Effect of Farmyard Manure and Mineral NP Fertilizers on Yield Related Traits ...Premier Publishers
Declining soil fertility is one of the major problems causing yield reduction in Ethiopia. Farmers at Areka apply both organic and inorganic fertilizers to overcome the problem and increase yield of potato. However, information on the application of farmyard manure and chemical fertilizer is inadequate to the area to increase the yield of potato crop. Therefore, an experiment was conducted at Areka, Southern Ethiopia during the 2016 cropping season with the objective of assessing the effect of farmyard manure and mineral NP fertilizers on yield related traits and yield of potato. There were twenty treatments comprising of four levels of FYM (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 t ha-1) with five levels of combined mineral NP fertilizers [0, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% of blanket recommended rates of NP (110 kg N ha-1 and 90 kg P2O5 ha-1)] in randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. The results showed that the main effect of FYM and mineral NP fertilizers were significant (P<0.01) on tuber number per hill, tuber size category and tuber yield in tha-1. There was significant interaction effect of FYM and mineral NP fertilizers on days to 50% flowering, days to maturity and plant height. The maximum total and marketable tuber yields of 35.11t ha-1, and 33.97 t ha-1recorded at the rate of 7.5 t ha-1 FYM respectively while the maximum total and marketable tuber yield of 37.97 t ha-1and 36.78 t ha-1respectively were obtained in response to the application of 100% blanket recommended mineral NP fertilizer rate.
Effect of Farmyard Manure and Mineral NP Fertilizers on Yield Related Traits ...Premier Publishers
Declining soil fertility is one of the major problems causing yield reduction in Ethiopia. Farmers at Areka apply both organic and inorganic fertilizers to overcome the problem and increase yield of potato. However, information on the application of farmyard manure and chemical fertilizer is inadequate to the area to increase the yield of potato crop. Therefore, an experiment was conducted at Areka, Southern Ethiopia during the 2016 cropping season with the objective of assessing the effect of farmyard manure and mineral NP fertilizers on yield related traits and yield of potato. There were twenty treatments comprising of four levels of FYM (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 t ha-1) with five levels of combined mineral NP fertilizers [0, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100% of blanket recommended rates of NP (110 kg N ha-1 and 90 kg P2O5 ha-1)] in randomized complete block design in factorial arrangement with three replications. The results showed that the main effect of FYM and mineral NP fertilizers were significant (P<0.01) on tuber number per hill, tuber size category and tuber yield in tha-1. There was significant interaction effect of FYM and mineral NP fertilizers on days to 50% flowering, days to maturity and plant height. The maximum total and marketable tuber yields of 35.11t ha-1, and 33.97 t ha-1recorded at the rate of 7.5 t ha-1 FYM respectively while the maximum total and marketable tuber yield of 37.97 t ha-1and 36.78 t ha-1respectively were obtained in response to the application of 100% blanket recommended mineral NP fertilizer rate.
Comparative Analysis of Fertilizer Use among Small-Scale Irrigation Farmers i...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Motives of cultivating traditional leafy vegetables in Tamale MetropolisAI Publications
Abstract— Although, there are several researches in
Ghana’s agricultural sector, little has been done on the
investigation of the motives of traditional leafy vegetable
production in Ghana. This present study assessed the
motive of traditional leafy vegetable crop production in the
Northern region of Ghana using cross-sectional data. A
simple random sampling technique was used to select 334
peri-urban and urban farming communities in the Tamale
Metropolis. A questionnaire was administered to the
respondents and data collected were analyzed using Chisquare
test, percentage and frequencies. The results
indicate that the motives for traditional leafy vegetable
production were very similar for both peri-urban and
urban farming communities. The main motive for
traditional leafy vegetable production was statistically
significant for cash income [χ2 (1, N=334) = 3.755, p <
0.050], and employment [χ2 (1, N=334) = 13.135, p <
0.001], statistically insignificant for manure [χ2 (1,
N=334) = 1.064, p < 0.302] and food/subsistence [χ2 (1,
N=334) = 3.755, p < 0.059]. Given that traditional leafy
vegetable production is a good source of income
generation, government should encourage the youth to
participate in agricultural activities through the provision
of incentives and ready market.
