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29 truman - cold war 2015

The document provides background information on the origins of the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union following World War II. It discusses the formation of the United Nations near the end of WWII to prevent future global wars. Tensions rose as the Soviet Union failed to withdraw from Eastern Europe and instead imposed communist control over countries like Poland and East Germany. The ideological differences between capitalism in the West and communism in the East, as well as mutual distrust between the US and USSR, marked the beginning of the Cold War that lasted from 1945-1991.

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Part I The Truman Years
The Truman Years • Harry S Truman • 1945-1953 • Democrat • Foreign Policy • - Containment • Domestic Policy • - Fair Deal • Successes? • Failures?
•Goals? •Events •Handling •Assessment? •Criteria?
The Cold War 1945-1991
5 CONCEPTUAL UNIT QUESTION • Did the polarization of the world by the two superpowers benefit or harm global development?
Truman and Foreign Policy •Immediate Postwar Concerns •The U.S. Role This Time? •Alone or Collectively? •Isolationist or Internationalist? •United Nations •Background •Wartime Conferences? •San Francisco Conference •Oct, 1945 – a Reality •Senate Ratified, 89-2
I. Post-WWII outcomes? 1) United Nations- formed near end of WWII as a body of nations to prevent future global wars. What organization had been formed at the end of WWI to prevent global war?
United Nations
Major Organs
THE COLD WAR Fifty countries joined together to form the United Nations. It is based in New York City. The Charter pledged to “save succeeding generations from the scourge of war.”
UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY (town meeting concept) 1. Membership -188 nations each with one vote a. First World - US and its Allies mostly industrialized b. Second World - USSR and its Allies many also developed c. Third World - 99/193 mostly developing nations - non-aligned (60% Poverty) agricultural high illiteracy 2. Support from non-aligned nations a. Before 1960 overwhelmingly pro-US b. After 1960 turned increasingly against US c. 1984 (13% - US / 84% - USSR) 3. Powers a. discussion b. elect members c. amending the Charter requires a 2/3 vote d. influencing world opinion 4. Current US Ambassador = Samantha Power Recent US Ambassadors Jean Kirkpatrick Madeleine Albright John Bolton – critic of UN current ambassador
•Maintaining World Peace •Promoting Self-Determination •International Cooperation •Respect for Human Rights
UN SECURITY COUNCIL 1. Membership - 15 members Permanent members - five US, USSR, Great Britain, France, China (1971 change from Nationalist to Communist) Each has VETO power (similar to Lodge's reservation about League) Temporary members - ten - rotated every 2 yrs. 9/15 vote required for action if there is no veto Powers Investigation Military or economic action
SECRETARIAT Consists of the Secretary General and his staff (20,000) Purpose - runs the day to day affairs of the UN Former Secretary Generals Trygve Lie - Norway - 1946-1952 Dag Hammerskjold - Sweden - 1953-1961 (died) U-Thant - Burma - 1961-1971 Kurt Waldheim - Austria - 1972-1981 Javier Perez de Cuellar - Peru - 1982-1991 Boutros Boutros-Ghali - Egypt - 1992-1996 Kofi Annan - Ghana – 1996-2006 Ban Ki-moon – South Korea – 2007-Present
Goals - based on Social Darwinism 1. National Security - self defense peace Avoid Another World War 2. Trade - Promotion of world trade and to better our economic opportunities at home markets resources places to invest create a favorable balance of trade 3. Nationalism - pride in your country - the desire to spread our ideas - our culture around the world A sense of mission in encouraging freedom around the world and promoting "self government" - democracy national self-determination Russians - Totalitarianism promoting capitalism Communism promoting - Freedom of Religion Atheism Protestant Christianity - missionary work 4. Social Gospel - "do the right thing"! Morality Altruism Humanitarianism 5. Improving our image at home and abroad – tough guy or nice guy? 6. Those goals had to be weighed against the cost in terms of money and lives
THE COLD WAR
•Definition? •Who Started It? •What Caused It? •How to Fight It?
