Efferents
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The document summarizes the autonomic nervous system, including its neurotransmitters, receptors, effects on different organs, and control. Cholinergic fibers release acetylcholine and act through nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Adrenergic fibers release norepinephrine and act through alpha and beta receptors. The parasympathetic division generally has inhibitory effects, while the sympathetic division has excitatory effects on target organs. Cortical centers can provide some voluntary control over autonomic functions through biofeedback training.
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Anemia is a blood condition characterized by having too few red blood cells or low hemoglobin levels, which can cause symptoms like fatigue, paleness, rapid heartbeat, and shortness of breath. Polyuria is a urine condition where excessive urine is produced, at least 2.5 liters per day for adults, resulting in frequent urination and the need to urinate often, and can be caused by diseases like diabetes.
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This document discusses fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
- Water accounts for approximately 60% of body weight in men and 55% in women, with the majority located intracellularly.
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- Potassium is predominantly an intracellular cation. The body works to keep potassium levels within a narrow range to ensure normal cell function.
- The body uses various mechanisms and hormones like vasopressin, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and natriuretic peptides to maintain fluid homeostasis and respond to
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Nerve suply of bladder and physiology 2
The document summarizes the nerve supply and physiology of micturition (urination). It discusses:
1) The sympathetic, parasympathetic, and somatic nerve pathways involved in filling and emptying the bladder. Parasympathetic nerves excite the bladder during filling while sympathetic nerves inhibit it.
2) The sensory afferent fibers (A-delta and C fibers) that provide sensation from the bladder. C fibers are not normally active but can become hyperactive in pathological conditions like spinal cord injury.
3) The peripheral efferent pathways - sympathetic nerves inhibit the bladder and excite the urethra, while parasympathetic nerves excite the bladder and relax the urethra. Somatic pathways contract
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This document provides an overview of general science topics including:
1. The characteristics of life such as complex organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth and development, response to stimuli, reproduction, and evolution.
2. The scientific method which involves making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments and controls, evaluating results, and publishing theories.
3. Different levels of biological complexity from the chemical and cellular levels up to the ecosystem level.
4. Some modern scientists that helped advance fields like classification (Linnaeus), cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann), evolution (Darwin), and genetics (Mendel).
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Afferents
- The chemical senses of taste and smell detect chemicals through receptors in the tongue and nose. Taste receptors are located in gustatory hairs on the tongue and adapt rapidly, while smell receptors are in the olfactory epithelium.
- Vision involves the detection of light, which is refracted and focused by the eye's lens onto the retina. Photoreceptors contain photopigments that transduce light into nerve signals.
- Hearing detects sound waves that excite hair cells in the cochlea. The inner ear also contains receptors for static and dynamic equilibrium that help with balance and orientation. Homeostatic imbalances can impair these senses.
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The document summarizes the autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow. It describes two main mechanisms - tubuloglomerular feedback and myogenic autoregulation. Tubuloglomerular feedback senses sodium chloride concentration at the macula densa and controls afferent and efferent arteriole diameter to maintain GFR. Myogenic autoregulation involves the vascular smooth muscle sensing changes in arterial pressure to resist vessel stretching and regulate resistance. These mechanisms help keep GFR and renal blood flow relatively constant despite changes in blood pressure, preventing extreme fluctuations in renal excretion.
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This document discusses fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body. It covers the following key points:
- Water accounts for approximately 60% of body weight in men and 55% in women, with the majority located intracellularly.
- Sodium is the main extracellular cation and helps determine extracellular fluid osmolality and volume. The body tightly regulates sodium levels to maintain fluid balance.
- Potassium is predominantly an intracellular cation. The body works to keep potassium levels within a narrow range to ensure normal cell function.
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The document summarizes the nerve supply and physiology of micturition (urination). It discusses:
1) The sympathetic, parasympathetic, and somatic nerve pathways involved in filling and emptying the bladder. Parasympathetic nerves excite the bladder during filling while sympathetic nerves inhibit it.
2) The sensory afferent fibers (A-delta and C fibers) that provide sensation from the bladder. C fibers are not normally active but can become hyperactive in pathological conditions like spinal cord injury.
3) The peripheral efferent pathways - sympathetic nerves inhibit the bladder and excite the urethra, while parasympathetic nerves excite the bladder and relax the urethra. Somatic pathways contract
1a 1. science done
This document provides an overview of general science topics including:
1. The characteristics of life such as complex organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth and development, response to stimuli, reproduction, and evolution.
