtrate in different kidney tubule segments. The countercurrent mechanism and role of antidiuretic hormone in regulating urine concentration and volume are also summarized.
The document summarizes the overall pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle/electron transport chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves glucose activation using 2 ATP and energy harvest from pyruvate production yielding 2 ATP and 2 NADH. The citric acid cycle and electron transport chain occur in the mitochondria, use oxygen, and produce 36 ATP and 2 carbon dioxide from the breakdown of 1 pyruvate, which is generated from glycolysis. Both pathways are exergonic overall.
#2 donohue dna, protein synthesis and biotechMaria Donohue
The document provides an overview of DNA structure and function, explaining that DNA contains the genetic code for all living things and is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases that pair up in the DNA double helix. It describes how DNA is replicated through the process of transcription to make mRNA and then translated to synthesize proteins. The document also discusses mutations that can occur in DNA through errors in replication or recombination and their potential effects.
- DNA replication involves unwinding the DNA double helix at the replication fork and using each single strand as a template to build new complementary strands in a semi-conservative manner, where each new double helix contains one original and one new strand.
- Replication proceeds bidirectionally from an origin of replication as the replication fork moves along the DNA in both directions. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
- Several DNA polymerases and other proteins work together accurately and efficiently to copy the billions of bases in human DNA within a few hours during cell division.
DNA replication occurs semi-conservatively, with each parental strand serving as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand. This results in two identical DNA molecules, each with one original parental strand and one newly synthesized strand. Replication is initiated at the origin of replication and proceeds bidirectionally around the circular bacterial chromosome. Enzymes such as helicase unwind the parental DNA, topoisomerases relieve supercoiling, and DNA polymerase adds complementary nucleotides using the parental strands as templates.
1. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing a sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, or guanine).
2. DNA replication ensures that new cells have a complete set of DNA by separating the DNA double helix and using each original strand as a template to produce two new complementary strands.
3. Transcription and translation are the processes by which the information in DNA is used to synthesize proteins. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an mRNA copy of a gene, and translation involves ribosomes using the mRNA to produce a polypeptide chain.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for living organisms. It is a double-stranded molecule found in the nucleus of cells. DNA is made up of nucleotides, which contain a phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose), and one of four nitrogen bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine). The bases on each strand pair up through hydrogen bonding - adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. DNA replicates through a semi-conservative process where each new molecule contains one original and one new strand. RNA carries instructions from DNA for protein production and differs from DNA by being single-stranded and containing ribose and uracil instead of thymine.
DNA replication and repair involve complex multi-step processes. DNA is copied through semiconservative replication during S phase. This requires unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicase, synthesis of new strands by DNA polymerase using the parental strands as templates, and ligation by ligase. DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3' end, so the leading strand is continuously synthesized while the lagging strand involves discontinuous Okazaki fragments. Telomerase protects chromosome ends from shortening during replication. DNA repair pathways such as base excision repair and nucleotide excision repair help correct errors and damage to maintain genome integrity.
DNA replication is the process where a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix into single strands, and using DNA polymerase to add complementary nucleotides to each strand to make two new double helix DNA molecules. It is semiconservative, starting at the origin of replication and proceeding bidirectionally. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand makes short Okazaki fragments that are later joined. DNA replication occurs with high fidelity to maintain genetic integrity as cells divide.
The document discusses key processes involved in gene expression and protein synthesis, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It provides details on:
1) DNA replication through semiconservative replication where each new DNA double helix contains one original and one new strand synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.
2) Transcription of DNA into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and the ribosome.
3) Translation of mRNA into polypeptide chains using the genetic code where codons in mRNA are recognized by anticodons in tRNA to add amino acids in the correct sequence. Translation terminates when a stop codon is reached.
The document summarizes the process of gene expression from DNA to protein. It involves two main steps - transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to protein. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves RNA polymerase making an RNA copy of a gene. The mRNA is then processed and transported to the cytoplasm where translation occurs, involving ribosomes reading the mRNA code to produce a polypeptide chain. The genetic code is universal across organisms with some codons being degenerate.