4) Origins of Cold War Is this what we mean by the Cold War??? I. Post-WWII outcomes?
Cold War- 45 year competition about values. (end of WWII-collapse of Soviet Union in 1991 — 8 presidents) OR COLD WAR U.S. and West Soviet Union and East -Democracy -Individual Freedom -Market economy -Totalitarianism -Socialism: state centered -Communist II. Cold War: Defined
1949 Soviet Union successfully explodes an atomic bomb 1952 1st Hydrogen Bomb tested *Much more powerful than the Atomic Bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki *Precision Missile Launch THE STAKES ARE HIGH (BOTH U.S. and Soviet Union hold capability to destroy each other) II. Cold War: Defined
23 A newspaper columnist, Walter Lippmann argued that the policy of containment could not work because he did not think the U.S. could contain the Soviet Union everywhere. He published his columns about containment in a book he titled, The Cold War. Lippmann came up with the term Cold War to describe a kind of war that did not include bloodshed. The “Cold War”
Uneasy peace between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Competition for world dominance and global power. Fought on political and economic fronts rather than on military battlefields---------Even though the threat of war was always present. Defined America’s foreign policy from 1946 to 1989. It affected domestic politics and how Americans viewed the world and themselves. Constant state of military preparedness and arms race Propaganda war----Democracy vs Totalitarian Dictatorship Capitalism vs. Communism US policy: Support nations threatened by Communism coldwar
TheThe Bi-PolarizationBi-Polarization ofof Europe:Europe: The Beginning of theThe Beginning of the Cold WarCold War map/cold war Soviet Union/China and Allies…….. Democracy vs. Communism Bi-Polarization of the World US, Allied Nations and Allied colonies. 1950’s
US and USSR were allied in WWII against Fascism but the common enemy had been defeated the reason for co-operation was gone Why? What? The Cold War = War of words and military posturing between the United States and the Soviet Union: When? 1945-1991
1945-United Nations Formed 1946- Churchill “Iron Curtain” Speech 1947- Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan 1948- Soviets blockade Berlin-US launches Airlift. 1949-NATO formed 1953-Stalin dies 1955-Warsaw Pact formed 1956-Kruschev and de-Stalinization in USSR Soviets crush uprising in Hungary 1960- U-2 Incident heightens tensions 1961-Berlin Wall goes up Cold War Time Line
An extremely powerful nation with greater political, economic, or military power than most other nations. After WWII the United States and the Soviet Union emerge as the world’s Superpowers What is a Superpower?
YALTA (in the USSR)YALTA (in the USSR) Date: Feb 1945Date: Feb 1945 Present: Churchill,Present: Churchill, Roosevelt and StalinRoosevelt and Stalin
At the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, before WWII was over, basic philosophical differences became glaring: Democracy and the free enterprise system versus dictatorship and communism Beginning of the Cold War 1945-1948 Yalta Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin Potsdam Atlee, Truman, Stalin
POTSDAM (Germany)POTSDAM (Germany) Date: July 1945Date: July 1945 Present: Churchill,Present: Churchill, Truman and StalinTruman and Stalin
•What Did Cause It? •Mutual Mistrust •WWI •Nazi-Soviet Pact •No Second Front •Yalta, Potsdam •Different Visions of the Future •Opposing Ideologies…
The Soviet Union feared the capitalist West. The United States feared communism. After World War II, the United States and Great Britain wanted the Eastern European nations to determine their own governments. Stalin feared that the Eastern European nations would be anti-Soviet if they were allowed free elections. Seeds of fear and distrust
THE COLD WAR The Soviet Union (USSR) was supposed to withdraw from the Eastern European lands she occupied during WWII—she did not. At the Yalta Conference the Soviet Union agreed to allow free elections in occupied but there was only one candidate on the ballot. The Soviet Union continued to expand its influence, indicating a desire to take over as much of the world as possible. The first elections to demonstrate that these elections were not free were held in Poland. East Germany became a communist state controlled by the Soviet Union. So did East Berlin.
