1. Modernization theory proposed that societies progress through evolutionary stages from traditional to modern.
2. Theorists like Rostow described these stages as traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.
3. Modernization theory has been criticized for being overly simplistic, ethnocentric, and promoting Western capitalist values over traditional ones.
Definition of development & Underdevelopment
Theories of Development
a) Modernization theory
b) Dependency theory
c) Participation theory
d) Marxist thought of Development
Conclusion
References
The document summarizes World Systems Theory, which views international migration as a result of disruptions caused by the expansion of global capitalism. According to the theory, as capitalist firms penetrate peripheral regions seeking land, resources and labor, they undermine traditional social structures and create rootless populations prone to migration. International migration patterns are explained not by wage differences but by historical world-system dynamics like colonialism that create social and economic ties between countries. The theory divides the global economy into core, semi-peripheral and peripheral states and views migration as a natural outcome of the unequal development perpetuated by the capitalist world-system.
Globalization has both benefits and problems according to the document. It benefits developed countries, foreign investors, and the richest people through opportunities for trade, investment, and business. However, it also causes problems like environmental degradation, terrorism, disease spread, cultural deterioration, climate change, unemployment, and overexploitation of natural resources. While globalization allows more participation in the global economy, its impacts are uneven and it remains a complex topic with reasonable debates on both sides of the issues.
This document discusses Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory of development and underdevelopment, which argues that underdevelopment is caused by economic dependency on developed nations rather than internal deficiencies. It asserts that the world economy is organized to transfer economic surplus from poorer satellite nations in the periphery to richer metropolis nations at the core. While residents of developed nations benefit from higher standards of living as a result, the greatest gains go to capitalists in metropolitan countries and elites in satellite nations.
There are several theories that attempt to explain disparities in development levels between countries:
1) Resource endowment theory suggests that countries with more natural and human resources will develop more, while environmental determinism links human activity to the environment.
2) Rostow's model and Clarke's sector model propose that countries progress through linear stages of development, but some fail to advance.
3) Dependency theory argues that 500 years of colonial exploitation created ongoing domination of poor countries by rich ones through mechanisms like debt.
4) World systems analysis and cumulative causation view development as spreading in a core-periphery pattern within the global economy, with the core benefiting at the expense of the periphery.
The document discusses several theories and models of development:
1) Rostow's classical model of development proposes that countries progress through 5 stages from traditional to modern societies as a result of investment and economic diversification.
2) Dependency theory argues that development results from international trade relationships, with powerful dominant states developing at the expense of dependent states.
3) World-system theory also sees unequal trade as the cause of underdevelopment, with a hierarchy of core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral states in the global capitalist system.
4) The neoliberal model suggests underdevelopment stems from restrictive policies and that free markets and structural adjustment programs can help countries develop through market reforms and deregulation.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in economics. He developed the theory of cumulative causation to explain economic development and disparities between regions. The theory posits that spread effects from developed core regions to poorer periphery regions are typically weaker than the backwash effects, which drain resources from the periphery. This leads to divergence and perpetuation of underdevelopment over time through a circular process where poverty begets more poverty. Myrdal argued for government intervention and policies to promote balanced regional development through spread effects in order to break this cycle.
1. Modernization theory proposed that societies progress through evolutionary stages from traditional to modern.
2. Theorists like Rostow described these stages as traditional society, preconditions for takeoff, takeoff, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.
3. Modernization theory has been criticized for being overly simplistic, ethnocentric, and promoting Western capitalist values over traditional ones.
Definition of development & Underdevelopment
Theories of Development
a) Modernization theory
b) Dependency theory
c) Participation theory
d) Marxist thought of Development
Conclusion
References
The document summarizes World Systems Theory, which views international migration as a result of disruptions caused by the expansion of global capitalism. According to the theory, as capitalist firms penetrate peripheral regions seeking land, resources and labor, they undermine traditional social structures and create rootless populations prone to migration. International migration patterns are explained not by wage differences but by historical world-system dynamics like colonialism that create social and economic ties between countries. The theory divides the global economy into core, semi-peripheral and peripheral states and views migration as a natural outcome of the unequal development perpetuated by the capitalist world-system.
Globalization has both benefits and problems according to the document. It benefits developed countries, foreign investors, and the richest people through opportunities for trade, investment, and business. However, it also causes problems like environmental degradation, terrorism, disease spread, cultural deterioration, climate change, unemployment, and overexploitation of natural resources. While globalization allows more participation in the global economy, its impacts are uneven and it remains a complex topic with reasonable debates on both sides of the issues.
This document discusses Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory of development and underdevelopment, which argues that underdevelopment is caused by economic dependency on developed nations rather than internal deficiencies. It asserts that the world economy is organized to transfer economic surplus from poorer satellite nations in the periphery to richer metropolis nations at the core. While residents of developed nations benefit from higher standards of living as a result, the greatest gains go to capitalists in metropolitan countries and elites in satellite nations.
There are several theories that attempt to explain disparities in development levels between countries:
1) Resource endowment theory suggests that countries with more natural and human resources will develop more, while environmental determinism links human activity to the environment.
2) Rostow's model and Clarke's sector model propose that countries progress through linear stages of development, but some fail to advance.
3) Dependency theory argues that 500 years of colonial exploitation created ongoing domination of poor countries by rich ones through mechanisms like debt.
4) World systems analysis and cumulative causation view development as spreading in a core-periphery pattern within the global economy, with the core benefiting at the expense of the periphery.
The document discusses several theories and models of development:
1) Rostow's classical model of development proposes that countries progress through 5 stages from traditional to modern societies as a result of investment and economic diversification.
2) Dependency theory argues that development results from international trade relationships, with powerful dominant states developing at the expense of dependent states.
3) World-system theory also sees unequal trade as the cause of underdevelopment, with a hierarchy of core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral states in the global capitalist system.
4) The neoliberal model suggests underdevelopment stems from restrictive policies and that free markets and structural adjustment programs can help countries develop through market reforms and deregulation.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in economics. He developed the theory of cumulative causation to explain economic development and disparities between regions. The theory posits that spread effects from developed core regions to poorer periphery regions are typically weaker than the backwash effects, which drain resources from the periphery. This leads to divergence and perpetuation of underdevelopment over time through a circular process where poverty begets more poverty. Myrdal argued for government intervention and policies to promote balanced regional development through spread effects in order to break this cycle.
This document summarizes Gunnar Myrdal's cumulative causation theory. It explains that Myrdal coined the term and used it to analyze race relations in the US. The theory rejects the idea of automatic socio-economic stabilization and instead proposes that changes beget further changes that reinforce the initial change. It was influential in theories of convergence and divergence of economic development between regions.
This document provides an overview and introduction to Dependency Theory. It discusses:
- The origins of Dependency Theory under Raul Prebisch in response to unequal economic growth between rich and poor countries.
- Core propositions of Dependency Theory including that underdevelopment results from external influences that favor rich countries over poor ones in a dependent relationship.
- Debates around whether dependency results more from capitalism or disparities in power between countries.