Wheat crop responds to climate change in rainfed areas of District Mansehra, ...Innspub Net
Agriculture in many ways is affected by climate change and has impact for productivity of crops particularly in rainfed areas. Climate change related research remained a poorly investigated area in KP and instant study filled that gap by investigating impacts of change in climate on farm productivity. The secondary data, spread over 30 years from 1984 to 2013 pertaining to temperature, precipitation, area under cultivation and yield of crops was collected. Analytical models used are ARDL Model. The results pertaining to impact of temperature and precipitation on wheat yield suggest long run relationship among the variables. Temperature is positively and significantly related in Mansehra. The precipitation is positively and significantly related. Short run relationship implies that around 100% deviations from long-term equilibrium are adjusted every year in case of Mansehra. The results wheat areas suggest long run relationship among the variables based on F Statistics value. Both temperature and precipitation are positively and significantly related to the area under wheat in the long run in case of Mansehra. Based on objectives of the research study and field findings recommendations offered include; farmers awareness drive, policies to promote adaptation measures, enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity to strengthen local resilience, participation of farming community in formulation of policies, making meteorological information available to farmers, Design research plans to evolve crops varieties addressing changing climatic challenges, construct water harvesting structures for high efficiency irrigation and further research to estimate range of temperature and precipitation within which crops under study perform better.
Study on Impact of Land Fragmentation in Agriculture-A Case of Rajshahi Distr...paperpublications3
Abstract:The study was conducted in Rajshahi district to get clear picture on the status of land fragmentation. Total 30 respondents were interviewed to know about the status of land fragmentation in Rajshai, impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, environment, economics and sustainable development. This study was conducted with the view to assess the impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, land uses as well as on society, and in particular, challenges for the agricultural land. Several factors were recognized and it is happening due to alterations in physiographic and social-economic conditions and population growth. The land use pattern of Bangladesh is changing very rapidly due to unplanned human settlement and industrialization. Bangladesh is a small country but it supports a huge population, resulting in a very high density of population and very high intensity of land and resource use The following factors are driving country’s overall scenario of economic development and environment imbalance include: i) unexpected population growth; ii) human settlement; iii) increased number of nuclear family; and iv) scarcity of land for ever increasing demand of food. As a result, agricultural land is decreasing remarkably. Results showed that the land fragmentation of Rajshahi district is changing, especially the agricultural land is decreasing in an alarming rate and now it is becoming more and more vulnerable. The agricultural land of the study area is losing each and every year. The agricultural production also is decreasing due to lack of agricultural land, industrialization, decreasing soil fertility and making soils toxics by using chemicals. If this rate continues, the agricultural land will be totally exhausted within the next couple of years. Moreover the fragmentation of land is impacting sustainable development of the study area frequently. If the perceived problems could be solved by raising awareness among the people, go for vertical uses of land, motivate family to live in the extend family, adopting appropriate policy for human settlements and land use planning.
Keywords:Extend family; land fragmentation; nuclear family; vertical scope; sustainable development.
Leguminous vegetables production and marketing in Southern Benin|Ijaar vol-15...Innspub Net
As a preliminary study that sets ground for the introduction of new leguminous vegetables, this survey assessed the state of production and market characteristics of leguminous vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas of southern Benin. Covering three administrative departments where most vegetable growers and traders are based in Benin, the study used the semi-structured interview approach with 105 respondents including vegetable growers and traders to gather information on diversity, pest and disease management practices, constraints, distribution channel of leguminous vegetable cultivated and willingness to adopt new leguminous vegetable species and varieties. The results showed clear task division between males and females. While a narrow diversity of leguminous vegetable species was grown in Benin, their production is highly market driven. Tunnel type greenhouse and open field farming were practiced in mono-cropping or crop rotation system with the use of poultry manure, animal dungs and mineral fertilizers as mean of fertilisation. The collectors and wholesalers were the most important stakeholders of the distribution channel, followed by the hotels and restaurants. Major constraints include pest and disease infestations, low yield achieved and lack of improved varieties. All respondents were willing to adopt new leguminous vegetable including vegetable soybean “edamame”, peas, pigeon peas, mung bean, faba-beans, common bean. This study provides insights to the current situation and prospects of the legume vegetables sector in Benin, and can be used as decision tool for the introduction of new leguminous vegetable species to promote the sector and make substantial contribution to nutritional security in Benin.