United States and Great Britain wanted self-determination for Eastern European nations. Self-determination embodies the right for all peoples to determine their own economic, social and cultural development. Self-determination
Satellite State  When a nation is under the control of another.  Ex. Part of Germany was under the control of the Soviet Union.  Other examples: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria
At the Potsdam Conference in 1945, it was decided by the four victorious powers of World War II - Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States of America that the territory of the former German Empire defined by the borders of 1937 was to be divided into four zones of occupation. What to do with Germany?
THE COLD WAR The struggle between the United States (and its allies - First World) and the Soviet Union (and its allies – Second World) to control the world (neutral countries = Third World) was called the Cold War. Politically it was a struggle between Totalitarian dictatorship and democracy, free market (capitalism) and command economies (communism). It was cold because no shots were directly fired between the two nations.
The Initial Adversaries Harry Truman Joseph Stalin
40 Post WWII/Cold War Goals for US • Promote open markets for US goods to prevent another depression • Promote democracy throughout the world, especially in Asia and Africa • Stop the spread of communism –“Domino Effect”
41 Post WWII/Cold War Goals for USSR •Create greater security for itself – lost tens of millions of people in WWII and Stalin’s purges – feared a strong Germany •Establish defensible borders •Encourage friendly governments on its borders •Spread communism around the world “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.” Excerpt from Winston Churchill’s “Iron Curtain Speech.”
Soviet Expansion
Yalta Conference between FDR and Stalin - we were still allies FDR then went home and died Russians agreed to free elections in Eastern Europe Agreed to temporarily divide Germany until we could create a government we could trust We agreed to divide the capital of Berlin as well Morganthau Plan - deurbanize Germany create an agricultural nation Russian agreed to aid us against Japan in exchange for territory Elections in Poland Actions by Russia that violated the Yalta Agreements Russians sealed the borders eliminated free speech arrested and shot critics Stalin placed only communists on the ballots in Poland similar elections will occur throughout Eastern Europe
Satellites / Puppets - nations that appear to be free, but are actually ruled by another nation Yugoslavia - Marshall Tito failed to follow Stalin's orders Is communism monolithic? Are all communist the same? Do they all take orders from Stalin? Are they all part of a plot to take over the world? Should we treat them all the same? Could we divide and conquer instead? Russian motives - world domination or self-defense? History of attacks from the West Napoleon - France WWI - Germany WWII - Germany USSR lost 10% of its population during the WWII (US - .03%) and had large losses in previous wars Destruction of Russia by the scorched earth policy in those three wars was extensive Wanted East Europe (buffer); to protect its frontiers by extending USSR's boundaries! Wanted to keep Germany weak feared "capitalist encirclement" The next war would not be fought on Russian soil
Buffer States Satellite States Buffer between East and West. Eastern Europe became Soviet satellite nations. Pro-Soviet. These people were no longer free.
46 Iron Curtain From Stettin in the Balkans, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Eastern Europe. -- Sir Winston Churchill, 1946
47 Iron Curtain Cartoon
48
Soviet View of the Postwar World…
The Way We Saw Things...
