2.1i earth's interior and plate tectonics review and enrichment lesson
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This document provides information on plate tectonics including different types of plate boundaries and movements. It includes 3 video clips on plate tectonics, convergent boundaries, and transform boundaries. The text then defines key terms like lithosphere, asthenosphere, and magma and describes the three main types of plate boundaries: divergent where plates move apart, convergent where they move together, and transform where they scrape past one another.
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Primary structures geology
This document defines and describes various primary structures found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Primary structures form during or shortly after the formation of a rock and include features like bedding, cross-bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, and unconformities in sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, primary structures include intrusive features like dykes, sills, batholiths, and extrusive features like pillow lava, ropy lava, and pyroclastic flows. Secondary structures form after the rocks solidify due to tectonic forces and include folds, faults, joints, and lineations.
Geology lecture 12
Mountain building, or orogenesis, involves the deformation, uplift, and erosion of mountain belts. It results from tectonic plate interactions that cause crustal thickening, folding, faulting, and metamorphism. Key aspects of mountain building discussed in the document include the results of deformation like translation, rotation, and strain; different types of geologic structures such as faults, folds, and foliation that form during deformation; and the processes of orogenesis such as uplift, erosion, and isostatic rebound that shape mountain belts over time. The document uses the Appalachian Mountains as a case study of an ancient orogenic belt formed through multiple tectonic events over one billion years.
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
Top and bottom criteria
This document discusses various criteria that can be used to determine the top and bottom of sedimentary beds and identify the relative age of rock layers. Some key criteria mentioned include unconformities, fossils, ripple marks, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and the position of cleavage in folded rocks. Law of superposition, which states that older beds are deposited first and therefore located lower in the stratigraphic column, is also discussed. Together, these criteria can be used to deduce the order of deposition and effects of tilting, folding, or other deformation on sedimentary beds.
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Intrusive igneous rocks
This document describes different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their shape and relationship to existing bedrock structures. It defines dykes as vertically intruded bodies that cut across bedding planes in a discordant manner. Sills are described as intrusions that spread parallel to bedding plans in a concordant way. Laccoliths and lopoliths are both concordant bodies of differing dome or basin shapes that intrude between layers of existing rock.
Description and classification of folds
This document provides an overview of structural geology and folds. It defines structural geology as the study of geological structures like folds, faults, unconformities and joints. Folds occur when rock layers bend due to compressive forces, and come in different forms like anticlines and synclines. The key parts of a fold are identified as the crest, trough, limbs, hinge and axial plane. Folds can be classified based on their symmetry, plunge, bed thickness changes and other characteristics. Examples of different fold types include symmetrical, asymmetrical, isoclinal, overturned and plunging folds. Considerations for engineering projects involving folded rock formations are also outlined.
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This presentation summarizes igneous rock structures formed from the cooling and solidification of magma. It describes both intrusive and extrusive igneous rock structures. Intrusive structures include concordant structures like laccoliths, lopoliths, sills, and discordant structures like batholiths, stocks, dikes, and volcanic necks. Extrusive structures include primary structures like pillow structures, lava flow structures, vesicular structures, and columnar structures. The presentation provides examples and diagrams to illustrate different igneous rock formations and the geological processes that create their characteristic shapes and features.
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Primary structures geology
This document defines and describes various primary structures found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Primary structures form during or shortly after the formation of a rock and include features like bedding, cross-bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, and unconformities in sedimentary rocks. In igneous rocks, primary structures include intrusive features like dykes, sills, batholiths, and extrusive features like pillow lava, ropy lava, and pyroclastic flows. Secondary structures form after the rocks solidify due to tectonic forces and include folds, faults, joints, and lineations.
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Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
Top and bottom criteria
This document discusses various criteria that can be used to determine the top and bottom of sedimentary beds and identify the relative age of rock layers. Some key criteria mentioned include unconformities, fossils, ripple marks, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and the position of cleavage in folded rocks. Law of superposition, which states that older beds are deposited first and therefore located lower in the stratigraphic column, is also discussed. Together, these criteria can be used to deduce the order of deposition and effects of tilting, folding, or other deformation on sedimentary beds.