DNA and RNA both contain nucleotides with sugars, bases, and phosphates. DNA contains deoxyribose and thymine, while RNA contains ribose and uracil. DNA exists as two strands, while RNA exists as a single strand. The genetic code uses three-base sequences called codons to specify the twenty amino acids. Transcription produces mRNA from DNA, and translation uses mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes and amino acids to assemble polypeptides specified by mRNA codons. Originally it was believed one gene specified one polypeptide, but exceptions to this rule have been discovered.
DNA structure and protein synthesis .pdficefairy7706
This document discusses nucleic acids and protein synthesis. It begins by describing the structures of DNA and RNA, which are made up of nucleotides containing phosphate, sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases. DNA contains the bases adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine, while RNA contains adenine, cytosine, uracil, and guanine. The document then explains DNA replication, which involves unwinding the DNA double helix and using each strand as a template to synthesize a new complementary strand. It also describes transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into proteins, which occurs on ribosomes and involves transfer RNA bringing amino acids to be joined into polypeptide chains according to
DNA replication involves the synthesis of daughter DNA strands using parental DNA as a template. It occurs through a semi-conservative process whereby each new DNA molecule contains one original and one newly synthesized strand. Replication is bidirectional, with replication forks moving in opposite directions from an origin of replication. The leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand involves the discontinuous synthesis of Okazaki fragments. DNA polymerases and other proteins such as helicases, primases, ligases and topoisomerases work together to facilitate the replication process.
This document summarizes DNA replication. It begins by listing the objectives of describing the process. DNA replication duplicates the entire genome before cell division so each daughter cell receives a complete copy. It proceeds in a semi-conservative, bidirectional manner starting from the origin. Several enzymes are involved including helicase, DNA polymerase, primase, ligase and topoisomerases. DNA polymerase builds new strands using the old strands as templates while primase lays down RNA primers. The leading strand is synthesized continuously but the lagging strand requires discontinuous Okazaki fragments joined by ligase. Proofreading ensures high fidelity through exonuclease activity. Eukaryotes differ in having multiple origins and using RNAse H to remove primers.
Genetic Codon The Three nucleotide base sequence in mRNA that act as code words for amino acids in protein constitute the genetic code or codons.
There are 64 different combinations of three base codons composed of Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C) and Uracil (U).
Written from the 5-’ end to 3’ end.
UAA,UAG & UGA do not code for amino acid. They are called as stop codon or non sense codon.
Characteristics of Genetic Code are:
University: same codon for same amino acid in all living organism.
Specificity: A particular codon will code for the same amino acid,highly specific or unambiguous.
Non overlapping : read from a fixed point as a continuous base sequence.
Degenerate: Most of the amino acids have more than one codon. 61 codons available to code for only 20 amino acids.
DNA :DNA stands for Deoxy Ribonucleic acid.
It’s the genetic code that determines all the characteristics of living organism.
DNA is a double stranded molecule, made up of two chains of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of three subunits : a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen base pair.
Sugar present is Deoxyribose and Nitrogen bases are :
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
Structure of DNA : Double helical structure of DNA was proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
Features of model of DNA are:
DNA is a right handed double helix, have two polydeoxyribonucleotide chains twisted around each other on a common axis.
Two strands are antiparallel i.e., one strand runs in the 5’ to 3’ direction while the other in 3’ to 5’ direction.
The diameter of helix is 20 A° (2nm).
Each turn of the helix is 34 A° (3.4 nm) with 10 pairs of nucleotides, each pair placed at a distance of about 3.4 A°.
The two strands are held together by Hydrogen bonds formed by complementary base pairs. The A-T pair has 2 hydrogen bonds while G-C pair has 3 hydrogen bonds.
The complementary base pairing in DNA helix proves Chargaff’s rule. The content of adenine equals to that of thymine (A=T) and guanine equals to that of the cytosine (G≡C).