Existing practices for soil fertility management through cereals-legume inter...Premier Publishers
Low crop production has been attributed to inherently low availability of plant nutrients, nutrient imbalances and inadequate soil moisture for plant growth. Past and current soil management practices have enhanced the degradation of the soils. These have been caused by increased withdrawal of plant nutrients from the soil and consequently to reduced plant growth. To meet future food requirements, it is inevitable that the use of inorganic fertilizers will continue to increase. However, such fertilizers are expensive to farmers and they are potential environmental pollutants. The intensification and diversification of the cropping systems and traditional practices in Africa have compounded the decline in soil fertility. To raise and sustain soil fertility and productivity in Africa, appropriate traditional soil fertility management practices have to be developed and adopted by farmers. Cereal-legumes cropping systems accompanying management technologies indicated the advantage of these technologies and their function of socio-economic and bio-physical conditions. This review explored the mechanisms and processes associated with soil fertility management, effect of intensive agriculture on soil degradation, role of traditional and scientific knowledge, benefits, challenges and additional cereal-legumes cropping systems. These contributed to understanding the effects soil fertility management decisions and human-use impacts on long-term ecological composition and function.
AN OVERVIEW of the CHALLENGES of AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH in SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA:...Premier Publishers
This study, analyzes the challenges of national agricultural research institutions (NARIs) in Eritrea from organizational perspective. It examines the institutional and research capacities, and the human and financial capabilities of NARIs. The data for this study was taken from a study conducted in June 2017 in the Ministry of Agriculture. The study used both survey and case study methodologies. The study seeks to answer the following two research questions: what are the challenges of NARIs in Eritrea? What can be learned from the experience of SSA countries NARIs? In this study, it is found that NARI has inadequate human, material and financial resources and limited research agenda. NARI has shortage of operational funding and trained personnel in specialized areas, which require higher education level. The current agricultural research system under NARI is less responsive to the various challenges and constraints of agricultural production and development in Eritrea. NARI should focus on participatory demand driven research methodology and integrate the needs of small-scale and commercial farmers, and improve its management, planning, monitoring and evaluation systems, including physical and human capital, and its research agenda. There is a need for the development of strategy that integrates elements that reinforce and build the present capacity of the agricultural research system.
Comparative Analysis of Fertilizer Use among Small-Scale Irrigation Farmers i...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Motives of cultivating traditional leafy vegetables in Tamale MetropolisAI Publications
Abstract— Although, there are several researches in
Ghana’s agricultural sector, little has been done on the
investigation of the motives of traditional leafy vegetable
production in Ghana. This present study assessed the
motive of traditional leafy vegetable crop production in the
Northern region of Ghana using cross-sectional data. A
simple random sampling technique was used to select 334
peri-urban and urban farming communities in the Tamale
Metropolis. A questionnaire was administered to the
respondents and data collected were analyzed using Chisquare
test, percentage and frequencies. The results
indicate that the motives for traditional leafy vegetable
production were very similar for both peri-urban and
urban farming communities. The main motive for
traditional leafy vegetable production was statistically
significant for cash income [χ2 (1, N=334) = 3.755, p <
0.050], and employment [χ2 (1, N=334) = 13.135, p <
0.001], statistically insignificant for manure [χ2 (1,
N=334) = 1.064, p < 0.302] and food/subsistence [χ2 (1,
N=334) = 3.755, p < 0.059]. Given that traditional leafy
vegetable production is a good source of income
generation, government should encourage the youth to
participate in agricultural activities through the provision
of incentives and ready market.
Wheat crop responds to climate change in rainfed areas of District Mansehra, ...Innspub Net
Agriculture in many ways is affected by climate change and has impact for productivity of crops particularly in rainfed areas. Climate change related research remained a poorly investigated area in KP and instant study filled that gap by investigating impacts of change in climate on farm productivity. The secondary data, spread over 30 years from 1984 to 2013 pertaining to temperature, precipitation, area under cultivation and yield of crops was collected. Analytical models used are ARDL Model. The results pertaining to impact of temperature and precipitation on wheat yield suggest long run relationship among the variables. Temperature is positively and significantly related in Mansehra. The precipitation is positively and significantly related. Short run relationship implies that around 100% deviations from long-term equilibrium are adjusted every year in case of Mansehra. The results wheat areas suggest long run relationship among the variables based on F Statistics value. Both temperature and precipitation are positively and significantly related to the area under wheat in the long run in case of Mansehra. Based on objectives of the research study and field findings recommendations offered include; farmers awareness drive, policies to promote adaptation measures, enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity to strengthen local resilience, participation of farming community in formulation of policies, making meteorological information available to farmers, Design research plans to evolve crops varieties addressing changing climatic challenges, construct water harvesting structures for high efficiency irrigation and further research to estimate range of temperature and precipitation within which crops under study perform better.