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The document discusses deformation of the Earth's crust through isostatic adjustment and stresses. Isostatic adjustment occurs when crust thickens or thins due to changes in weight, causing the crust to rise or sink into the mantle like a cargo ship. There are three main stresses on the crust - compression at convergent boundaries, tension at divergent boundaries, and shearing at transform faults. The crust is constantly seeking isostatic balance under these stresses.
Intrusive igneous rocks
This document describes different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their shape and relationship to existing bedrock structures. It defines dykes as vertically intruded bodies that cut across bedding planes in a discordant manner. Sills are described as intrusions that spread parallel to bedding plans in a concordant way. Laccoliths and lopoliths are both concordant bodies of differing dome or basin shapes that intrude between layers of existing rock.
Description and classification of folds
This document provides an overview of structural geology and folds. It defines structural geology as the study of geological structures like folds, faults, unconformities and joints. Folds occur when rock layers bend due to compressive forces, and come in different forms like anticlines and synclines. The key parts of a fold are identified as the crest, trough, limbs, hinge and axial plane. Folds can be classified based on their symmetry, plunge, bed thickness changes and other characteristics. Examples of different fold types include symmetrical, asymmetrical, isoclinal, overturned and plunging folds. Considerations for engineering projects involving folded rock formations are also outlined.
Igneous structure and genesis (structural geology)
This presentation summarizes igneous rock structures formed from the cooling and solidification of magma. It describes both intrusive and extrusive igneous rock structures. Intrusive structures include concordant structures like laccoliths, lopoliths, sills, and discordant structures like batholiths, stocks, dikes, and volcanic necks. Extrusive structures include primary structures like pillow structures, lava flow structures, vesicular structures, and columnar structures. The presentation provides examples and diagrams to illustrate different igneous rock formations and the geological processes that create their characteristic shapes and features.
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This document discusses different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their form and texture. It describes various forms such as dykes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths etc. based on their geometry and relationship to surrounding rocks. It also explains textures of igneous rocks based on grain size, crystallinity and crystal shape. Phaneric and aphanitic textures related to slow and fast cooling of magma respectively are discussed along with porphyritic texture showing mixture of large and small grains.
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sedimentary structures ,sedimentary rocks ,weathering and erosion ,sediment transport mechanism ,hjulstrom curve ,types of flow of sediments ,reynold number ,froude number ,laminations ,bedding plane ,cross bedding ,herringbone structure ,ripple marks ,graded bedding ,sole marks ,mud cracks ,ball and pillow structures ,stylolites ,concretion ,nodules
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Sedimentary structures provide important information about the depositional environment and post-depositional changes to sedimentary rocks. Key structures discussed include beds and bedding planes, laminations, graded bedding indicating changes in grain size over time, cross-bedding reflecting currents, load casts and flame structures from density differences, sole structures on bed bases indicating erosion, and trace fossils providing evidence of organism behavior and helping determine correct bed orientations. Together, an understanding of these sedimentary structures allows reconstruction of the depositional environment and testing of the law of superposition.
Primary sedimentary structures
Primary sedimentary structures are features formed during deposition of sedimentary rocks that provide information about the depositional environment. Some key primary sedimentary structures mentioned in the document include stratification, cross-bedding, ripples, graded bedding, sole marks, fossils, rip-up clasts, rainprints, desiccation cracks, imbrication, flute casts, soft-sediment deformation structures like slump folds, flame structures and clastic dikes. These structures can be used to determine paleocurrent direction, relative age, top vs bottom of strata, and the environmental conditions during deposition.
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This document discusses key features found in marine sedimentary rocks and structures. It describes 10 primary features including ripple marks, cross bedding, mud cracks, graded bedding, worm tracks, leaf prints, rip ups, rain prints, volcanic clasts, and sole marks. Each feature is defined and examples are provided. The document also discusses the importance of field studies for examining geological features and interpreting the depositional environment.
Interior of the earth
The document summarizes the internal structure of the Earth based on seismic wave studies. It describes the three main layers as the crust, mantle, and core. The crust is the outermost solid rocky layer, varying in thickness between continents and oceans. Below is the mantle, making up most of the Earth's volume, with the upper asthenosphere partially molten. The innermost layer is the core, divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core composed primarily of iron and nickel. Seismic waves have revealed details of each layer and helped determine the Earth has a liquid outer core, differing from the Moon's internal structure.