Function of DNA
RNA
DNA replication
Transcription
Translation
It is a short and concise slide about DNA replication and Repair. It is prepared keeping in mind for Undergraduates level but PG also might find it handy.
This document provides an overview of gene expression and DNA replication. It discusses:
1) Gene expression in prokaryotes, which linearly transfers genetic information from DNA to mRNA to protein.
2) Additional complexities in eukaryotic gene expression, including intron splicing, adding a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail to mRNA.
3) DNA replication, which uses the original DNA as a template to copy its sequence accurately via semi-conservative replication before cell division. DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA in the 5' to 3' direction, creating leading and lagging strands.
DNA contains the genetic code for building proteins. It takes the form of a double helix with two antiparallel strands linked by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. During DNA replication, the double helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template for synthesizing a new complementary strand. This results in two identical copies of the original DNA. DNA is first transcribed into messenger RNA, which is then translated by ribosomes into proteins based on the RNA's sequence of codons.
The document discusses protein synthesis which involves two main phases - transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves the DNA being used as a template to produce mRNA. The mRNA then undergoes processing before being exported to the cytoplasm where translation occurs, involving ribosomes and tRNA to link amino acids together using the mRNA as a template to produce a protein.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix at an origin of replication and using each strand as a template to synthesize new partner strands. RNA primers are used to initiate DNA synthesis, which occurs semi-conservatively and bidirectionally from the replication fork to produce two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
Dna replication;transcription and translationJoan Cañete
Cell division requires DNA replication so that each daughter cell receives a copy of the DNA. DNA replication is semi-conservative, resulting in two DNA molecules where each contains one original strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand. DNA replication involves initiation, elongation, and termination. During elongation, the leading strand is synthesized continuously while the lagging strand is synthesized in fragments called Okazaki fragments.
This document summarizes two metabolic pathways in photosynthesis: the light-dependent and light-independent pathways. The light-dependent pathway uses light energy to produce ATP and NADPH. The light-independent pathway, also called the Calvin-Benson cycle, uses ATP, NADPH, CO2 from the air, and the five-carbon molecule RuBP to produce two three-carbon molecules and regenerate RuBP to repeat the cycle, ultimately producing glucose. The cycle is repeated six times to incorporate six CO2 molecules and produce one glucose molecule.
This document describes two metabolic pathways in photosynthesis - the light dependent and light independent reactions. The light dependent reactions use water, light, chlorophyll and accessory pigments in the thylakoid membrane to produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen through the absorption of light by photosystems. The light independent reactions then use ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide in the stroma to produce glucose and other high energy compounds.
1. The overall pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are exergonic and produce ATP with oxygen acting as the electron acceptor.
2. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP directly from each glucose in the cytoplasm without oxygen. The citric acid cycle and electron transport chain use oxygen to produce 36 ATP from each pyruvate in the mitochondria.
3. Each pathway generates ATP in different ways: glycolysis - 2 ATP directly; acetyl CoA activation - none; citric acid cycle - 2 ATP directly and generates NADH and FADH2 which are used to produce ATP.
This document discusses the mechanics and control of respiration. It covers topics like pressure relationships in the thoracic cavity, pulmonary ventilation, respiratory volumes and tests, gas exchange in the body, transport of respiratory gases by blood, and neural control of breathing. It also addresses factors that influence respiration like exercise, altitude, and chemoreceptors.
Nerves transmit electrical signals through action potentials along axons. Action potentials are generated when a threshold level of depolarization is reached due to voltage-gated sodium channels opening. They then propagate along axons through continued depolarization and repolarization of membrane potentials. At synapses, neurotransmitters are released by presynaptic neurons and bind to receptors on postsynaptic neurons, generating excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials which can summate to influence firing. Neurons communicate through complex circuits using these synaptic potentials for parallel and serial processing of information.
Muscles contract through the sliding filament mechanism, where actin filaments slide past myosin filaments. Contraction is regulated by motor neurons at the neuromuscular junction releasing acetylcholine, which triggers excitation-contraction coupling in the muscle fiber. Skeletal muscle contractions can be graded, tetanic, or isometric depending on stimulus frequency. Muscles require ATP generated through aerobic and anaerobic pathways to fuel contraction and fatigue results from an inability to continue contracting.