Study on Impact of Land Fragmentation in Agriculture-A Case of Rajshahi Distr...paperpublications3
Abstract:The study was conducted in Rajshahi district to get clear picture on the status of land fragmentation. Total 30 respondents were interviewed to know about the status of land fragmentation in Rajshai, impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, environment, economics and sustainable development. This study was conducted with the view to assess the impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, land uses as well as on society, and in particular, challenges for the agricultural land. Several factors were recognized and it is happening due to alterations in physiographic and social-economic conditions and population growth. The land use pattern of Bangladesh is changing very rapidly due to unplanned human settlement and industrialization. Bangladesh is a small country but it supports a huge population, resulting in a very high density of population and very high intensity of land and resource use The following factors are driving country’s overall scenario of economic development and environment imbalance include: i) unexpected population growth; ii) human settlement; iii) increased number of nuclear family; and iv) scarcity of land for ever increasing demand of food. As a result, agricultural land is decreasing remarkably. Results showed that the land fragmentation of Rajshahi district is changing, especially the agricultural land is decreasing in an alarming rate and now it is becoming more and more vulnerable. The agricultural land of the study area is losing each and every year. The agricultural production also is decreasing due to lack of agricultural land, industrialization, decreasing soil fertility and making soils toxics by using chemicals. If this rate continues, the agricultural land will be totally exhausted within the next couple of years. Moreover the fragmentation of land is impacting sustainable development of the study area frequently. If the perceived problems could be solved by raising awareness among the people, go for vertical uses of land, motivate family to live in the extend family, adopting appropriate policy for human settlements and land use planning.
Keywords:Extend family; land fragmentation; nuclear family; vertical scope; sustainable development.
Leguminous vegetables production and marketing in Southern Benin|Ijaar vol-15...Innspub Net
As a preliminary study that sets ground for the introduction of new leguminous vegetables, this survey assessed the state of production and market characteristics of leguminous vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas of southern Benin. Covering three administrative departments where most vegetable growers and traders are based in Benin, the study used the semi-structured interview approach with 105 respondents including vegetable growers and traders to gather information on diversity, pest and disease management practices, constraints, distribution channel of leguminous vegetable cultivated and willingness to adopt new leguminous vegetable species and varieties. The results showed clear task division between males and females. While a narrow diversity of leguminous vegetable species was grown in Benin, their production is highly market driven. Tunnel type greenhouse and open field farming were practiced in mono-cropping or crop rotation system with the use of poultry manure, animal dungs and mineral fertilizers as mean of fertilisation. The collectors and wholesalers were the most important stakeholders of the distribution channel, followed by the hotels and restaurants. Major constraints include pest and disease infestations, low yield achieved and lack of improved varieties. All respondents were willing to adopt new leguminous vegetable including vegetable soybean “edamame”, peas, pigeon peas, mung bean, faba-beans, common bean. This study provides insights to the current situation and prospects of the legume vegetables sector in Benin, and can be used as decision tool for the introduction of new leguminous vegetable species to promote the sector and make substantial contribution to nutritional security in Benin.
Existing practices for soil fertility management through cereals-legume inter...Premier Publishers
Low crop production has been attributed to inherently low availability of plant nutrients, nutrient imbalances and inadequate soil moisture for plant growth. Past and current soil management practices have enhanced the degradation of the soils. These have been caused by increased withdrawal of plant nutrients from the soil and consequently to reduced plant growth. To meet future food requirements, it is inevitable that the use of inorganic fertilizers will continue to increase. However, such fertilizers are expensive to farmers and they are potential environmental pollutants. The intensification and diversification of the cropping systems and traditional practices in Africa have compounded the decline in soil fertility. To raise and sustain soil fertility and productivity in Africa, appropriate traditional soil fertility management practices have to be developed and adopted by farmers. Cereal-legumes cropping systems accompanying management technologies indicated the advantage of these technologies and their function of socio-economic and bio-physical conditions. This review explored the mechanisms and processes associated with soil fertility management, effect of intensive agriculture on soil degradation, role of traditional and scientific knowledge, benefits, challenges and additional cereal-legumes cropping systems. These contributed to understanding the effects soil fertility management decisions and human-use impacts on long-term ecological composition and function.
AN OVERVIEW of the CHALLENGES of AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH in SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA:...Premier Publishers
This study, analyzes the challenges of national agricultural research institutions (NARIs) in Eritrea from organizational perspective. It examines the institutional and research capacities, and the human and financial capabilities of NARIs. The data for this study was taken from a study conducted in June 2017 in the Ministry of Agriculture. The study used both survey and case study methodologies. The study seeks to answer the following two research questions: what are the challenges of NARIs in Eritrea? What can be learned from the experience of SSA countries NARIs? In this study, it is found that NARI has inadequate human, material and financial resources and limited research agenda. NARI has shortage of operational funding and trained personnel in specialized areas, which require higher education level. The current agricultural research system under NARI is less responsive to the various challenges and constraints of agricultural production and development in Eritrea. NARI should focus on participatory demand driven research methodology and integrate the needs of small-scale and commercial farmers, and improve its management, planning, monitoring and evaluation systems, including physical and human capital, and its research agenda. There is a need for the development of strategy that integrates elements that reinforce and build the present capacity of the agricultural research system.