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This presentation provides an overview of traps and their classification. It defines key terms like reservoir rock, seal rock, and trap. Traps are classified into three main categories: structural traps caused by folding or faulting, stratigraphic traps caused by depositional or diagenetic features, and combination traps. Examples of each trap type are described, along with their percentages in hydrocarbon fields. Traps in Pakistan are discussed, including the major Indus and Baluchistan basins and fields found there like in the Thar Platform.
Cleavage
This document discusses various types of planar and linear structures in deformed rocks, including cleavage, foliation, folds, and lineations. It defines cleavage as a tendency to split along planes other than bedding, often linked to folding and metamorphism. Foliation refers to the spatial and geometric relationships that make up metamorphic rocks, including the orientation of minerals. Different types of cleavage like slaty, crenulation, and spaced cleavage are described. The relationship between cleavage, bedding, and folds is also explained.
Metamorphic rocks
The document discusses different types of metamorphism including contact metamorphism, regional metamorphism, and cataclastic metamorphism. It also describes the agents of metamorphism including temperature, pressure, and water. Temperature can come from magma or increasing depth, while pressure includes lithostatic pressure from overburden and stress from tectonic forces. Metamorphism results in changes to mineral composition and texture of rocks.
Forms of igneous rocks
This document discusses different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their form and texture. It describes various forms such as dykes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths etc. based on their geometry and relationship to surrounding rocks. It also explains textures of igneous rocks based on grain size, crystallinity and crystal shape. Phaneric and aphanitic textures related to slow and fast cooling of magma respectively are discussed along with porphyritic texture showing mixture of large and small grains.
Process of Transport and Generation of Sedimentary Structures
sedimentary structures ,sedimentary rocks ,weathering and erosion ,sediment transport mechanism ,hjulstrom curve ,types of flow of sediments ,reynold number ,froude number ,laminations ,bedding plane ,cross bedding ,herringbone structure ,ripple marks ,graded bedding ,sole marks ,mud cracks ,ball and pillow structures ,stylolites ,concretion ,nodules
Shear zones.
Shear zones are zones of highly strained rock that form under brittle, ductile, or intermediate conditions. They record a history of deformation and can indicate the sense and amount of displacement. There are several types of shear zones defined by the dominant deformation mechanism (brittle, ductile, semibrittle, brittle-ductile). Determining the sense of shear is important and can be achieved through studying offset markers, foliation patterns, shear bands, inclusion shapes, and other indicators exposed in the shear zone.
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Introduction to Sedimentary Structures - Part 1
Sedimentary bedding and structures provide information about depositional environments. Beds form layers and their thickness indicates the depositional process. Beds are often nested within each other. Bedding patterns include massive, tabular, wedge-shaped and lenticular beds. Bedforms like ripples, dunes and cross-bedding are produced by fluid flows and indicate flow conditions. Other structures provide evidence of channels, erosion and soft-sediment deformation. Together, these features preserve a record of Earth's surface history.
Foliation
This document defines and classifies different types of foliation in metamorphic rocks. It begins by defining foliation as a planar or curvi-planar fabric formed in metamorphic rocks. Foliations are classified genetically as primary, secondary, or inherited, and morphologically as spaced, continuous, or disjunctive. Key types of secondary foliation include cleavage, schistosity, slip cleavage, and shear cleavage. Foliations provide important information about the tectonic and metamorphic evolution of an area and help determine the geometry of folding. Different foliation types reflect variations in lithology and temperature during metamorphism and deformation.
Lineation and their types
This document defines and describes different types of lineations found in deformed rocks, which are linear structures that occur repetitively. It discusses three main types of lineations: form lineations related to geological structures like folds, boudins, and slickenlines; surface lineations defined by intersections or slip; and mineral lineations caused by the preferred orientation of mineral grains or aggregates. Specific examples of each lineation type are provided, and the usefulness of lineations in structural analysis to determine strain and slip directions is explained.
Lineation and foliation
Lineation refers to any linear structure that occurs repetitively in rock, such as elongated pebbles or the intersection of two foliations. Lineations can indicate the direction of tectonic transport, though opinions differ on whether they are parallel or perpendicular to transport. Foliation refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks caused by shearing forces or pressure differences. Types of foliation include fracture cleavage, crenulation cleavage, slaty cleavage, and schistosity. Lineations and foliations provide important clues about a rock's deformation history.