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic functions of other cells. They include amino acid-based hormones and steroids like eicosanoids. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and can trigger second messenger systems that use molecules like cyclic AMP to mediate their effects. The major endocrine glands secrete hormones like insulin, glucagon, estrogen and testosterone that target organs through feedback loops to maintain homeostasis.
Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships, while physiology concerns how body parts function. Physiology examines the functioning of specific organs and organ systems using chemical and physical principles. Anatomy and physiology are complementary, as a body's capabilities depend on its unique structural architecture. The body has hierarchical structural levels from chemical to organ systems. Homeostasis through feedback mechanisms maintains the internal environment and functional equilibrium necessary for life.
The document discusses digestion and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. It describes:
- The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food that occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small and large intestines. This includes the roles of enzymes like pepsin, trypsin, amylase, and lipases.
- How nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, including the roles of micelles in fat absorption and iron-binding proteins in iron transport.
- Causes of malabsorption like problems delivering bile or pancreatic juices or damage to the intestinal lining.
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living things. They contain specialized subcellular structures that allow biochemical activities to occur. The generalized cell contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to pass through by passive diffusion or active transport processes powered by ATP. Transport mechanisms include facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and phagocytosis. The plasma membrane also maintains the cell's resting membrane potential through ion gradients established by the sodium-potassium pump. Cells interact with their environment through membrane receptors, ligands, and cell adhesion molecules.
Hemostasis is the process of stopping bleeding through vascular spasms, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. Key events include vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, thromboxane A2 release, fibrinogen conversion to fibrin strands, and clot stabilization. Clot retraction and repair occur through platelet contraction and growth factor release. Fibrinolysis removes unneeded clots. Factors that limit clotting include antithrombin III and protein C. Disorders include deep vein thrombosis and hemophilia.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in biochemistry including:
- Water has high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, forming hydration layers around charged molecules.
- Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions involve adding or removing a water molecule.
- Salts contain cations and anions, while electrolytes conduct electricity in solution.
- Acids donate protons and bases accept protons, with pH measuring hydrogen ion concentration on a scale from acidic to alkaline.
- Organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that make up living tissues.
The male and female reproductive systems produce gametes through spermatogenesis and oogenesis respectively. In males, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and results in the production of sperm. The female ovarian and uterine cycles are regulated by hormones which cause the maturation of eggs and preparation of the uterus for potential implantation. Both systems exhibit sexual response involving arousal, orgasm, and resolution through complex hormonal interactions between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads.
The document discusses Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his discovery of the principles of heredity, including dominant and recessive alleles, genotypes and phenotypes. It then explains various genetic concepts like monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, sex-linked inheritance, co-dominance, incomplete dominance and uses examples like blood types and flower color to illustrate these concepts. The document also discusses how pedigrees can be used to track genetic traits within a family.
This document describes DNA, chromosomes, and the process of cell division. It defines key terms like DNA, genes, chromatin and chromosomes. It explains that eukaryotic cells undergo interphase before cell division. Cell division can be mitosis, which produces two diploid daughter cells, or meiosis, which produces four haploid cells. Meiosis has two rounds of division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) to reduce the chromosome number. The stages of mitosis and each phase of meiosis are outlined, including what occurs in each phase.
Cellular respiration involves two main stages - glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm to produce pyruvate. This stage generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to produce much more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The overall process of cellular respiration uses oxygen to completely oxidize glucose or other fuels and generate approximately 36 ATP, the cell's main energy currency.
1. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose.
2. It takes place in two stages - the light dependent reactions and the light independent reactions. The light dependent reactions use energy from sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH using chlorophyll.
3. The light independent reactions, also called the Calvin cycle, use the ATP and NADPH produced to convert carbon dioxide into glucose through a series of chemical reactions. This involves adding carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate and undergoing multiple reaction steps to regenerate the starting material and produce glucose.