- The policy implications of Dependency Theory, which rejects growth models based on rich countries and favors self-reliance over greater integration into the global economy by poor states.
The document discusses four classic theories of economic development:
1) The linear-stages-of-growth model viewed development as a series of successive stages all countries must pass through, with the key being increasing investment and growth.
2) Structural-change theories focused on the internal process of changing economic structures as countries industrialize.
3) Dependence theories emphasized external and internal constraints like exploitation and unequal power relationships that hindered development.
4) Neoclassical theories emphasized the role of free markets and privatization in development and saw lack of development primarily as a result of too much government intervention.
The globalization and its impacts, political economy followed by how the globalization and political economy can affect the development of metropolitan cities of the world and the most fascinating part of the presentation which is based upon the case study of Tokyo, Japan that completely seems, the influence globalization and political economy in the city and as last concluding with the future of the urbanization.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974. He is known for his theories of cumulative causation, backwash effects, and the need for government intervention to promote balanced regional development. According to Myrdal, free market forces tend to increase inequalities between developed and underdeveloped regions. The backwash effects of economic activity in developed regions drain wealth from poorer regions in a vicious cycle of underdevelopment.
Walter Rostow was an American economist who advised several US presidents. He is best known for his book "The Stages of Economic Growth", which theorized that countries progress through 5 stages on their path to a modern industrialized economy. While controversial at the time for being too broad, his model started important discussions around development. It highlighted how economies change over time due to investments and innovations spreading from one sector to another. His work remains foundational in fields like economics and human geography, though critics argue it is too western-centric.
Dr. Alejandro Diaz-Bautista Economic Policy Import Substitution Dependency Th...Economist
The document discusses import substitution industrialization (ISI) policies adopted in Latin America between the 1940s-1960s as a strategy for economic growth and development. ISI aimed to promote domestic industries like textiles and appliances to replace imports by using protective trade policies. While ISI initially saw some success, Latin American countries became increasingly dependent on exports of primary commodities, which deteriorated their terms of trade over time. ISI eventually declined as countries struggled with inefficient industries and faced debt crises in the 1980s.
The dependency theory arose in reaction to modernization theory and held that poor nations are impoverished and rich ones enriched by how poor states are integrated into the world system. It rejects the view that underdeveloped countries are primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and are weaker members in the world market. The dependency perspective stresses that international political and economic forces shape demographic and environmental outcomes in developing countries.
1. Advancements in transportation and population mobility have allowed infectious diseases to spread rapidly between countries, demonstrating that political issues in one area can affect others.
2. International organizations like the UN and WHO play a vital role in promoting cooperation between countries to control diseases and other global challenges.
3. Due to political globalization, disputes between countries are inevitable but international organizations provide important channels for communication and negotiation to help resolve conflicts peacefully.
Guinea Conakry political Leadership Contribution to Economy Stability: A Post...inventionjournals
This study Examines Guinea political Leaderships Contribution towards economy Stability since independence (1958).Why Guinea Economic stagnation is comparable to the other developing nation. A securities industry-based organization, among its other advantages, promotes economic efficiency and competition and encourages foreign investment. Since independence, the market structure has not changed from one in which prices are determined by the market forces of supply and demand. Because some of political leadership manipulating economic resource and maintaining themselves in power. Analysis proves that a more balanced and symmetric approach to central bank Reforms is urgently warranted. Studies on central bank Reforms entirely ignores the potential risks involved in maximizing central bankers' latitude for discretion. The focus of this study is on monetary andfinancial integration, the analysis also covers other integration pillars such as trade andinvestment, connectivity and infrastructure, and regional public goods.
The document discusses Indonesia's economic development and the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. It describes Indonesia's rapid economic growth and poverty reduction during the New Order regime from 1966 to 1998, earning it recognition as an "Asian Tiger". However, the 1997 Financial Crisis had a severe impact on Indonesia, causing its economy and currency to collapse. This revealed weaknesses in Indonesia's political and economic institutions that had been overlooked during its period of high growth.
The document summarizes several classical theories of economic development:
1) Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and J.S. Mill believed that economic growth would slow or stop due to increasing population and limited resources.
2) Thomas Malthus argued that population growth alone does not lead to development and that capital accumulation is necessary for continued growth.
3) Walt Rostow proposed a model of economic growth occurring in five stages: traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.
4) John Stuart Mill viewed economic development as dependent on land, labor, and capital, and distinguished between productive and unproductive consumption.
The document discusses four classic theories of economic development:
1) The linear-stages-of-growth model proposed by Walt Rostow which viewed development as a series of successive stages all countries must pass through.
2) Theories of structural change which focused on the internal process of structural transformation required for sustained economic growth.
3) Dependence theories which viewed underdevelopment as resulting from exploitative internal and external power structures and institutions.
4) Neoclassical theories which emphasized the role of free markets and viewed underdevelopment as stemming from excessive government intervention. Current approaches draw from all four perspectives.
The document discusses the history and development of public administration and democracy in Indonesia from the 1960s to present. It outlines the periods of old order chaos, new order stability and growth, economic and political crises in the late 1990s and 2008, and the subsequent reforms and transitions towards greater democracy, stabilization, and high performance governance. It also examines concepts of representative democracy, participatory democracy, and the roles of civil society, media, judiciary, and legislative and executive branches under different regime types.
Globalization has led to both convergence and divergence in economic outcomes between countries. While per capita incomes in emerging economies have grown faster than advanced economies over the past two decades, reducing the gap, income inequality has also risen within many countries. The top 1% of earners now account for 20% of total income in the US, up from around 7% in the 1980s. However, convergence has also created a growing global middle class. To address rising inequality, governments need to find the right policy mix to redistribute income without harming economic growth. More research is needed to determine what policy approaches can achieve both equity and growth.
Considered both the future of society, the future of the people, the way of the future of education in a multi-stakeholder, the activities of the order to continue to create "Future Education Consortium" is, in fiscal 2015, such as consumers and companies · NPO / NGO · Students through the co-creation projects by various participants "21 Century Future Enterprise Project", we derive the "social and companies of the future scenario of 2030".
http://miraikk.jp/cat-03/2882
Welcome to my presentation on dependency theoryOjhor Shrabon
1. Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory argues that underdeveloped countries are kept in a state of underdevelopment due to their economic dependence on developed "metropolis" countries, which extract economic surplus from satellite underdeveloped countries through trade.
2. The theory posits that underdeveloped countries experience the most development when their ties to the metropolis are weakest, such as during wars or economic crises, or due to geographic isolation.
3. Regions with the closest past ties to metropolis countries, through the export of primary commodities, are now the most underdeveloped, while regions that were able to industrialize saw a decline in dependence on the metropolis.
Strategic review of the impact of globalization on the sustainability of com...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Global Growth Opportunities To 2030 Mark BeliczkyMark Beliczky
The document summarizes a presentation given by Mark Beliczky on global growth opportunities between 2008 and 2030. Some of the key points discussed include:
- Globalization will continue expanding and more non-Western nations like China and India will drive growth.
- The global population and middle class will increase significantly, fueling a boom in global consumption.