Turbidity
Turbidites are deposits formed by turbidity currents, which are dense underwater avalanches of sediment. Turbidity currents are initiated by events like earthquakes, flooding rivers, or sediment failures and can transport vast amounts of sediment over long distances on the seafloor. Turbidite deposits are characterized by alternating sandstone and shale layers with sharp, flat bases and grading from coarser to finer sediment upwards. They provide clues about the tectonic setting where they were deposited and can act as hosts for resources like gold or reservoirs for petroleum.
Joints, parts, varieties and clssification
Joints are fractures in rocks where the rock has broken, creating two free surfaces. Joints form due to contraction from cooling, consolidation, or tectonic stresses. Joints are classified based on their formation process or geometry. Tectonic joints form from differential stress and may indicate past stress orientations. Unloading joints form from uplift and erosion reducing compressive loads. Cooling joints commonly form vertically in cooling lava.
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Process of Transport and Generation of Sedimentary Structures
Process of Transport and Generation of Sedimentary Structures
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2.3 theory of plate tectonics
The Theory of Plate Tectonics states that the Earth's outer shell is broken into rigid plates that float on the asthenosphere and interact at their boundaries. The lithosphere consists of oceanic and continental crust plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. Plates interact at divergent boundaries where new crust is created, convergent boundaries where one plate subducts under another, and transform boundaries where plates slide past each other like the San Andreas Fault.
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This document provides information about natural hazards caused by tectonic plate movement. It discusses different types of plate boundaries like divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Key landforms associated with these boundaries are described, such as fold mountains, rift valleys, block mountains, and volcanoes. Specific examples like the Himalayas and Mount Pinatubo are given. The document also explains concepts of tectonic plates, continental drift theory, and the different types of volcanoes.
2.3 theory of plate tectonics
The document summarizes the theory of plate tectonics. It explains that the Earth's crust is broken into plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. There are three types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart and new crust is formed, convergent where plates collide and one slides under the other, and transform where plates slide past each other. The constant movement of plates is what creates geological features like mountains and ocean trenches.
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plate tect. AM.pptx
The document discusses the concepts of plate tectonics including types of plate boundaries and associated geological features. It describes that the Earth's crust is composed of rigid plates that move over the asthenosphere due to convection currents, and this movement determines the type of plate boundary. The three main types are convergent where plates move toward each other, divergent where they move apart, and transform where they slide past each other. Each boundary is associated with different geological activity such as mountain building, volcanism, and earthquakes.
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There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent boundaries where plates pull apart and new crust is formed, convergent boundaries where plates push together resulting in subduction and volcanic activity, and transform boundaries where plates slide past one another along transform faults. Each boundary has distinct features like mid-ocean ridges, deep trenches, and fracture zones. Plate tectonics can be seen in examples around the world from the Himalayas to the Aleutian Islands.
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This document discusses tectonic plates and hazards. It begins by defining a natural hazard and describing the internal structure of the Earth. Tectonic plates consist of oceanic and continental crust and move due to convection currents in the mantle. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. Divergent boundaries form mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys, convergent boundaries result in ocean trenches, volcanic islands, and mountain ranges, and transform boundaries cause earthquakes along strike-slip faults. Specific examples of each boundary type are highlighted, such as sea-floor spreading at oceanic divergent boundaries and the Himalayas forming from the Indian and Eurasian plate collision.
Sec 3 Elective Geog Unit 1 Tectonics
The document provides information about natural hazards associated with tectonic plate movement, including earthquakes and volcanoes. It discusses the different types of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform) and the landforms created by each, such as rift valleys, fold mountains, and volcanoes. Convergent boundaries are described in more detail, outlining the processes and features of oceanic-oceanic, oceanic-continental, and continental-continental convergence. Hazards of living in areas with active tectonics are also summarized, such as destruction from volcanic eruptions, tsunamis triggered by earthquakes, and landslides.
Plate Tectonics
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Geography Elective/Pure Chapter 1/2: Plate tectonic Gateway 1, 2, 3
This is the notes and slides provided and compiled by teachers from reputable schools. Took me many months to compile this and share with you guys! By the way, the slides with a star usually mean that it will be significant so take note! Sharing with you now is this notes!!! Enjoy and love geography!!!