Evaluation of land use practice and its future consequence on dilla zuria wor...zinabu wolde
The study reviewed Land use practices in Gedeo Zone Dilla Zuria woreda to assess its role and achievements in ensuring good food security since 2014 in which the people of Gedeo were being practice on. The objectives were to (1) identify the land Use practice that have been used over time; (2) identify the problem of current land Use practice in the area (3) identify the challenges of the practice in the soil; (4) determine the extent of use of land use practice from historical approaches in maintaining good service and (5) make recommendations for further improvement of land use practice. Primary sources, Published and unpublished secondary sources revealed that several agricultural approach were being undertaken in order to make clear land use practice of the area. One of the basic approaches undertaken today was Agroforestry practice, which culturally tied with Nation of Gedeo. Land use practice dealt with challenges of previous and current approaches of land use practice. Aspects of challenges to effective Land use practice in area were administrative or management, farmer awareness, and in general, attitudinal change of farmers in the area. Natural resource management such as integrated watershed management, soil and water conservation practice, consequence of improper land use practice are discussed and recommended for further improvement of land use practice in the study area.
The Impact of Climate Change on Teff Production in Southeast Tigray, EthiopiaPremier Publishers
The paper reports results of a study on investigating impacts of climate change on teff (Eragrostis tef) production in three agro-ecological zones (highlands, midlands and lowlands) of Endamehoni and Raya Azebo weredas of Tigray. The impact of climate change on teff farming was estimated taking into account farm households’ characteristics, socio-economic, climate, adaptations, production factors and agro-ecological settings in a low-income developing country. Ricardian model was used to analyze data obtained from teff farming households. From the fourteen predictor variables fitted in the model, six variables e.g. climate factors, adaptation strategies, production factors, weather and climate information, socio-economic factors and agro-ecology were found to have significance influence on net revenues with model coefficients at p=0.05 and less. Climate factors (temperature and rainfall) and adaptation to climate change were found to play key roles on net revenues. Increasing (decreasing) temperature reduces (increases) teff revenues. Therefore, policies of government on adaptation ought to be given enough attention to reduce vulnerability and improve food security among teff farming communities in rural areas.
Efficiency and Yield Gap Analysis in Potato Production: The Case of Potato Fa...Premier Publishers
The study examined efficiency, yield gap and level of responsiveness of output to the factors of production in potato production in central highlands of Ethiopia. The study used household level cross sectional data collected in 2015/16 from 196 sample farmers selected through multistage sampling technique. A stochastic frontier model was employed for the efficiency analysis. The scale coefficient for production function was calculated to be 1.1, indicating a 1% increase in all inputs proportionally increases total production by 1.1%. The mean technical efficiency and actual yield gap of sample households are 62.6% and 15.2 t/ha respectively. Eighty six percent of the yield variation in potato production is due to technical inefficiency and accounts for 13.07 t/ha yield gap. Therefore, efforts designed to improve efficiency would be more cost effective than introducing new technologies such as developing new varieties as a means of increasing potato production and productivity.
Determinants of Small-Scale Irrigation Use: The Case of Jeldu District, West ...Premier Publishers
The study was conducted in Jeldu district on two peasant associations namely Metekoma and Laku. The objective of this study was to identify determinants of Small-scale irrigation use. A total of 118 farmers were randomly selected and interviewed by using semi structured questionnaire. A three-stage sampling technique was used to obtain a sample size of 118 rural farm households. Cross sectional data were collected through structured questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informants and observation. Household caloric acquisition was employed to measure household food security in the study area. The collected data were analyzed by SPSS version 20.0. Binary logistic regression model reveals that, out of eleven explanatory variables, age of household, educational level of household, Adult equivalent, cultivated land size, Oxen ownership of household, livestock ownership in TLU, and total farm income were found to be significant. Governmental and non-governmental should give attention on intensifying agricultural production in order to encourage the productivity of limited land. The study concluded that small scale irrigation is one of the viable solutions to secure household food needs in the study area. The study also suggested the proper management system of the irrigation schemes in order to sustainably use them.