- China's economy will surpass the US to become the largest in the world and India will see very strong growth as well.
- However, poverty and income inequality are expected to rise substantially in parts of Africa and the developing world.
This document summarizes China's increasing engagement in Nigeria's oil industry. It discusses China's growing need for oil to fuel its economic growth and its "Oil for Infrastructure" policy of providing development projects in exchange for oil contracts. While this has brought some benefits like new infrastructure, there are also concerns that China is exploiting Nigeria's oil and not supporting local businesses enough. The relationship is complex, with both opportunities and challenges around ensuring sustainable growth and maximizing long-term benefits for Nigerian citizens.
This document summarizes Gunnar Myrdal's cumulative causation theory. It explains that Myrdal coined the term and used it to analyze race relations in the US. The theory rejects the idea of automatic socio-economic stabilization and instead proposes that changes beget further changes that reinforce the initial change. It was influential in theories of convergence and divergence of economic development between regions.
This document provides an overview and introduction to Dependency Theory. It discusses:
- The origins of Dependency Theory under Raul Prebisch in response to unequal economic growth between rich and poor countries.
- Core propositions of Dependency Theory including that underdevelopment results from external influences that favor rich countries over poor ones in a dependent relationship.
- Debates around whether dependency results more from capitalism or disparities in power between countries.
- The policy implications of Dependency Theory, which rejects growth models based on rich countries and favors self-reliance over greater integration into the global economy by poor states.
The document discusses four classic theories of economic development:
1) The linear-stages-of-growth model viewed development as a series of successive stages all countries must pass through, with the key being increasing investment and growth.
2) Structural-change theories focused on the internal process of changing economic structures as countries industrialize.
3) Dependence theories emphasized external and internal constraints like exploitation and unequal power relationships that hindered development.
4) Neoclassical theories emphasized the role of free markets and privatization in development and saw lack of development primarily as a result of too much government intervention.
The globalization and its impacts, political economy followed by how the globalization and political economy can affect the development of metropolitan cities of the world and the most fascinating part of the presentation which is based upon the case study of Tokyo, Japan that completely seems, the influence globalization and political economy in the city and as last concluding with the future of the urbanization.
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was a Swedish economist who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1974. He is known for his theories of cumulative causation, backwash effects, and the need for government intervention to promote balanced regional development. According to Myrdal, free market forces tend to increase inequalities between developed and underdeveloped regions. The backwash effects of economic activity in developed regions drain wealth from poorer regions in a vicious cycle of underdevelopment.
Walter Rostow was an American economist who advised several US presidents. He is best known for his book "The Stages of Economic Growth", which theorized that countries progress through 5 stages on their path to a modern industrialized economy. While controversial at the time for being too broad, his model started important discussions around development. It highlighted how economies change over time due to investments and innovations spreading from one sector to another. His work remains foundational in fields like economics and human geography, though critics argue it is too western-centric.
Dr. Alejandro Diaz-Bautista Economic Policy Import Substitution Dependency Th...Economist
The document discusses import substitution industrialization (ISI) policies adopted in Latin America between the 1940s-1960s as a strategy for economic growth and development. ISI aimed to promote domestic industries like textiles and appliances to replace imports by using protective trade policies. While ISI initially saw some success, Latin American countries became increasingly dependent on exports of primary commodities, which deteriorated their terms of trade over time. ISI eventually declined as countries struggled with inefficient industries and faced debt crises in the 1980s.
The dependency theory arose in reaction to modernization theory and held that poor nations are impoverished and rich ones enriched by how poor states are integrated into the world system. It rejects the view that underdeveloped countries are primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and are weaker members in the world market. The dependency perspective stresses that international political and economic forces shape demographic and environmental outcomes in developing countries.
1. Advancements in transportation and population mobility have allowed infectious diseases to spread rapidly between countries, demonstrating that political issues in one area can affect others.
2. International organizations like the UN and WHO play a vital role in promoting cooperation between countries to control diseases and other global challenges.
3. Due to political globalization, disputes between countries are inevitable but international organizations provide important channels for communication and negotiation to help resolve conflicts peacefully.
Guinea Conakry political Leadership Contribution to Economy Stability: A Post...inventionjournals
This study Examines Guinea political Leaderships Contribution towards economy Stability since independence (1958).Why Guinea Economic stagnation is comparable to the other developing nation. A securities industry-based organization, among its other advantages, promotes economic efficiency and competition and encourages foreign investment. Since independence, the market structure has not changed from one in which prices are determined by the market forces of supply and demand. Because some of political leadership manipulating economic resource and maintaining themselves in power. Analysis proves that a more balanced and symmetric approach to central bank Reforms is urgently warranted. Studies on central bank Reforms entirely ignores the potential risks involved in maximizing central bankers' latitude for discretion. The focus of this study is on monetary andfinancial integration, the analysis also covers other integration pillars such as trade andinvestment, connectivity and infrastructure, and regional public goods.
The document discusses Indonesia's economic development and the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. It describes Indonesia's rapid economic growth and poverty reduction during the New Order regime from 1966 to 1998, earning it recognition as an "Asian Tiger". However, the 1997 Financial Crisis had a severe impact on Indonesia, causing its economy and currency to collapse. This revealed weaknesses in Indonesia's political and economic institutions that had been overlooked during its period of high growth.
The document summarizes several classical theories of economic development:
1) Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and J.S. Mill believed that economic growth would slow or stop due to increasing population and limited resources.
2) Thomas Malthus argued that population growth alone does not lead to development and that capital accumulation is necessary for continued growth.
3) Walt Rostow proposed a model of economic growth occurring in five stages: traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and high mass consumption.
4) John Stuart Mill viewed economic development as dependent on land, labor, and capital, and distinguished between productive and unproductive consumption.
The document discusses four classic theories of economic development:
1) The linear-stages-of-growth model proposed by Walt Rostow which viewed development as a series of successive stages all countries must pass through.
2) Theories of structural change which focused on the internal process of structural transformation required for sustained economic growth.
3) Dependence theories which viewed underdevelopment as resulting from exploitative internal and external power structures and institutions.
4) Neoclassical theories which emphasized the role of free markets and viewed underdevelopment as stemming from excessive government intervention. Current approaches draw from all four perspectives.
The document discusses the history and development of public administration and democracy in Indonesia from the 1960s to present. It outlines the periods of old order chaos, new order stability and growth, economic and political crises in the late 1990s and 2008, and the subsequent reforms and transitions towards greater democracy, stabilization, and high performance governance. It also examines concepts of representative democracy, participatory democracy, and the roles of civil society, media, judiciary, and legislative and executive branches under different regime types.
Globalization has led to both convergence and divergence in economic outcomes between countries. While per capita incomes in emerging economies have grown faster than advanced economies over the past two decades, reducing the gap, income inequality has also risen within many countries. The top 1% of earners now account for 20% of total income in the US, up from around 7% in the 1980s. However, convergence has also created a growing global middle class. To address rising inequality, governments need to find the right policy mix to redistribute income without harming economic growth. More research is needed to determine what policy approaches can achieve both equity and growth.