2. The scientific method which involves making observations, asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments and controls, evaluating results, and publishing theories.
3. Different levels of biological complexity from the chemical and cellular levels up to the ecosystem level.
4. Some modern scientists that helped advance fields like classification (Linnaeus), cell theory (Schleiden and Schwann), evolution (Darwin), and genetics (Mendel).
Excretion
The document summarizes key concepts about excretion by the kidneys. It discusses glomerular filtration which forms filtrate from blood plasma, and the tubular reabsorption and secretion processes that modify the filtrate to form urine and remove wastes. Specifically, it describes the mechanisms of passive and active transport that allow reabsorption of useful solutes and water back into blood from the filtrate in different kidney tubule segments. The countercurrent mechanism and role of antidiuretic hormone in regulating urine concentration and volume are also summarized.
Afferents
- The chemical senses of taste and smell detect chemicals through receptors in the tongue and nose. Taste receptors are located in gustatory hairs on the tongue and adapt rapidly, while smell receptors are in the olfactory epithelium.
- Vision involves the detection of light, which is refracted and focused by the eye's lens onto the retina. Photoreceptors contain photopigments that transduce light into nerve signals.
- Hearing detects sound waves that excite hair cells in the cochlea. The inner ear also contains receptors for static and dynamic equilibrium that help with balance and orientation. Homeostatic imbalances can impair these senses.
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The document discusses the parasympathetic nervous system and cholinergic drugs. It notes that the parasympathetic nervous system works to conserve energy and support restorative functions through actions like decreasing heart rate and increasing gastrointestinal activity. Cholinergic drugs act on cholinergic receptors and mimic the effects of acetylcholine by either directly activating receptors or inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Direct acting drugs have peripheral effects while indirect acting drugs can cross the blood brain barrier. Side effects result from overstimulation and include things like bradycardia and increased secretions. Treatment for exposure to irreversible cholinesterase inhibitors includes decontamination, atropine to block muscarinic effects, and pralid
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The document summarizes the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic system uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter and activates the "fight or flight" response. The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine and activates the "rest and digest" response. Cholinergic drugs stimulate the parasympathetic system while anticholinergic drugs block parasympathetic effects.
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The document provides information about the autonomic nervous system. It discusses:
- The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body functions through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
- The sympathetic division is involved in the "fight or flight" response and increases heart rate and blood pressure. The parasympathetic division has opposing effects and is involved in "rest and digest" functions.
- Both divisions work through two neurons - a preganglionic neuron from the CNS and a postganglionic neuron - to innervate organs like the heart, lungs and digestive system.
automatic nervous system and drugs
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary bodily functions through its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic "fight or flight" system activates responses like increased heart rate while the parasympathetic "rest and digest" system triggers processes like digestion. Neurotransmission in the ANS uses acetylcholine and norepinephrine to activate responses in organs through stimulation or inhibition of g-protein coupled receptors and ion channels. Cholinergic drugs can either mimic or inhibit acetylcholine to regulate these autonomic functions.
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This document describes two metabolic pathways in photosynthesis - the light dependent and light independent reactions. The light dependent reactions use water, light, chlorophyll and accessory pigments in the thylakoid membrane to produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen through the absorption of light by photosystems. The light independent reactions then use ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide in the stroma to produce glucose and other high energy compounds.
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Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body functions and has two divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system activates the body's fight or flight response through adrenaline release, increasing heart rate, blood flow to muscles, and lung function. The parasympathetic nervous system calms the body during rest and digestion through processes like increasing saliva production, slowing the heart rate, and stimulating the gastrointestinal tract. Neurons have dendrites that receive signals, an axon that conducts electrical impulses, and can be either sensory or motor fibers that carry information to and from the central nervous system.
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The document summarizes the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic system uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter and activates the "fight or flight" response. The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine and activates the "rest and digest" response. Cholinergic drugs stimulate the parasympathetic system while anticholinergic drugs block parasympathetic effects.
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The document discusses mechanisms for regulating blood pressure both short-term and long-term. Short-term regulation involves the nervous system increasing parasympathetic activity to lower blood pressure or increasing sympathetic activity to raise blood pressure. Long-term regulation maintains blood volume through renal mechanisms like the renin-angiotensin system and aldosterone which regulate sodium and water balance. Increased osmolarity triggers ADH and thirst to restore blood volume.