This document provides an overview of biology and the scientific method. It discusses that biology is the study of life through describing its key characteristics like metabolism, homeostasis, and reproduction. The scientific method is then explained as a process of making observations, asking questions, formulating hypotheses, making predictions through experimentation, and evaluating results. Finally, it outlines the levels of complexity in biological systems from chemicals to ecosystems.
The document discusses Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his discovery of the principles of heredity, including dominant and recessive alleles, genotypes and phenotypes. It then explains various genetic concepts like monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, sex-linked inheritance, co-dominance, incomplete dominance and uses examples like blood types and flower color to illustrate these concepts. The document also discusses how pedigrees can be used to track genetic traits within a family.
1. I. Review Biological Compounds
A. Types
category monomer polymer
Carbohydrate glucose starch
Lipids glycerol, fatty acid fat, oil
Protein amino acid protein
Nucleic Acid nucleotide DNA, RNA
2. B. Protein
A sequence of amino acids held together
by peptide bonds
There are 20 different types of amino acids
and the different arrangements of bonding
determines the protein
3. B1. Structure
1.Primary Structure
Sequence of amino acids = chain
2. Secondary Structure
Folds & bends due to amino acid interactions
3. Tertiary Structure
3-D shape (usually functional enzyme)
4. Quaternary Structure
More than one chain of amino acids
18. III. DNA Replication
Copy the DNA strand (Genetic info) so that
when a cell divides (mitosis, meiosis) they
get an exact copy.
1. SEMICONSERVATIVE
REPLICATION
19. A. General
3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ 5’
A T AT AT
T A TA TA
GC GC GC
CG CG CG
T A TA TA
5’ 3’ 5’ 3’ 5’ 3’
Parental DNA Enzyme reads template 3’ to 5’
Double Helix synthesizes new DNA 5’ to 3’
20. 3’ 5’
5’ 3’
STEP 1 DNA Helicase separates helix
by breaking the hydrogen bonds
DNA Helicase between the N-bases.
replication fork
3’ 5’
5’ 3’
21. STEP 2
DNA Polymerase
1. 2 Enzymes bond = 1 to each strand
2. Each enzyme reads the original 3’ to 5’
3. Each enzyme makes new DNA 5’ to 3’
4. Pairs free DNA nucleotides with parent strand
5. Bonds P to sugar to form backbone of new strand
22. 5’
3’ 5’ 3’
5’
3’
1.As drawn, upper DNA Polymerase synthesizes
new strand as it follows helicase.
2.As drawn, lower DNA Polymerase detaches as
come to unwound DNA helix
23. 5’
3’ 5’ 3’
5’ 5’
3’
Lower DNA Polymerase synthesize
fragments and the DNA Polymerase
detach off fragments.
24. 3’ 5’
5’ 3’
3’ 5’
5’ 3’
STEP 3
DNA Ligase - Joins the
backbone of the strands
25. Centromere – specific sequence of DNA that joins
two DNA molecules together.
DNA Polymerase proofreads as goes along (only 1
mistake/10, 000 pairs but enzymes find and repair
the mistakes).
27. I. Central Dogma
One gene one protein (really = polypeptide)
General:
1. A functional protein may be > 1 chain
2. Not all proteins are enzymes
28. 3. 1 gene = 100’s-1000’s of nucleotides
4. 1000’s genes per chromosome
5. Start Stop on mRNA
AUG UAG, UAA, UGA
29. A. Nucleus
3’ 5’
DNA T A C C T A C G G’
5’ 3’
A T G G A T G C C
TRANSCRIPTION copy information from
DNA gene into mRNA
A U G G A U G C C
mRNA 5’ 3’
30. B. Cytoplasm – the mRNA leaves the nucleus
by pores & goes to ribosome in the cytoplasm
rRNA –
makes up part of the ribosome
TRANSLATION
tRNA -
carries specific
amino acids Amino Acid
31. Converts the information from
mRNA into a protein
primary structure of a protein
secondary structure of a protein
tertiary structure of a protein
32. II. Protein Synthesis
A. DNA vs. RNA
double strand single strand
thymine uracil
deoxyribose ribose
33. B. RNA types
1.mRNA (messenger RNA)
Copy (where U replaces T) of DNA template
gene (carries DNA code to the ribosme).