Considered both the future of society, the future of the people, the way of the future of education in a multi-stakeholder, the activities of the order to continue to create "Future Education Consortium" is, in fiscal 2015, such as consumers and companies · NPO / NGO · Students through the co-creation projects by various participants "21 Century Future Enterprise Project", we derive the "social and companies of the future scenario of 2030".
http://miraikk.jp/cat-03/2882
Welcome to my presentation on dependency theoryOjhor Shrabon
1. Andre Gunder Frank's dependency theory argues that underdeveloped countries are kept in a state of underdevelopment due to their economic dependence on developed "metropolis" countries, which extract economic surplus from satellite underdeveloped countries through trade.
2. The theory posits that underdeveloped countries experience the most development when their ties to the metropolis are weakest, such as during wars or economic crises, or due to geographic isolation.
3. Regions with the closest past ties to metropolis countries, through the export of primary commodities, are now the most underdeveloped, while regions that were able to industrialize saw a decline in dependence on the metropolis.
Strategic review of the impact of globalization on the sustainability of com...inventionjournals
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Global Growth Opportunities To 2030 Mark BeliczkyMark Beliczky
The document summarizes a presentation given by Mark Beliczky on global growth opportunities between 2008 and 2030. Some of the key points discussed include:
- Globalization will continue expanding and more non-Western nations like China and India will drive growth.
- The global population and middle class will increase significantly, fueling a boom in global consumption.
- China's economy will surpass the US to become the largest in the world and India will see very strong growth as well.
- However, poverty and income inequality are expected to rise substantially in parts of Africa and the developing world.
This document summarizes China's increasing engagement in Nigeria's oil industry. It discusses China's growing need for oil to fuel its economic growth and its "Oil for Infrastructure" policy of providing development projects in exchange for oil contracts. While this has brought some benefits like new infrastructure, there are also concerns that China is exploiting Nigeria's oil and not supporting local businesses enough. The relationship is complex, with both opportunities and challenges around ensuring sustainable growth and maximizing long-term benefits for Nigerian citizens.
Foresight for UNDP Africa peace and development advisors workshopmlepage
This document summarizes a presentation on strategic foresight and its applications. It discusses how foresight can help governments and organizations plan more effectively for an uncertain future by considering multiple scenarios. The presentation provides examples of how foresight has been used in Rwanda to inform national development planning and policymaking. Key lessons highlighted include how foresight promotes inclusion, resilience, and partnerships. The document concludes by emphasizing how foresight can help countries achieve sustainable development goals by allowing for more comprehensive and realistic planning.
Impact of globalization on nigerian industries a study of leather footwear i...iam Extone
This thesis examines the impact of globalization on the leather footwear industry in Kano State, Nigeria from 1980 to 2004. The thesis includes a literature review on the experiences of other countries and Nigeria with globalization and the theoretical framework. It provides a brief history of Kano and the evolution of the leather industry there. Research findings are presented on the statistics and performance of leather footwear establishments in Kano during the study period and the impact of globalization. The conclusion is that globalization resulted in the closures of many leather footwear industries in Kano, undercapacity production, unemployment, and a lack of advancement of the local industry due to increased imports. Recommendations include regulating imports, government support of local producers
Economic globalization its impact on the growth of non oil supply in nigeriaAlexander Decker
- The document examines the impact of economic globalization on the growth of non-oil supply in Nigeria from 1970-2011. It employs statistical analysis to analyze the relationship between non-oil supply growth and factors like economic openness, GDP, capital goods imports, and oil exports.
- The results show that while economic globalization had an insignificant impact on non-oil supply growth, factors like GDP, relative prices, capital goods imports, and exchange rates positively impacted non-oil supply. However, world income and oil exports negatively impacted non-oil supply growth.
- Despite policies aimed at diversifying the economy away from oil since the 1980s, non-oil exports as a percentage of total exports declined over the period
Globalization is currently the most important factor shaping the global economy. While globalization has occurred in waves since the 1800s, the current phase is characterized by changes occurring more rapidly and having a greater impact than previous eras. Some key aspects of modern globalization include growing interdependence between all processes globally, the establishment of a unified global financial system, the role of information technologies in connecting the world, diminishing borders as nation-states take on changing functions, and the spread of democratic and socio-cultural values on a universal scale.
This document discusses the implications of globalization for the urban poor. It defines globalization as a complex process involving the economic, political, social, and cultural integration of activities worldwide. Key drivers of contemporary globalization include advances in technology, the collapse of political barriers, and policies of trade liberalization. While globalization may increase economic growth, its impacts on employment, inequality, and poverty are mixed and depend greatly on domestic policies and circumstances. A major effect of globalization has been rapid urbanization as populations move to cities in search of opportunities, often ending up in informal settlements that lack basic services.
This document discusses the concepts of neo-liberal globalization and its effects. It defines neo-liberalism as an economic ideology based on free markets with minimal government intervention. Globalization refers to the increasing integration of economies and flow of goods, services, and capital across borders enabled by technology. The document examines how globalization has impacted markets, labor, democracy, communication, culture, and localized rivalries. While globalization creates new opportunities, it can also exacerbate inequality and poverty. Overall the impacts of globalization remain controversial with both supporters and critics.
Reimposing imperial domination in the global south through the mechanism of p...Alexander Decker
This document discusses how imperial domination is reimposed in the global south through public policy mechanisms. It uses Nigeria as an example, arguing that Nigeria succumbed to IMF imposed structural adjustment programs that led to increased poverty and debt rather than development. The document outlines how the new globalized international system operates through market forces rather than direct political control, allowing northern countries to indirectly control policy in the south through organizations like the IMF and World Bank. It asserts that these organizations promote northern economic interests through policies that negatively impact growth in the global south.
Globalization is a process that involves the worldwide integration of economies, technologies, and cultures. It began accelerating in the late 20th century due to advances in transportation and communication technology. While globalization has led to increased economic opportunities through expanded trade and investment, it has also contributed to cultural and economic homogenization. It has impacted systems of governance, urban development, labor markets, and gender norms around the world. Both supporters and critics of globalization make arguments around its effects on issues like sovereignty, inequality, and cultural diversity.
A Term Paper On GLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA By UMAR AHM...Kelly Taylor
This document provides a summary of a term paper on globalization and economic development in Nigeria. It discusses several key points:
- Globalization has increased trade openness and economic integration among countries. However, some argue it promotes uneven income distribution and growth that benefits some nations over others.
- The paper studies the relationship between trade openness and GDP growth in Nigeria from 1985-2012. While trade openness and growth moved in the same direction, the correlation between them was weak, possibly due to Nigeria's reliance on oil and imports.
- Nigeria needs to diversify its economy and manufacturing sector to better benefit from globalization and trade liberalization.
This document discusses the economic consequences of globalization on the telecommunications industry, using the case of Vodafone. It explains that globalization has allowed telecom companies like Vodafone to operate on a truly global scale, with sourcing and supply chains transferred entirely globally while services remain local. While globalization has benefits like increased opportunities, it can also exacerbate inequality between developed and developing nations. The telecom industry in particular has seen Europe develop a comparative disadvantage relative to other major regions.