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The document provides information about the autonomic nervous system. It discusses:
- The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body functions through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
- The sympathetic division is involved in the "fight or flight" response and increases heart rate and blood pressure. The parasympathetic division has opposing effects and is involved in "rest and digest" functions.
- Both divisions work through two neurons - a preganglionic neuron from the CNS and a postganglionic neuron - to innervate organs like the heart, lungs and digestive system.
automatic nervous system and drugs
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary bodily functions through its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic "fight or flight" system activates responses like increased heart rate while the parasympathetic "rest and digest" system triggers processes like digestion. Neurotransmission in the ANS uses acetylcholine and norepinephrine to activate responses in organs through stimulation or inhibition of g-protein coupled receptors and ion channels. Cholinergic drugs can either mimic or inhibit acetylcholine to regulate these autonomic functions.
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The document discusses cholinergic agents and cholinergic blocking agents that affect the autonomic nervous system. Cholinergic agents stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system by mimicking acetylcholine and cause effects like increased salivation and gastrointestinal motility. They are used to treat conditions like glaucoma and Alzheimer's disease. Cholinergic blocking agents antagonize acetylcholine in the parasympathetic nervous system and cause effects like decreased salivation and urinary retention. They are used to treat conditions like asthma, Parkinson's disease, and peptic ulcers.
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This document discusses the pharmacology of the efferent nervous system. It begins by describing the organization of the nervous system, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. It then discusses how drugs that mimic or alter autonomic nervous system functions are called autonomic drugs. The document goes on to explain the mechanisms of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, as well as their neurotransmitters, receptors, and effects. It provides examples of cholinergic and adrenergic pharmacology, including descriptions of cholinomimetics, cholinergic antagonists, and case studies.
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The document discusses the autonomic nervous system, which consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated during stressful situations and produces the fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolism. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system activates during rest and digestion and works to conserve energy by slowing the heart rate and increasing digestion. Both systems work in opposition to regulate organ function during stress and relaxation.
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- The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food that occurs in the mouth, stomach, and small and large intestines. This includes the roles of enzymes like pepsin, trypsin, amylase, and lipases.
- How nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, including the roles of micelles in fat absorption and iron-binding proteins in iron transport.
- Causes of malabsorption like problems delivering bile or pancreatic juices or damage to the intestinal lining.
Circulation
Blood flow, pressure, and resistance are key components of circulation. Resistance depends on vessel length and diameter, with smaller diameters resulting in greater resistance. Blood pressure includes systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressures. The circulatory system is regulated through neural, chemical, and renal mechanisms to maintain homeostasis. Issues like hypotension, hypertension, and shock can occur if regulation is compromised.
Cells
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living things. They contain specialized subcellular structures that allow biochemical activities to occur. The generalized cell contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing some substances to pass through by passive diffusion or active transport processes powered by ATP. Transport mechanisms include facilitated diffusion, osmosis, filtration, and phagocytosis. The plasma membrane also maintains the cell's resting membrane potential through ion gradients established by the sodium-potassium pump. Cells interact with their environment through membrane receptors, ligands, and cell adhesion molecules.
Cardiac
The intrinsic conduction system consists of specialized noncontractile cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulses throughout the heart in a sequential manner. Impulses travel through autorhythmic cells like the sinoatrial node, then through the atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers to trigger rhythmic contractions. Defects can cause arrhythmias like fibrillation. The cardiac cycle involves systole, diastole, and the flow of blood through the heart, regulated by the medulla oblongata and monitored by electrocardiograms.
Blood
Hemostasis is the process of stopping bleeding through vascular spasms, platelet plug formation, and coagulation. Key events include vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation, thromboxane A2 release, fibrinogen conversion to fibrin strands, and clot stabilization. Clot retraction and repair occur through platelet contraction and growth factor release. Fibrinolysis removes unneeded clots. Factors that limit clotting include antithrombin III and protein C. Disorders include deep vein thrombosis and hemophilia.
Biochemistry
This document provides an overview of key concepts in biochemistry including:
- Water has high heat capacity and heat of vaporization, forming hydration layers around charged molecules.
- Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions involve adding or removing a water molecule.
- Salts contain cations and anions, while electrolytes conduct electricity in solution.