Elective Gegography Chapter 1 Plate Tectonics
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Structural geology is the study of rock deformation and geological structures at various scales, from microscopic to regional. Tectonics studies the evolution of structures on a regional scale. A structural geologist describes and analyzes structures to understand deformation history. Structures are classified based on geometry, origin, timing, deformation mechanism, and other criteria. Primary structures form during or shortly after rock formation through depositional, igneous, or gravity-driven processes, while tectonic structures form through plate interactions or crustal deformation. Unconformities provide evidence of gaps in the geological record.
Earth history
This document provides an overview of Earth's history and geology. It explains that Earth is geologically active with huge amounts of energy acting on its surface and interior. Observable evidence today can provide information about past processes and events. It then describes various aspects of Earth's structure like the crust, mantle, core and tectonic plates. It discusses geological processes like erosion, sedimentation, and the rock cycle. It also outlines plate tectonics and features at plate boundaries like divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Key terms are defined like seismic, fossil, and stratigraphy. The conclusion notes that rather than being serene, Earth is a dynamic world that is constantly changing.
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3.1 crust deformation
This document discusses how the earth's crust is deformed through processes like plate tectonics and isostatic adjustment. Isostatic adjustment occurs when parts of the crust change in weight, causing the crust to rise or sink to reach equilibrium. Stress on the crust is caused by plate movement at boundaries where they collide, separate, or rub past each other. The three main types of stress are compression, tension, and shearing.
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This document discusses elements of seismology and earthquake engineering. It covers topics such as causes of earthquakes including plate tectonic theory, elastic rebound theory, types of seismic waves, measurement of earthquakes through seismographs, magnitude and intensity scales, and characteristics of strong ground motion. Key concepts are the different types of plate boundaries that can cause earthquakes, as well as the different types of seismic waves like P, S, love, and rayleigh waves that radiate from earthquake sources.
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This is the summary on gateway 1 on plate tectonic. It discusses about the following:
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The document discusses the internal structure and composition of the Earth. It describes how temperature, pressure, and density increase towards the core. The Earth has a solid inner core made of iron and nickel, a liquid outer core also made of iron and nickel, a thick mantle made of silicate rocks, and a thin crust on top. Seismic data is used to determine this internal structure.
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2.3d chapter review
The document is a review for Chapter 17 which covers topics about the structure of the Earth, plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, rocks and minerals. It contains 47 multiple choice questions testing knowledge about these topics, including the layers of Earth's structure, plate boundary types, seismic wave properties, rock and mineral identification and formation processes.
2.3c weathering and erosion
The document discusses weathering and erosion, describing two types of weathering (physical and chemical) that break down rocks, as well as various agents of erosion like water, wind, waves, and glaciers that transport eroded materials. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition through processes like frost wedging and plant wedging, while chemical weathering alters the chemical makeup of rocks through oxidation and reactions with carbon dioxide and acid rain.
2.3c weathering and erosion
The document discusses the processes of weathering and erosion, explaining that weathering breaks down rocks through physical or chemical means, while erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered materials by agents such as water, wind, waves, ice, and gravity. It describes two types of weathering - physical/mechanical weathering which breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing composition, and chemical weathering which alters the chemical makeup of rocks.
2.2c convection currents drive the tectonics movement that drives vocanic ac...
Convection occurs when hotter molecules within fluids rise and cooler molecules sink, transferring heat. This convection process occurs within the Earth's mantle, with hotter rock rising and cooler rock sinking, driving the movement of tectonic plates at Earth's surface. The movement of tectonic plates is related to volcanic activity, as plates pull apart or come together at plate boundaries like mid-ocean ridges or subduction zones.
2.2b earthquakes and volcanoes
The document defines key vocabulary related to earthquakes, including focus, epicenter, seismic waves (P waves, S waves, surface waves), and discusses what causes earthquakes. It then explains how energy from earthquakes is transferred by P waves and S waves. P waves are longitudinal waves that travel faster and arrive first, compressing and stretching the Earth's crust. S waves are transverse waves that move more slowly and cause side-to-side shaking motions. Finally, it briefly describes the three main types of volcanoes: shield volcanoes which erupt frequently with gentle slopes, composite volcanoes with steeper sides made of layers of ash and lava, and cinder cones which are small and explosive.