GLOBAL EDUCATION AND CURRENT TRENDS FROM SOCIAL-abstract for the paperamita marwaha
Globalization is an economic, social, cultural, and environmental process that has led to increasing global integration and interdependence. It has driven major changes through technological innovations, broader political changes, and economic policies over the past decades. However, globalization has also been accompanied by inequality and conflicts between nations. Education can help address some of the controversies around globalization by promoting global awareness, sustainable development, human rights, democracy, and peace. Global education aims to develop attitudes and skills to avoid indifference, consider interdependencies among nations, and encourage responsible action to address global challenges.
Global education and current trends from social abstract for the paperAmarwaha
The last century intense with a dream and aspirations and major social experiments has ended with general collapse of initiative for social transformation and total disillusionment with efforts of ‘development’ of the so called ‘developing’ nations. The so called victorious ideology-capitalism- has sought to consolidate its triumph with a call for ‘globalization’ for freeing of market, for unchecked hunting by private capital within and across nations with total disregard for the sovereignty rights of nations across the world. Globalization did not develop evenly: indeed, it was accompanied by inequality and conflict. The global development of economic and social relations has been paralleled by wide disparities between North and South.
Globalization refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of economies, technologies, and cultures around the world. It is a complex phenomenon that impacts societies in various ways. While some argue globalization benefits economies through increased trade and access to foreign markets and technologies, others argue it can negatively impact local businesses and economies. The lived experiences of people and communities around the world provide perspectives that can both challenge and expand understanding of the complex effects of economic globalization.
Literature Review Of Globalization Yanxing Docguestef4a23
Globalization involves the increasing interconnectedness of economic and cultural activities across the world. It has accelerated due to faster communication technologies and the rise of multinational corporations operating globally. While globalization has increased economic opportunities, it also brings risks from greater dependence on central economies and rapid technological changes shaping the new knowledge economy. Key aspects of globalization include the de-localization of activities across great distances and the decline of national governments' power relative to international organizations and market forces.
This ppt file contains complete information about galobalization and its very simple to present because its very relitive to the topic.
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Its well designed and much easy to view the whole globalization .Its contains detaid information about globalization causes of globalization effects of globalization law of globalization and analysis of advantages and disadvantages of globalization.
I you pick this presentation you just need to change the name because it don't have unrelated constants.
Globalization and Industrial Development in Nigeriaiosrjce
Globalization and industrial development are recent events which have received considerable attention
by scholars and bodies in the academic field, which is an inevitable feature of today‘s world. Globalization has
become important in the modern intellectual development in the contemporary world. This inevitably leads to
the definition of the concept. What precisely does the concept globalization mean? There are enormous
scholarly works on globalization. According to Schneider and Eriste, (2002) in the emergent socio-political and
economic transformation as well as the area of communication and transportation, the globalization trend now
seems to be irreversible. Globalization is a phenomenon which is multi-dimensional and multifaceted process
that encompasses economic, political, social, and technological development
Globalization has both benefits and costs for economic growth. It allows for greater specialization and trade between countries, improving productivity and GDP. However, it can also increase inequality as lower-skilled workers face more competition. While globalization has helped reduce poverty in some nations, it has also caused economic hardship for domestic industries unable to compete with imports. Overall, whether a country benefits depends on how well it adapts its infrastructure and workforce to the new global economic system.
The lecture analyzes the phenomenon of Globalization, the technological revolution, the over exploitation of ICTs, and the rise of Information Society.
(Neo)-Colonialism, globalised modernisation and global energy and environment...AkashSharma618775
This review looks at three issues which are key to the process of globalisation, namely; colonialism,
modernization, energy and environment. The benefits of globalised colonialism, though very weak, may include a
few of the following, viz: Increasing knowledge sharing, research, and skills; providing platforms for mutual
support, and benefits to synergize at various levels; encouraging multi-cultural contributions at different levels;
fostering global citizenship for greater harmony; promoting multiculturalism and acceptance to cultural diversity;
facilitating multi ways communications and interactions; promoting self-employment, digital entrepreneurship,
and outreach; and giving voice to everyone by promoting common language. On the contrary, the notable negative
impacts of globalised colonialism include: increasing the technological gaps and digital divides; creating more
legitimate opportunities for electronic colonialism; exploiting local resources and destroying local/ indigenous
cultures; increasing inequalities, conflicts, and clashes; promoting cultural imperialism; strengthening a
symmetrical communication, facilitating haves; contributing to jobless growth and promoting outsourcing; and, it
is promoting voiceless growth and language imperialism. It important to note that energy is a driving factor in the
world economic development, World energy consumption contributes to pollution and environmental
deterioration and global house emissions which therefore calls upon world economist and politicians to set
environmental regulations. It’s also crucial to transform the current energy systems with a transition to renewable
source and their efficient use. For example, globalized modernization has today has become a major sort of debate
among academicians, policy makers and NGOs. Finally, our review notes the various merits of globalize
Weaknesses and strenths of modernization theoryWanyonyi Joseph
The document discusses modernization theory, its key aspects, and criticisms. It notes that modernization theory views development as a linear process where traditional societies modernize by adopting practices from more developed nations. However, it has several weaknesses. It assumes a "one-size-fits-all" approach but conditions differ between contexts. It also fails to consider local participation and sustainability. While it emphasized economic growth, development requires more. Overall, the document argues that modernization theory provides an incomplete and outdated view of development that does not consider the realities of third world countries. Newer approaches like participatory development are needed.
This document discusses the interaction between the process of globalization and the tourism sector. It first explains how globalization can be understood and the ways it influences tourism. It then examines the position of Turkish tourism and its place within the Turkish economy as a case study of these interactions. The document is structured to first define globalization and its effects in areas like technology, economy, politics, culture and terrorism. It then explores how globalization has impacted tourism and discusses sustainable tourism development.
This document discusses different perspectives on globalization. It begins by outlining the main strands of the globalization process, including increasing interconnectedness between societies, rising power of multinational corporations, and a growing global culture. It then examines five approaches to globalization: Technological Enthusiasts view it as an inevitable process driven by technology; Marxisant Pessimists see it increasing inequality and destroying local cultures; Pluralist Pragmatists see it as a complex process with both benefits and drawbacks; Sceptic Internationalists reject the idea of a borderless world and maintain the importance of nation-states. The document aims to provide a balanced overview of the diverse ways globalization can be understood.
Globalization is a complex phenomenon with arguments on both sides. Proponents argue that globalization leads to more efficient use of resources and economic growth that benefits all involved. However, critics argue that globalization threatens jobs and wages as companies outsource work overseas, and that it could undermine national sovereignty as corporations gain more power. Overall, there are reasonable perspectives on both sides of this complex issue with reasonable arguments that globalization may have both benefits and drawbacks.
This is my personal essay whilst completing a Post Graduate Diploma in International Relations at the University of the West-Indies. I WILL REALLY APPRECIATE CONSTRUCTIVE DISCOURSE ON THIS TOPIC AS TO ME IT IS BECOMING INCREASINGLY MORE RELEVANT IN TODAY'S INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL LANDSCAPE.