Evaluation of the Growth and Yield Performances of Maize in a Soybean Culture...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Sources of Technical Inefficiency of Smallholder Farmers in Sorghum Productio...Premier Publishers
This study aims to estimate the technical efficiency and identify sources of technical inefficiency in sorghum production by smallholder farmers in Konso district, southern Ethiopia using data collected from a sample of 124 households. Individual levels of technical efficiency scores were estimated using the Cobb-Douglas functional form, which was specified to estimate the stochastic production frontier. The estimated stochastic production frontier model indicated that input variables such as land, Urea, DAP, labour, oxen and chemicals found to be important factors in increasing the level of sorghum output in the study area. The mean technical efficiency of the sample households was about 69%, which shows existence of a possibility to increase the level of sorghum output by about 31% by efficient use of the existing resources. The estimated stochastic production frontier model together with the inefficiency parameters showed that, age, education, family size, off-farm occupation, extension service, livestock holding, plots distance and soil fertility were found to be significant in determining the level of technical inefficiency of sorghum production in the study area. Negative coefficients of education, family size, off-farm occupation, extension service and soil fertility indicates that improvement in these factors results in a significant decrease in the level of technical inefficiency. Akin, positive coefficients of age, livestock holding and plots distance were found to increase households’ technical inefficiency. Hence, emphasis should be given to improve the efficiency level of those less efficient households by adopting the practices of relatively efficient households in the study area. Beside this, policies and strategies of the government should be directed towards the above mentioned determinants.
Similar to 11.[7 17]determinants of adoption and labour intensity of stone-terraces in eastern highlands of ethiopia (20)
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
Assuring Contact Center Experiences for Your Customers With ThousandEyes
11.[7 17]determinants of adoption and labour intensity of stone-terraces in eastern highlands of ethiopia
1. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
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Vol.3, No.5, 2012
Determinants of Adoption and Labour Intensity of Stone-
terraces in Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia
Mengistu Ketema (Corresponding Author)
Department of Agricultural Economics, Haramaya University
P.O.Box 48, Haramaya, Ethiopia
E-mail: mengistuket@yahoo.com
Siegfried Bauer
Project and Regional Planning, University of Giessen
Senckenbergstr. 3, D-35390, Germany
E-mail: Siegfried.Bauer@agrar.uni-giessen.de
Abstract
Stone-terrace construction is among the most common methods for conserving soil and water resources in
the intensively cultivated highland parts of Ethiopia. Human labour is the scarcest input required for
construction as stones are freely available on the farm. Consequently, adopting terraces may not be enough
by itself unless adequate amount of labour is devoted for its construction. In an effort to assess factors
impeding adoption of stone terraces and its labour use intensity, this study uses a household- and plot-level
data collected from 211 farm households and applies a double-hurdle model for analysis. A number of
variables are found to be statistically significant in affecting adoption of stone-terraces and its labour use
intensity. Among important implications of this study are gradually relaxing the limited land tenure
security; designing programs for enlarging parcel size and minimizing fragmentation; and launching and
strengthening farm training and education activities.
Keywords: soil conservation, double-hurdle model, Ethiopia, labour use intensity, terraces
1. Introduction
Land degradation has become a global environmental threat currently drawing wide-spread attention from
the international community. Globally, 24 percent of the land area has been degrading, of which about one-
fifth is cropland. Viewing it differently, more than 20 percent of all cultivated areas are degrading, affecting
the livelihoods of about 1.5 billion people (Bai et al. 2008). It has multiple and complex impacts on the
global environment through a broad range of direct and indirect processes. Among its direct effects is the
loss of fertile soils resulting from soil erosion ultimately leading to a decline in productivity and per capita
income levels. A global scale estimates of annual loss of 75 billion tons of soil costs the world about
US$400 billion per year, or approximately US$70 per person per year (Eswaran et al. 2001).
Degradation has an abysmal effect on agricultural productivity especially in developing countries where
agriculture remains one of the largest sectors in the economy both in terms of its contributions to the GDP
and generating employment. Various studies, at different times, have indicated that the continent of Africa
is seriously threatened by land degradation. Yield reduction in Africa due to past soil erosion averages at
8.2 percent for the continent (Eswaran et al. 2001). According to Thiombiano & Tourino-Soto (2007),
Africa accounts for 65 percent of the total extensive cropland degradation of the world. Another study by
Bai et al. (2008) indicated that about 494 million hectare of land in Africa, 16 percent of total land of the
continent, is degraded of which soil erosion contributes about 84 percent. In effect, countries like
Zimbabwe, Ghana and Ethiopia were found to be losing five to nine percent of their agricultural output
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every year due to land degradation (Bojö 1996).