- Acids donate protons and bases accept protons, with pH measuring hydrogen ion concentration on a scale from acidic to alkaline.
- Organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that make up living tissues.
Reproduction
The male and female reproductive systems produce gametes through spermatogenesis and oogenesis respectively. In males, spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and results in the production of sperm. The female ovarian and uterine cycles are regulated by hormones which cause the maturation of eggs and preparation of the uterus for potential implantation. Both systems exhibit sexual response involving arousal, orgasm, and resolution through complex hormonal interactions between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads.
5. genetics
The document discusses Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants and his discovery of the principles of heredity, including dominant and recessive alleles, genotypes and phenotypes. It then explains various genetic concepts like monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, sex-linked inheritance, co-dominance, incomplete dominance and uses examples like blood types and flower color to illustrate these concepts. The document also discusses how pedigrees can be used to track genetic traits within a family.
4. cell division
This document describes DNA, chromosomes, and the process of cell division. It defines key terms like DNA, genes, chromatin and chromosomes. It explains that eukaryotic cells undergo interphase before cell division. Cell division can be mitosis, which produces two diploid daughter cells, or meiosis, which produces four haploid cells. Meiosis has two rounds of division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) to reduce the chromosome number. The stages of mitosis and each phase of meiosis are outlined, including what occurs in each phase.
3. dna
1) The document reviews biological compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
2) It describes the structures of proteins including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.
3) Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides that are made up of phosphate groups, sugars (ribose or deoxyribose), and nitrogenous bases. DNA and RNA differ in their sugar and base components.
2. cellular respiration
Cellular respiration involves two main stages - glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm to produce pyruvate. This stage generates a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to produce much more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The overall process of cellular respiration uses oxygen to completely oxidize glucose or other fuels and generate approximately 36 ATP, the cell's main energy currency.
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Efferents
- 1. Efferents
- 3. Cholinergic fibers are nerve endings that release acetylcholine. Adrenergic fibers are nerve fibers that release norepinephrine.
- 4. Cholinergic receptors Nicotinic receptors are acetylcholine- binding receptors that bind to nicotine. Muscarinic receptors are acetylcholine- binding receptors that bind to muscarine.
- 5. Adrenergic receptors Alpha is a type of adrenergic receptor that usually causes a stimulatory effect when it binds with norepinephrine or epinephrine. Beta adrenergic receptors usually cause an inhibitory effect when bound to NE or epinephrine.
- 6. Interactions of the autonomic divisions
- 7. Sympathetic and parasympathetic tone Sympathetic tone is a state of partial vasoconstriction of the blood vessels maintained by sympathetic fibers. Vasomotor fibers are sympathetic nerve fibers that regulate the contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels.
- 8. Parasympathetic tone is a state of parasympathetic effects that prevents unnecessary heart accelerations and promotes normal digestive activity.
- 9. Effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on various organs
- 10. Target organ/system Parasympatheic effects Sympathetic effects Eye (iris) Constricts pupils Dilates pupils Eye (ciliary mucle) Stimulates muscles for close No effect accomodation of lens Glands Stimulates secretory activity Inhibits secretory activity Sweat glands No effect Stimulates copious sweating Adrenal medulla No effect Stimulates secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine Arrector pili muscles No effect Stimulates contraction Heart muscle Decreases rate Increase rate and force Coronary blood vessels Constricts Causes vasodilation Bladder/urethra Relax urethral sphincter; Constricts urethral sphincter; promotes voiding inhibits voiding Lungs Constricts bronchioles Dilates bronchioles
- 11. Target organ/system Parasympatheic effects Sympathetic effects Digestive tract organs Increases peristalsis Decreases glandular acivity and constricts sphincters Liver No effect Releases glucose into blood Gall bladder Stimulates bile secretion Inhibits bile secretion Kidney No effect Decreases urine output; vasoconstriction Penis Causes erection Causes ejaculation Vagina/clitoris Causes erection Reverse peristalsis Blood vessels No effect Constricts blood vessels, increases blood pressure Blood coagulation No effect Increases coagulation Cellular metabolism No effect Increases metabolic rate Adipose tissue No effect Stiulate lipolysis Mental activity No effect Increases altertness
- 12. Control of autonomic functioning
- 13. Cortical controls Biofeedback training provides an awareness of visceral activities, enabling an element of voluntary control over autonomic body functions.