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1. European Journal of Business and Management www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1905 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2839 (Online)
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ICT, Globalization and the Labour Market: turning brain drain to
brain gain
Olaoye, Ismail Kayode (Corresponding Author)
Department of Economics and Financial Studies
Fountain University, Osogbo
Osun State, Nigeria.
Phone: +2348036370779 e-mail: asveducated@yahoo.com, asveducated@gmail.com
Dabiri, Muhammad AlFurqan
Department of Business Administration,
Crescent University, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria
Phone: +2348089245408 e-mail: mdabiri69@gmail.com
Binuyo, Abdullah Adeyanju
Monitoring & Evaluation Unit,
Millennium Development Goals Project,
Abuja, Nigeria
Phone: +2348034123778 e-mail: dullah911@hotmail.com
Abstract
The relationship between globalization and the growth of a global labour market is examined in this paper. Using
exploratory methods, it was discovered that ICT has contributed to the phenomenon of brain drain but it has also
created avenues for repatriations of the gains accruable to the drain. Using Scenario Network Mapping (SNM), the
study tries to define possible alternative futures for this opportunity. Furthermore, globalization and the internet has
made it possible for brains to be tapped at home without being drained from the local labour market through the
processes of outsourcing and off-shoring of productive efforts by transnational and multi-national organizations.
This was aptly termed glocalization in this study. Training and equipping the local labour force in globally relevant
skills, has been identified as a means of turning the negative effect of brain drain to positive economic gains.
Key words: Globalization, off-shoring, out-sourcing, glocalization, Scenario-Network-Mapping (SNM)
1. Introduction
Globalization is a process whereby national boarders cease to be an impediment to the movement of products and
capital (Grant, 1996). It is the interlinking of national economies into an interdependent global economy and the
development of a shared set of global images (Nazombe, 1995). It is also the transformation of the global economy
into one in which not only exchange but also production and finance are organized and articulated on a global scale.
Gambari (1996) referred to it as “The inevitable wave of the economic future of the world………from which no
nation, poor or rich, big or small, could realistically opt out of”. Globalization has been considered an instrument for
progress, wealth creation, expansion of opportunities and providing a nurturing environment for entrepreneurship
and enterprise. It would also create access to much better opportunities for decent work, and promoting development
with social justice in the context of open economies and open societies (Somavia, 2001)
However, this transformation from multiple-unidirectional and national economies to a single multidimensional,
uniformed globalize economy is being accepted in certain quarters with distrust and caution. This is especially so for
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those around the world who, for obvious reasons, are not ecstatic about surfing on the Internet, but whose basic
concerns centres around the provision of more basic economic and social needs associated with constrained
infrastructure and amenities of life, high crime rate, abject poverty and disease, and other negative frequent
occurrences which bring about disruption of their lives; to them, globalization is nothing more than a rehash of
traditional capitalist ideology. Some may even aver that the emerging technologies are simply tools for renewed
exploitation and oppression, of social and political maneuvers, and the invasion of privacy all in line with a new
world order that is actively polarizing humanity into those “with us” and those “against us”. They fear that the risks
are too great and the benefits are too small and that in the long run, it would lead to further exacerbation of
inequalities and insecurity (Somavia, 2001).
2. Conceptual framework
The emergence of this new way of global interaction on all identifiable platforms such as the social and economic
platforms could be ascribed to accidental occurrence of certain politically enabling events as well as the emergence
of certain micro-factors that were to a large extent unforeseen or fore planned. These multivariate factors were the
trends and triggers of globalization.
2.1 Globalization: A Mega-trend
Several trends could be ascribed to the ascendancy of globalization as a phenomenon on the world stage. A cursory
look at these trends would present them as precursors, one unto the other, with a unilateral foundation in the post
second world war agitation for self governance by former colonies of imperial western nations.
The achievement of independence led to a gradual transition to various forms of liberal democratic structures in
many of these ex-colonies. The word “gradual” as used here is indicative of the fact that it took some of these
nations more than 30 years to finally have a semblance of governments based on certain elements of the democratic
principle. The fetal turmoil experienced by these pseudo-democratic states in the throes of their transition to near
full democracies characterized the last two decades of the last century. The implosion of the then Soviet Union and
its final capitulation in 1990 gave further impetus to the drive towards a global liberal political system (Mimiko,
1996). This gave the so called free-world and their agencies unhindered leeway in prescribing and imposing political
and economic conditionalities on erstwhile non-democratic, aid seeking regimes. This " new world order”
showcased the dominance of world affairs by a few nations under the aegis of the United States; a situation that
presents notable world bodies and organs of the United Nations such as the IMF and World Bank as tools of
coercive and neo-colonial policies. To the rest of the world, such policies appeared to be derived from an agenda
aimed at continuing the dominance and pauperization of the developing world while having unhindered access to its
vast resources and this view has been generally being reinforced by unhindered use of the developed countries
military and superior technology over the less powerful but heavily resource laden nations (Pougala, 2011).
The world metamorphosed into a village where a caucus of nations assumed, autocratically, the right to determine
the fate of the world and by extension, the fate of the people within it. Adedeji (1996) averred pontifically that “In
spite of the talk of the global village, there are two distinct worlds in that village – the industrialized world with 20%
of global population but consuming 70% of its metals, 85% of its woods and 60% of its food and accounting for
about 83% of its GDP, 81.2% of world trade, 94.6% of all commercial lending, about 81% of both domestic saving
and investment and 94% of all research development……..The region which accounts for 10% of the world‟s
population and is potentially very rich in natural and human resources (emphasis are mine) contributes only one
percent of world‟s GDP and accounts also for 1% of its trade”. It is therefore safe to agree with Ihonvbere (1996)
that globalization seems to be consolidating and deepening extant poverty in African countries. It would however
appear grossly unfair to totally attribute the failures of African and other developing nations to tap into the vast
opportunities presented by globalization to the machinations of the developed world.
Many developing nations have continued to be plagued by a myriad of self-inflicted problems such as corruption
and despotism, two hydra headed ailments of the third world that have proven to be impervious to time-limited
antidotes such as the administration of text-book economic theories and practices. Their occurrence was not helped
by the incessant military coup-de-tat and the constant inter-tribal cum inter-religio-ethnic conflicts, which, in many
cases, were actively supported or even initiated by developed countries. A very good recent example is the case of
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the economic sapping campaigns in the Niger Delta, where Nigeria is losing billions of naira on a daily basis.
However, where collective effort have failed to tap into opportunities presented by globalization on governmental
level, private efforts of the citizenry has ensured that accrued benefits do not elude the individual in its entirety. The
reality is that but for the lack of the macro-economic mechanisms to stimulate a consensus of interest and action,
ICT as a factor of globalization has presented interactive tools and opportunities to individuals beyond the usual
control of the state. An obvious consequence of the pervasiveness of ICT was the hosting of a global, borderless
platform, the Internet, which has made interactions possible beyond political and economic boundaries and is
gradually assuming the position of a normal part of the emerging global lifestyle.