•What Weapons to Use? •Why Not Use the UN? •Initial Areas of Disagreement? •1946 – Truman Asked for More Information on the USSR
Iron Curtain Speech - 3/15/46 - Winston Churchill - Fulton, Missouri Described the invisible barrier separating East and West keeping us in the dark It ran from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic Magazines, newspapers, books, movies, radio broadcasts and travel are restricted in this area Pointed to broken promises of free elections made at Yalta by Stalin Offended USSR who announced a military buildup to defend itself US balanced by refusing to share the bomb we had reduced the size of our army from 12 to 3 million yet outnumbered 20 to 1 Stirred up anti-Russian feeling in the US as we moved back towards isolation
The “Iron Curtain”The “Iron Curtain” From Stettin in the Balkans, to Trieste in the Adriatic, anFrom Stettin in the Balkans, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behindiron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Easternthat line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Eastern Europe.Europe. -- Sir Winston Churchill, 1946-- Sir Winston Churchill, 1946
Winston Churchill •“…an iron curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the Ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe…All are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence, but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow.” March-1946
Iron Curtain Map
Weapons of the Cold War 1. Propaganda - win the hearts and minds of the Third World including UN 1. Which side has the best record of performance? 2. Which side has the best goals? 2. Diplomatic Moves - international conferences and military alliances 1. Which side seems most sincere and honest? 2. Which side is most concerned with the needs of the rest of the world? Least selfish? 3. Scientific competition - nuclear development, space race 1. Which side can provide the best future? 2. Which side would be the most dangerous to offend? 4. Economic Competition 1. Which country best provides for its own people? 2. Which country is most willing to share its wealth, through aid, with the rest of the world? 5. Espionage 1. Used to stay ahead of the other side 2. Used to embarrass the other side 6. Subversion - to weaken and overthrow governments that support the other side 1. Has been used by both the US and the USSR in about equal numbers since WWII 2. Secrecy is important because this action makes you look bad propaganda and espionage come into play
Cold War Europe Map
58 In 1947, the United States adopted the policy of containment: keep communism within its existing boundaries and prevent further Soviet aggressive moves. Containment UNITED STATES VS USSR
Major Developments •George Kennan •“Long Telegram” in Feb. 1946 •Explained the Why of Their Behavior •Offered a Solution: Containment
Containment Policy - George F. Kennan - Architect - 7/47 -Officially defined Stop the spread of communism Meet Soviet economic and political challenge - long term Meet every crisis with equal reaction through confrontation - peace through strength Feb 22, 1946 - State Dept asked its Moscow delegation to report on Soviet behavior George Kennan (spent 5 years there) sent the "long telegram" (8000 word response) - Behavior was due to mistrust of West their insecurity (several attacks from West); WWII losses (20m dead, 25% industry destroyed) Soviets wanted "hegemony" in central Europe (buffer) Soviets had no real timetable for world conquest they would test us Russians respected strength - if we matched them they would back down If we showed weakness they would expand
Kennan would serve as the intellectual source of subsequent US foreign policy our policy would evolve rather slowly, reacting to Soviet actions George Kennan - July, 1947 (Foreign Affairs article,"The Sources of Soviet Conduct") advocated a long-term, patient, but firm and vigilant "containment" based on the use of counter-force as the best means of stopping the spread of communism Containment Policy assumed that collective force at Russia's perimeters would convince Russia to back down (surely didn't want another war) must strengthen the non-communist world (economically and militarily) Where would we draw the line to stop the Communist menace? What "weapons" would we use to fight the "cold war"? diplomacy, scientific and economic competition espionage, propaganda, world opinion, threats, other)
NATIONAL SECURITY ACT - 7/47 Created the Department of Defense (Army, Air Force, Navy) + Joint Chiefs of Staff Created the CIA - intelligence Created the National Security Council a. Pres. b. Cabinet c. Joint Chiefs of Staff Purpose - to broaden the power of the US government to fight communism
Postwar Europe
Postwar Europe Here…
3) Europe: -Lay in ruins -Soviet controlled East Europe -Germany divided into East (Communist) and West (Democratic) Divided Berlin I. Post-WWII outcomes?
***CONTAINMENT- do not let Communism spread, resist it! (Truman Doctrine- help “free peoples” resist Communism) III. Cold War: Harry Truman --- Foreign Policy Harry Truman (1945-1953)
69 ENDURING UNDERSTANDING • The Cold War led to the creation of global alliances that continue to impact the world today.
70 • The United States was compelled to assist "free peoples" in their struggles against "totalitarian regimes" because the spread of authoritarianism would "undermine the foundations of international peace and hence the security of the United States." • The Truman Doctrine committed the United States to actively offering assistance to preserve the political integrity of democratic nations when such an offer was deemed to be in the best interest of the United States. Truman Doctrine 1947
71 Truman Doctrine: Legacy • In the words of the Truman Doctrine, it became "the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." The Truman Doctrine effectively reoriented U.S. foreign policy, away from withdrawal and isolation to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wmQD_W8Pcxg&feature=PlayList&p=2287E59C541E7692&index=5
What If Russia Got Control?