Ethiopia is among countries in Sub-Saharan Africa that are reported to suffer severe land degradation
problem. The country, with a population that doubled from about 39.8 million in 1984 to over 79 million in
2009 just within 25 years (CSA 2008a), is now the second most populous country in Africa. On the
contrary, food gap has increased since the early 1980s, though per capita food availability has remained
relatively stable over the years owing to the generous inflow of food aid; and the agricultural sector has
registered a growth rate of only 1.7 percent since 1992 (Rashid et al. 2007) though official government
reports put a two-digit figure for the past few years.
Consequently, it has become a formidable challenge for the country to feed its growing population.
According to FAO estimate, for instance, 44 percent of the population in Ethiopia is undernourished with
47 percent of the children suffering from malnutrition (FAO 2009). Furthermore, the proportion of a
population living below 1 US dollar a day (at PPP) is 39 percent (WHO 2009).
Land degradation problem mainly resulting from soil erosion and nutrient depletion, can be singled out as
one of the most important environmental problems creating an unprecedented threat to food security goals
of the country. An estimate based on remote sensing tools indicated that about 26 percent of the land area in
Ethiopia has been degrading over the years 1981-2003, directly affecting the livelihoods of about 29
percent of the population (Bai et al. 2008). Available estimates of economic impact of soil erosion also
show that it is among the factors contributing to the country’s structural food insecurity problem. Soil
erosion is estimated to reduce food production by at least 2 percent annually (FAO 1993). This might be a
possible reason for a very low average yield of crops in the country as compared to yields in other parts of
the world.
According to World Bank (2005) estimates for the periods 2002–2004, the average yield was 1318 kg per
hectare, which is less than 60 percent of that in other low-income countries and less than 40 percent of the
world average. Moreover, the agricultural value-added per Ethiopian worker during the same period was
about 123 dollars (in 2000 US dollars), while it was 375 dollars for low-income countries and 776 dollars
for the whole world (World Bank 2005). This definitely has a repercussion on the country’s national
income. In this regard, Sonneveld (2002) indicated that the cost of soil erosion to the national economy is
about 1.0 billion US dollars per year. The problem of accelerating land degradation is especially serious in
the intensively cultivated highland parts of the country.
In order to combat its adverse effect it is, therefore, necessary for farmers to adopt sustainable land
management and conservation strategies, among others, that result in increased productivity and farm
income and at the same time maintain the fertility levels of land resources. To this effect, some farmers
have already made significant progress in dealing with soil erosion problems by adopting some soil
conservation and fertility maintenance techniques. Among well-established methods of soil and water
conservation is stone terracing. Human labour is the scarcest input required for construction of stone
terraces as stones are freely available within and near the cultivated fields. Consequently, the amount of
labour devoted to the construction of stone terraces can be an indicator for the intensity of terraces on the
farm. That means, adopting terraces may not be enough by itself unless adequate amount of labour is
devoted for its construction to the required level. Therefore, the difference among farmers in the study area
with regard to terrace construction is not only in terms of adopting the measure but also in terms of the
amount of labour devoted for that.
Impediments for adoption and for the intensity levels in terms of labour use can be multi-faceted including
factors related to the capacity in terms of different livelihood assets, the knowledge or awareness about
conservation strategies, and farm-related features. In an effort to assess factors impeding adoption of stone
terraces and its labour use intensity, this study uses a household- and plot-level data collected from three
districts of Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia.
2. Methodology
2.1 Overview of the Study Area
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The study area, Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia, is found in Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. It consists of
two zones, East Hararghe and West Hararghe zones. Farming systems in the East and West Hararghe zones
of Ethiopia constitute complex production units involving a diversity of interdependent mixed cropping and
livestock activities. The major annual crops grown in these zones include sorghum, maize, groundnuts,
sweet potato, wheat, haricot beans, barley, and others. In addition, the major cash crops like t’chat and
coffee have a long-standing tradition in these zones. T’chat (Catha edulis) is a mild narcotic perennial bush
the leaves of which are chewed as stimulants. Production of t’chat makes the farming system in Hararghe
highlands to be a cash crop-based mixed crop-livestock farming system, and not a mere grain-based mixed
crop-livestock system, unlike the case in other parts of the country.