2.2 The Internet: a revolutionary platform of global interaction.
The ICT revolution was an all-purpose revolution that has been described by Blinder (2006) as the third industrial
revolution. It has stimulated growth in generally all facets of economic interactions, not least of which is the
transferability of labour skill and knowledge. Its transformatory role has change the notion of “market” from a time
and space limited entity to a rather more pervasive concept through which exchanges in virtual and tangible
commodities could be made.
ICT has created a platform for ease of exchange of information and ideas between prospective employers and
employees. The internet for instance has provided an applicant with the ability to search for jobs globally. It is also
quite easy for a firm to search for experts and professionals on a global scale using the internet. Apart from this, ICT
has also made it easy for people to move from their native country to another with little physical efforts. A case in
study is the recent launch of the e-passport by the Nigerian Immigration Services. Embassies of various countries
now receive applications for visas “on-line” via the internet. This further accelerated both physical and virtual brain
drain of professionals from developing countries of Africa and Asia.
However, it has also enabled easier repatriation of earnings to home countries. It was in recognition of this fact that
Brinkerhoff (2007) wrote in a study of the Diasporas, emigrants living in developed countries that IT has emerged as
an essential enabler of Diaspora knowledge transfer and exchange.
3 Discussion
Traditionally, a market is conceived to be any gathering of suppliers and buyers of either services or tangible
products operating in a definable environment and possibly under certain time and space constraints. To this end,
there exist financial markets, stock markets and the labour markets among others. These markets existed both locally
and internationally, but in most cases operating independently of one another, although they may be influenced by
similar factors such as the prevailing political, economic, social and legal sub-systems of the environment in which
they operate. All these forms of markets have however been impacted upon by the boom in Information and
Communication Technology. The labour market for instance became more open and it became easier for extended
utilization of ICT factors in relatively new ways. This is evident in the increasing role that Information and
Communication technology plays in accelerating economic growth and promoting development. For example, the
diffusion of mobile telephones has made a huge difference for the mass of unemployed youth in every nook and
cranny of Nigeria, providing relatively cheap and easy access to money making opportunities and creating new
products targeted at new and emerging local markets. Likewise, greater internet access and more affordable
computers are radically changing the way people access job opportunities in many countries, offering applicants
several direct and almost instant means of applying for and searching for vacancies as they occur. The on-time
virtual environment also facilitated cooperation and exchange among people. Due to the pervasive nature of ICT
and the universality of its elements, this interaction between and among people has grown beyond national
boundaries, supersedes ethnic and tribal barriers and languages to evolve into the concept of globalization.
3.1 The emergence of the global labour market
Several factors have been attributed to be the cause of the emergence of a global labour market within the last
couple of decades. As has earlier been mentioned, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent “release” of
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its allies to fully participate in global economic transactions is a leading cause. But looking at the emergence of the
global labour market from a broader perspective, Akindele et al (2002), averred that “…critical to our understanding
of globalization is the dire need to use it as a synonym for liberalization and greater openness”. The resultant
liberalization and “civilianization” of formerly highly classified military technologies pushed up the surge in civilian
technologies. For example, features of present day GSM technology have been “locked up” in the military realm
(see Armada International, June / July 1994:69) from public view since the 1980s to forestall such technologies
falling into enemies‟ hands across the iron curtain. Technology hoarding eventually became uneconomical once the
presumed rivalry had evaporated. This led to a resurgence of market forces which have grown in stature and
structure to cause a partial amalgamation and integration of national economies. I call it partial amalgamation
because of the fact that not all nations of the world, as of today, subscribe to the idea of democratic liberalism which
makes universal assimilation of democratic principles the oil in the wheel of progress of global market interactions;
enabling and making movement of market factors a lot easier, smoother and faster across borders. The true essence
of this was well captured by Akindele et al (op cit) when they surmised that “the implication of this is that both
domestic and foreign liberalization are said to imply globalization, since the former brings domestic markets more in
conformity with forces operating in markets abroad, and, the removal of administrative barriers to international
movement of goods, services, labour and capital increases economic interaction among nations”.
Another major factor of the global labour market is the reforms implemented in India and China, the two most
populous nations in the world. Together, both countries account for about one-third of the World‟s over 6 billion
people. Demographically, the reforms were projected to unleash millions of skilled and semi-skilled workers on the
global labour market (UNDP 2000). Due to these changes, global labour supply quadrupled between 1980 and 2005
with most of the increase taking place after 1990 (note: Soviet Union collapsed in 1990). East Asia contributed
about half of the increase due to a marked rise in the working-age population and rising trade openness.
3.2 Brain drain: causes and effects
The existence of certain macroeconomic and sociopolitical factors engendered the flow of trained professionals from
developing countries to the developed ones. The state of local infrastructures for instance, which are non existent in
certain cases, may be considered to be the number one factor leading to the brain drain. Restricted economic
opportunities which may be as a result of political instability, racial and ethnic discrimination, corruption and
internecine warfare leading to a further aggravation of poverty, unemployment and widespread diseases and death
constitute some factors why trained professionals leave their native countries for another. On the other hand the
assurance of higher incomes, higher standard of living, balanced political outlook, availability of basic infrastructure
such as adequate housing, good road network, efficient transportation system, electricity and health care became
irresistibly attractive (Meyer,2001; Astor et al, 2005). The lopsided rating of foreign currencies against the local
ones does not help matters especially when such professionals consider the fact that a year earning in a foreign
currency could convert to as much as one could earn in a life time at home. In their study of physicians from
Colombia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan and Philippines, Astor et al (2005) highlighted greater access to enhanced
technology and a desire for increased income as reasons why the surveyed physicians migrated. The question at this
point is; is there a return on investment on the human capital so lost to the developed economies?
Given the amalgamation and metamorphosis of national markets across the globe into a single and highly interactive
global market, the participation of emigrants from developing countries, not minding the sociological negativity
associated with emigration, could be viewed as a positive representation of the home country in the global economy.
A global economy is an economy whose core activities work as a unit in real time on a planetary scale. Such core
activities are also universally recognized as basic features and requirements for the sustenance of any local
economy. For instance, capital markets are interconnected worldwide, so that savings and investment in all
countries, even if most of them are not globally invested, depend for their performance on the evolution and
behaviour of the global financial market. In the same light, highly skilled labour is also increasingly being
globalized, with talents being sourced and hired around the world when companies, institutions and governments
really need them and are ready to pay for them. The overwhelming proportion of jobs, and to a large extent, people,
who constitute the labour force, are however not global but are local and, to a certain extent, regional. Nevertheless,
their fate, their jobs and their living standards are ultimately influenced by the globalize sector of the national
economy, or on the direct connection of their economic units to global networks of capital, production and trade. It
is important to note at this point that globalization does not eliminate the nation state, but fundamentally redefines its
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role and affects its operation, either positively or negatively.