The Truman Doctrine - 3/12/47 first use of Containment "It must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Advisors told Truman "to scare hell" out of American people, and appeal to our morality US gave $400 million in aid to Greece and Turkey to prevent communist takeover Sec of State Dean Acheson warned that the fall of Greece and Turkey might open 3 continents to Soviet penetration! How could we respond without appearing overly aggressive; creating an isolationist backlash? Remember, the world is watching/evaluating the Cold War development! Truman was criticized for bypassing the UN (could have funneled money through it, perhaps) by 1950, US spent $659 million Soviets wanted control of the Dardanelles - they could have dominated
After WWII, Soviets putting pressure on Turkey for access to the Dardanelles (warm water port); US ambassador, Edwin Wilson warned that Turks could not withstand much pressure! We gave weapons and sent troops to practice war games US sent in the navy to threaten war - Dean Acheson (49% public supported) Simultaneously, civil war between Br-backed Greeks and Soviet- backed rebels in Greece (getting aid from Tito in Yugoslavia) (because it was a civil war, UN could not interfere) British told US that they could no longer afford to back the Greek government! Greeks could not afford to pay back a loan What would the US do? British pulled their troops out of Greece communist guerillas would have taken over without US action (56% public supported)
75 • Greek Government vs Greek Communists • Truman requested that Congress provide $400,000,000 worth of aid to both the Greek and Turks to stave off communism in the region • Truman argued that a Communist victory in the Greek Civil War would endanger the political stability of Turkey, which would undermine the political stability of the Middle East. • This could not be allowed in light of the Truman Doctrine: Background
76 Truman Doctrine•1947: British help Greek government fight communist guerrillas. –They appealed to America for aid, and the response was the Truman Doctrine. – America promised it would support free countries to help fight communism. – Greece received large amounts of arms and supplies and by 1949 had defeated the communists. •The Truman Doctrine was significant because it showed that America, the most powerful democratic country, was prepared to resist the spread of communism throughout the world.
Evaluate using the goals of US foreign policy as criteria - Was it the right decision? US bypassed UN and was accused of being imperialist Early version of the domino theory US gave $400 million in military assistance to Greece and Turkey - succeeded Strain on our resources and resolve Antagonized Soviets (further tension) It would become the "model" for much of the Cold War foreign policy...with worldwide implications Still, it was much cheaper than war! This gained public and Congressional support for Containment no turning back Hardened debate over German reunification and reparations Turned back threat to the Mediterranean - permanent naval presence
The Solution? •The Truman Doctrine—March ‘47 •Aid to countries wanting to resist Communism-pledged the U.S. would fight comm. worldwide •“It Will Be the Policy of the U.S. to Support Free People Who Are Resisting Attempted Subjugation by Outside Pressures” --Greece and Turkey
How to Reconstruct W. Europe? •The Marshall Plan—gave European nations American aid to rebuild their economies --Would Congress/the Public Support the Plan? •Economic Recovery Act Passed…
N A T O Communistic Warsaw Pact Communistic Warsaw Pact
Truman Doctrine [1947]Truman Doctrine [1947] 1.1. Civil War in Greece.Civil War in Greece. 2.2. Turkey under pressure from the USSR for concessionsTurkey under pressure from the USSR for concessions in the Dardanelles.in the Dardanelles. 3.3. The U. S. should support free peoples throughout theThe U. S. should support free peoples throughout the world who were resisting takeovers by armed minoritiesworld who were resisting takeovers by armed minorities or outside pressures…We must assist free peoples toor outside pressures…We must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.work out their own destinies in their own way. 4.4. The U.S. gave Greece & Turkey $400 million in aid.The U.S. gave Greece & Turkey $400 million in aid.