2.2a earthquakes and volcanoes introduction
The document discusses Earth's interior and plate tectonics, explaining that Earth's interior is composed of layers and plates that move and interact, causing earthquakes and volcanic activity at plate boundaries. Evidence for plate tectonics includes earthquake and volcanic activity at places like convergent and divergent plate boundaries. The movement of tectonic plates is responsible for creating different landforms over long periods of time through processes like mountain building, volcanism, and earthquakes.
2.3b kinds of rocks and weathering
The document discusses Earth's interior and plate tectonics. It describes plate tectonics theory, including evidence like earthquake and volcanic activity. It also discusses different types of rock formations like igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that are formed by volcanic eruptions and weathering of existing rocks at the surface. The key forces that shape the Earth's surface are convection currents in the mantle that cause the movement of tectonic plates.
2.3a minerals and rocks
There are two main ways loose sediment becomes a sedimentary rock:
1. Cementation - Loose sediment particles are cemented together by minerals deposited from water. The cement binds the particles into a solid rock.
2. Compaction and lithification - Under great pressure from overlying layers of sediment, loose particles are compressed into a solid mass. Their original structures may still be visible in the solidified rock. Over geologic time and increased pressure and cementation, the sediment lithifies and hardens into sedimentary rock.
2.1e asthenosphere and plate tectonics final printing of research
The document provides instructions for a PowerPoint presentation on asthenosphere and plate tectonics, asking the presenter to show their presentation, revise it if needed, print it, lay the slides out on poster paper, and hang the finished posters on the wall.
2.1d asthenosphere and plate tectonics research
The asthenosphere is the weak, hot, ductile layer of the upper mantle that lies below the lithosphere. Convection currents in the asthenosphere are driven by heat from the Earth's core and mantle, which causes the asthenosphere to slowly flow outward. Plate tectonics refers to the movement and interactions of the Earth's tectonic plates, which are driven by convection currents in the asthenosphere. Continental plates are less dense pieces of the Earth's crust that sit atop the asthenosphere and move slowly over time as the asthenosphere flows.
2.1c layers of the earth
The Earth is composed of four main layers from outermost to innermost:
1) The crust, which is the top solid rocky layer ranging from 5-70km thick.
2) The mantle, which makes up over 80% of the Earth's volume and is divided into the upper, middle, and lower mantle.
3) The outer core, which is liquid due to extreme heat and composed of nickel and iron.
4) The inner core, the hottest layer that is solid due to immense pressure from the layers above.
2.1b earth's interior and plate tectonics
The document summarizes the structure of the Earth and plate tectonics. It describes how the Earth initially formed as a molten ball that separated into layers over time, with denser materials like iron and nickel sinking to form the core. Less dense materials rose to form the crust. The crust and rigid upper mantle make up the lithosphere plates, which move atop the slowly flowing asthenosphere. Heat causes the asthenosphere to expand and push plates, resulting in their movement at boundaries in divergent or convergent patterns.
2.1a earth's interior
The document outlines rules of behavior for students from a student handbook, stating that inappropriate language, name-calling, or harassment will not be tolerated. It also prohibits the use of electronic devices like cell phones and music players during classroom hours from 8:00 am to 3:10 pm, and that disrespect towards teachers or staff, such as not following instructions or showing a defiant attitude, will not be tolerated. Failure to follow these rules will result in confiscation of electronic devices and require a parent to pick up the device from the administrator.
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This document defines key terms related to stars and their life cycles. It describes the evolution of massive stars from red giants to supergiants and their explosive deaths as supernovae, leaving behind neutron stars or black holes. Lower mass stars end as white dwarfs. The document also defines terms like photosphere, chromosphere, sunspots, and features of the Sun like coronal streamers, holes, and filaments.
1.2c nuclear fusion in stars
1) Nuclear fusion occurs inside the core of stars where extreme pressure and heat cause hydrogen atoms to fuse together, forming helium and releasing energy.
2) The temperature in a star's core is over 15 million kelvins and the density is over 150 times greater than water, creating the conditions for nuclear fusion.
3) During nuclear fusion, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms combine to form helium, releasing a large amount of energy in the process. This energy flows outward from the core, balancing the inward force of gravity in the star.
1.2b light from stars
1. The document discusses how the brightness of stars is affected by their temperature, size, and distance from Earth. Hotter, larger, and closer stars appear brighter, while cooler, smaller, and more distant stars appear dimmer.