Enzyme reads the DNA 3’ to 5’ but lays the
new nucleotides down 5’ to 3’ = makes
mRNA 5’ to 3’
34. mRNA (messenger RNA)
start stop
5’ A U G G A U G C C U A G 3’
CODON (corresponds to one amino acid)
Start codon Stop codon
AUG UAG
UGA
UAA
35. 2. rRNA = Ribosomal RNA
Make ribosomes by combining two
subunits (small and large)
Where protein synthesis occurs.
36. Ribosome structure (two subunits)
small subunit
large subunit
1st binding site 2nd binding site
catalytic site
37. 3. tRNA = Transfer RNA
Brings amino acids to mRNA/rRNA
Anticodon = three consecutive nucleotides
on tRNA and pair to the codon on mRNA
Codon = AUG
Anticodon = UAC
Amino Acid = Met = methionine
39. TRANSCRIPTION
1. Where Occurs nucleus
2. General DNA mRNA
Only one side of DNA Helix is copied into
mRNA (not always the same side for
different genes).
40. 3. Parts of Transcription
INITIATION
a. RNA Polymerase binds to a promotor
(TATA*****), which tells the enzyme that the
gene starts on the complimentary strand of
the DNA Helix.
41. CONTINUE INITIATION
b. RNA Polymerase reads the template 3’ to 5’
but bonds new nucleotides for mRNA 5’ to 3’
42. PROMOTOR
5’ 3’
T A T A A T G C A A C T A T A A
3’ A T A T T A C G T T G A T A T T 5’
RNA Polymerase (enzyme)
43. ELONGATION
a. RNA Polymerase unwinds DNA Helix
b. RNA Polymerase moves along the DNA Helix
and reads the template 3’ to 5’
44. c. RNA Polymerase adds (bonds together) free
RNA nucleotides 5’ to 3’
d. Continues until enzyme reaches stop on DNA
45. 5’ 3’
T A T A A T G C A A C T A T A A
3’
C A A
A T A T T AC G T T G A T A T T
3’ 5’
G
U
5’ A
The RNA Polymerase (blue) is reading the
DNA gene (bottom black) from 3’ to 5’ but
adding new nucleotides (RNA) from 5’ to 3’.
As it does this it is producing the mRNA
(RED) 5’ to 3’.
46. U A A
A
U
C
A
A
C
G
U
A
The RNA Polymerase continues to add RNA
nucleotides until it reaches a stop.
47. 5. Termination
a. Once the RNA Polymerase reaches this
point it detaches from the DNA (which
reforms the double helix). What is formed is
called a transcription unit.
48. b. RNA SPLICING
1.Need to remove introns
2.Need to bond together exons
3.Need to add cap and tail
4.Then have mRNA
52. NIT
SMALL SUBU
5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C
mRNA
tRNA LARGE SUBUNIT
AA1
1ST tRNA enters the site in the large subunit of the ribosome.
Bonds to the mRNA with the small subunit.
53. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C G U U
AA1 AA2
2nd tRNA bonds to the second site in the ribosome.
54. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
U A C G U U
AA1 AA2
In the catalytic site AA1 is bonded to AA2.
55. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
U A C
AA1 AA2
Ribosome moves toward the 3’ end of the mRNA.
Causes the 1st tRNA to leave and the 2nd site to be open.
56. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
3rd tRNA enters the open site on Ribosome.
57. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
The AA1-AA2 bond to AA3.
58. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
Ribosome moves down mRNA
toward the 3’ end.
59. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
Causes 3rd tRNA to move in 1st site and 2nd tRNA leave ribosome sites.
Reaches stop codon on the mRNA.
60. 5’ 3’
A U G C A A C U A U A A
G U U
G A U
U A C
AA1 AA2 AA3
All detach.