83 • “The U. S. should provide aid to all European nations that need it. This move is not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.” ~ George Marshall Marshall Plan 1948: Rebuild War-torn Europe
Marshall Plan [1948]Marshall Plan [1948] 1.1. ““European RecoveryEuropean Recovery Program.”Program.” 2.2. Secretary of State,Secretary of State, George MarshallGeorge Marshall 3.3. The U. S. should provide aid toThe U. S. should provide aid to allall European nations that need it.European nations that need it. This moveThis move is not against any countryis not against any country or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty,or doctrine, but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.desperation, and chaos. 1.1. $12.5 billion of US aid to Western Europe extended$12.5 billion of US aid to Western Europe extended to Eastern Europe & USSR, [but this was rejected].to Eastern Europe & USSR, [but this was rejected].
The Marshall Plan - 6/5/47 - Secretary of State – George Marshall US had offered relief to prevent starvation immediately after WWII US worked through World Bank ($2.5b in loans) wiped out wartime loans still not enough to recover Europe (harsh winters) stagnation and mass starvation was a possibility Worldwide Depression could return Spring 1947 - Churchill described Europe as a "rubble heap", a "breeding ground for pestilence and hate" such conditions fostered the growth of communism; US had to help, but how? Communists making big gains in Italy and France Kennan suggested a broad aid program, free of ideological overtones to be offered to any country in need to help it recover June 5, 1947 - Sec of State, George Marshall outlined the European Recovery Program (ERP) "Our policy is directed not against country or doctrine, but against hunger, desperation, and chaos“
92 Marshall Plan Aid to Europe 1948-1952
Told war-torn to submit a bill for its needs! 16 European nations formed the Committee of European Economic Cooperation submitted a plan calling for some $22b in US aid! US even offered aid to Soviets (refused) US offered economic aid to all of Europe to help them recover Knew the Communists would turn it down some satellites wanted to accept ordered not to - image Purpose - improve standard of living in Western Europe so that it would not become communist USSR would be much more dangerous with W. European technology $16-24 billion over 3 years (48-51) to 16 nations Congress was hesitant at first voted NO too expensive Set off a storm of debate at home; during the debate Soviets offered aid to its satellites, to be used against US imperialism
Marshall Plan- massive financial aid to rebuild Europe. George Marshall www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/georgecmarshall.h III. Cold War: Harry Truman --- Foreign Policy
April, 1947 – Soviets rid Hungary of anticommunists in its government Soviets rigged elections in Hungary 8/31/47 Czechoslovakia subverted - 2/48 Both US and USSR withdrew 1945 Elections in 1946 gave communists only 38% 2/25/48 President Edward Benes resigned Jan Masaryk was assassinated 2 weeks later all resistance to the communist coup ended! Convinced Congress to support Marshall Plan (up public support to 57%) April 3, 1948 Congress passed the Economic Cooperation Act (Marshall Plan); appropriated $13 billion By 1951, West Europe was booming! Trade between US and Europe increased some 25% The threat of communist coups in Western Europe was ended! Precedent? It increased tensions between US and USSR!
96 • A great humanitarian effort. • Secretary of State Marshall became the only military general ever to receive a Nobel Prize for peace. • The Marshall Plan also institutionalized and legitimized the concept of U.S. foreign aid programs, which have become a integral part of U.S. foreign policy. Marshall Plan: Legacy
97 Marshall Plan • In 1947, US Secretary of State Marshall announced the Marshall Plan. –This was a massive economic aid plan for Europe to help it recover from the damage caused by the war. •There were two motives for this: – Helping Europe to recover economically would provide markets for American goods, so benefiting American industry. – A prosperous Europe would be better able to resist the spread of communism. This was probably the main motive. A poster promoting the Marshall Plan Secretary of State George Marshall.
* The U.S. gave over $12 billion in aid to European countries between 1948 and 1952, helping to improve their economies and lessen the chance of communist revolutions.
THE COLD WAR 0 500,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,500,000,000 2,000,000,000 2,500,000,000 3,000,000,000 England 2,826,000,000 France 2,445,000,000 Italy 1,316,000,000 West Germany 1,297,000,000 Netherlands 877,000,000 Austria 561,000,000 Belgium 547,000,000 THE MARSHALL PLAN
Before After Another Cornerstone?