2. The color of a star is related to its temperature - hotter stars emit more short-wavelength blue and ultraviolet light, while cooler stars emit more long-wavelength red and infrared light.
3. By analyzing the spectral lines of starlight, astronomers can determine the chemical composition of stars and what elements are present. Different elements produce distinctive patterns of lines in the star's spectrum.
1.2a what are stars
Ancient Greeks thought stars were fixed to a celestial sphere and did not realize they were other suns. This view was incorrect because stars are actually enormous balls of hot, glowing gases that are extremely far away from Earth. A constellation is a recognizable pattern of stars in the night sky that forms an imaginary outline or picture and has been given a name, such as Orion or Ursa Major.
1.2a what are stars
Ancient Greeks thought stars were fixed to a celestial sphere and did not realize they were other suns. This view was incorrect because stars are actually enormous balls of hot, glowing gases that are extremely far away from Earth. A constellation is a recognizable pattern of stars in the night sky that forms an imaginary outline or picture and has been given a name, such as Orion or Ursa Major.
1.1f the origin and fate of the universe
The document discusses the origin and fate of the universe. It provides a timeline of cosmic events from the formation of hydrogen and helium nuclei shortly after the Big Bang to the formation of our solar system around 4.6 billion years ago. It also explains that the ultimate fate of the universe, whether it expands forever or contracts back into a "big crunch", depends on the total mass of the universe and its interaction with gravitational forces.
1.1e the origin of the universe - further investigation of the big bang theory
The document provides instructions for a classroom activity on the Big Bang Theory. Students are asked to complete a Frayer Model in their notebook about the Big Bang Theory, showing at least 4 ideas about it. They are also asked to give 4 things that were happening after the Big Bang, provide 4 proofs that the Big Bang really happened, and tell 3 new things they learned from the activity. The teacher emphasizes no excuses, just results, and reminds students to show up, engage, and produce meaningful work.
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2.1i earth's interior and plate tectonics review and enrichment lesson
- 1. Review - Video Clips • Plate Tectonics http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ryrX AGY1dmE&feature=related • Convergent Boundary http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6OH Rb_ODo-Q&NR=1 • Transform Boundary http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oLe KTvSIzQ&feature=related
- 2. Plate Tectonics • Lithosphere – the thin outer shell of Earth, consistin g of the crust and the rigid upper mantle.
- 3. Plate Tectonics • Athenosphere – The zone of the mantle beneath the lithosphere – consists of slowly flowing solid rock.
- 4. Plate Tectonics • Magma – molten rock within the earth. • Heats up materials causing it to expand
- 5. Plate Tectonics • Expanding region of athenosphere pushes lithosphere upwards. • This causes the lithosphere to crack and push plates apart
- 6. Kinds of Plate Boundaries 2 3 1 4 6 5 • Convergent Boundary
- 7. Kinds of Plate Boundaries 1 2 3 6 4 5 • Divergent Boundaries
- 8. Kinds of Plate Boundaries 1 2 Fault 3 • Transform Boundary
- 9. Divergent Boundaries • Divergent • Divergent Movement boundary – two plates moving apart creating a gap between.
- 10. Divergent Boundaries • Mid Oceanic Ridges – Mountain ranges that form at divergent boundaries
- 11. Divergent Boundaries • New Lithosphere is being created at mid-oceanic ridges.
- 12. Convergent Boundaries • Convergent boundary – two plates moving towards each other. • Convergent
- 13. Convergent Boundaries • Oceanic plate are thinner than Continental plate. • When they converge, one of them dives down • Convergent
- 14. Convergent Boundaries • Subduction – The process in which a tectonic plate dives beneath another tectonic plate and into the asthenosphere.
- 15. Convergent Boundaries • Oceanic crust melts when it subducts.
- 16. Convergent Boundaries • Old lithosphere is destroyed at convergent boundaries.
- 17. Transform Boundaries • Breaks in the lithosphere caused by plate movement. • Transform movement is characterized by plates scrapping past one another.
- 18. Transform Boundaries • Breaks in the lithosphere are caused by plate movement. • Transform movement is characterized by plates scrapping past one another.
- 19. Transform Boundaries • The cracks in the Earth where the rocks move past one another are called faults. • The great forces involved in plate movement tear at the Earth and cause earthquakes.
- 20. Kinds of Plates • Divergent • Convergent • Transform