3.3 The Glocalized labour market.
The continuing integration of labour markets around the world is largely due to political changes and economic
reforms occurring in three major sectors of the world: china, India and the Eastern Europe. This was aided by the
explosion in the development of technology coupled with the gradual but progressive removal of restriction on
cross-border trade and movement of capital (Rybinski, 2006). It became possible for organizations to splinter
production processes and locate such splinters in areas where optimum utility of resources could be achieved. Many
goods and skills today are produced far away from their target consumer markets. Such production units are located
in areas, most importantly, where relative labour cost is low. I refer to this segment of the labour market as the
glocalized labour market. The implication here is that while the labour force is being utilized locally, the target of
the out come of its utility is global. Though the reason for adopting a glocalized process of production may not
solely be the relative low cost of labour, it is never-the-less significantly influenced by it. Other micro-economic
determinants such as availability of cheap raw materials, stable political and economic policies and availability of
significant technical infrastructure may also be part of this consideration. This process of relocating workplaces in
search of employees was aptly termed out-sourcing and off-shoring. According to Rybinski (op cit) out - sourcing
means relocating orders, services, production, employment or, in a broader sense, a business process to another
company (irrespective of its location), whereas off-shoring means relocating a business process abroad (irrespective
of whether to another company or within the same enterprise). This is a growing phenomenon which many Asian
(especially India) and South American countries (e.g. Colombia) are benefiting from. Another concept that is fast
becoming the norm in many of these countries is telecommuting; a process of working for an organization in a
virtual environment devoid of a physical presence in a workplace. However, sub-saharan Africa is yet to make
maximum utility of these blossoming global opportunities (see Langfield and Metaloni, 2006). Several empirical
studies have demonstrated that out-sourcing and off-shoring entail increased competitiveness of enterprises, which
raised their employment level abroad in subsidiary company‟s and intensify their expansion on foreign markets, thus
being forced to create work places, often much better paid and requiring higher qualifications (Rybynski, 2006).
From all indication, Africa is still poorly prepared for the kind of competition demanded to be a premium out-
sourcing and off-shoring destination. As late as 2006, it was still being derogatively considered a “very poor
continent of an unfavourable climate and poorly qualified workforce” (Rybinski, 2006). This assertion may however
have its basis in various studies on Africa and its economic performance in the past. Reports from such major world
organizations such as the International Labour Organization and the UNDP indicated that world trade and exports of
goods and services have been on the increase since 1990, Africa‟s share, however, have continued to be relatively
marginal. For instance, the OECD reported that between 1990 and 1998, total world export of goods and services
increased from $4.7 billion to 7.5 billion, while exports declined in the Least Developed Countries (LDC) of Africa.
They accounted for only 0.47% of global exports in 1998 down from 0.6 in 1980 and 0.5% in 1990. On readiness to
participate in the emerging ICT driven global economy, it was revealed that by 1998, while more than ¼ (25%) of
US citizens were internet users, the average for the whole of Africa was 0.1 % (OECD, 2004).
There is however, a thread of hope that demographic developments coupled with other globalization mechanisms
which have led to the establishment of the global labour market will drive Asia and possibly some areas of Africa,
e.g. South Africa, Egypt and Ghana, to become fierce competitors for Europe and the U.S. in the forth coming
decades (Rybinski, 2006). The demographic advantages notwithstanding, Africa must look towards improving on its
participation in the global labour market through improving its human capital via adequate and appropriate training
and development.
3.4 The Gains
There is no doubt that globalization, like a double edged sword, has brought with it new opportunities for jobs and
income as well as possible exposure to poverty, unemployment and insecurity. It is however the duty of
Governments in the developing world to come up with realistic mechanisms for tackling globalization‟s unpleasant
aspects while tapping maximally from its abundant opportunities, especially in the global labour market.
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The fact still remains that, aside from the industrial raw materials for which this part of the world is known for, the
only other area where African countries could make any reasonable impact in the globalization process is in the
utilization of their demographic advantage, by generating supply of quality manpower in all cadres and levels of
skills, across professions, for the global labour market.
For instance, China and India have blazed the trail of dominating areas of interest within the context of a globalized
and a glocalized world economy respectively. India, in particular has significantly strengthened her status as an ICT
sub-contracting and off-shoring destination. This is an area considered to be not only vital to the sustenance of the
global drive, but the very foundation upon which globalization itself is laid. China on its part has been able to come
up with unique strategies of turning its huge population of Diasporas into driving force for its economic
development. The direct effects of these strategies include the attraction of about 50% of all Direct Foreign
Investments (DFI) aimed at the developing world to China alone (OECD, 2004).
In co-opting the Diasporas into China‟s development, the Chinese “government maintains five central agencies that
interface with oversea Chinese professionals, as well as several quasi-government agencies with funding to support
knowledge exchange activities, representing the most formal and deliberate approach …..”(Brinkerhoff, op cit). In
addition to these proven and tested steps, active private initiatives aimed at opening up investment opportunities for
Diasporas should be encouraged.
3.5 Plausible Futures for Developing Nations in a Global Labour Market
Taking Nigeria as a case study of a developing nation characterized by the myriad of challenges typically bedeviling
this category of nations, the following views of a possible utilization of its immense human resource could be
derived by using a method of forecasting possible futures developed by List (2007) known as Scenario Network
Mapping (SNM). We decided to use this method because of its simplicity of use and easy applicability to all
foreseeable challenge whether in an organization or any other entity. Though the future can not be predicted with
any sense of certainty, SNM allows us to determine and identify probable alternative futures for any single situation
or event, in this case the possible future use of our people in the diaspora (see figure 1). We have made the network
as simple as possible to enable a graphical understanding of the situation.
4 Conclusion
It is imperative that government should play leading roles in tapping the opportunities that globalization provides in
virtually all areas of economic endeavors. Concerning the global labour market for instance, labour policy
formulation should not only be limited to consideration for the local labour market but due consideration should also
be accorded to the requirements for participation in the international arena.
The power of the Diaspora should also be utilized adequately. The emigrants from any developing country are
generally attracted to their host countries for certain economic reason among which may be the issue of
infrastructure and the extensive wage-gap. But for whatever consideration, they represent the country‟s funnel for
knowledge acquisition and transfer, if properly managed. It is incumbent on any serious government to put
structures in place to tap this opportunity for the growth and development of the mother land.
The Diaspora also contribute in real term by sending remittance back home which Brinkerhoff (2007), quoting
world bank sources, described as “…the impressive totals of economic remittances (defined as transfers of money
by foreign workers to their home countries), which now outpace official development assistance.” These remittances
were estimated at $70 billion per year in 2004, $125 billion in 2005, and $167 billion in 2006. These remittances
represent only a fraction of what could be earned if the emigration of such Diasporas had been well organized,
planned and managed in the interest of the native country in the first place. One African leader who showed a
marked understanding of the power of remittance capture in his Diaspora integration strategies was Zambia‟s
president, Levy Mwanawasa when he was quoted to have said in an address to the Zambian community in the
United State: “ I know you expect me to say come home. I am not going to do that. I have no jobs to give you. Work
here and send money home” (quoted in Manda, 2004:74). This succinctly summarized the overwhelming
importance and objective for turning Africa‟s brain drains to economic gains for sustainable local development.
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