Increasing population density coupled with lack of alternative employment opportunities in rural areas has
led to progressive land pressure and caused subsequent shrinking of individual land holdings,
fragmentation of available holdings, and expansion into fragile and marginal areas. In 2008 cropping
season, for instance, average landholdings in East Hararge zone was about 0.59 hectares with about 85
percent of the households owning an average area of less than one hectare. In West Hararghe zone, the
average holding was 0.9 hectare with about 66 percent owning an area of less than one hectare (CSA
2008b). The indicated average holding in East Hararghe zone is fragmented into 3.15 parcels with an
average size of only 0.19 ha. In West Hararghe zone, it is fragmented into 2.72 parcels with an average size
of only 0.33 ha. The problem of fragmentation is very evident especially when compared to the average
household size, during the same period, of 5.36 and 5.17 persons in East and West Hararghe zones,
respectively. Furthermore, the severity of land degradation in the highland parts of these zones is becoming
of grave concern.
Despite all these problems in these zones, the technological setup has not been transformed. Farming is still
traditional with limited use of yield enhancing modern inputs like improved seeds, fertilizers, irrigation,
and others. Use of chemical fertilizer, for instance, was only on 16.7 percent of cereal farms in East
Hararghe zone while natural fertilizer was applied on 40.6 percent constituting a total fertilized cereal area
of about 57 percent in 2008 (CSA 2008c). Furthermore, investments in a long-term soil and water
conservation structures are very minimal.
Construction of terraces, as a long-term soil and water conservation practices, in the study areas is
becoming a common tradition especially in degradation prone highland parts. Available terraces are
basically of stone-bund and soil-bund types. What is called stone-bund in the area is actually a very stable
walls constructed from a combination of carefully layered stones collected from the farm and soil materials.
Soil bunds, however, are made by digging or ploughing the soil and making a sort of wall. Stone terraces
are very effective in preventing soil erosion and in retaining water. Soil bunds are only effective in less
sloppy areas and when there is no heavy runoff. Whereas stone terraces serve for a relatively longer time
period with minor maintenance activities, soil bunds will only serve one or two cropping seasons and hence
require annual rebuilding. In fact, stone terraces construction requires considerably more investment of
time, labour and other inputs than does building soil bunds. These conservation investments are private
activities constructed by farmers on susceptible plots, sometimes assisted by the agricultural extension
services. There are also public conservation structures constructed on communal steeply sloping land and
marginal areas.
2.2 Data Sources and Measurements
Multi-stage sampling techniques were employed to select the final sample units. Initially three districts, two
from East Harerghe zone and one from West Hararghe zone, were selected purposively based on severity of
degradation problems. These districts were Meta and Goro-Gutu from East Hararghe zone, and Tulo from
West Hararghe zone. In the second stage, a total of 9 kebeles were randomly selected using highland
kebeles in the selected districts as a sampling frame. In the third stage, the survey drew a total of about 211
farm households based on probability proportional to size sampling technique. Then household-level and
plot-level data were collected.
Household-level data included variables like extension contact, credit access, farm training, membership to
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organizations, land holding, livestock holding, number of parcels, farm equipments owned, proportion of
perennial crops, family size, dependency ratio, age, sex, education of the household head, involvement in
non-/off-farm activities, and others. Plot level variables collected about all plots owned by the selected
households, on the other hand, included use of different inputs, land management and conservation
activities on the plot, size of the plot, slope of the plot, fertility level of the plot, ownership of the plot and
others.
Description and measurements of all the variables used in econometric analysis are presented in Table 1.
2.3 Analytical Framework
Conservation investments in the form of stone terraces and its labour use intensity are analyzed at plot-
levels. For these, the dependent variables are adoption of stone terraces expressed as a dichotomous
variable and its labour use intensity expressed as a continuous variable. The number of labour devoted to
construction of terraces is considered as an indicator of the intensity of conservation structures on the farm
plot. It is measured as the number of man-days devoted per hectare per year for construction and
maintenance of stone terraces, by taking into consideration farmers’ estimate of expected life of constructed
terraces. Explanatory variables, in both cases, include market access factors, physical incentives to invest,
capacity to invest, socio-institutional factors, household demographic characteristics, and farm
characteristics.
Theoretically, the decisions on whether to adopt stone terraces and how much labour to devote for that can
be made jointly or separately. The assumption here, however, is that the decision to adopt terraces may
precede the decision on its intensity in terms of labour. In such situation, it is more suitable to apply
Cragg’s ‘double-hurdle’ as it is specified below.
If we let as a latent variable describing the household’s decision to adopt stone terraces, as a latent
variable describing households’ decision on amount of labour devoted for stone terraces, and and as
their observed counterparts, then based on the specification by Cragg (1971) and Moffatt (2003), the
double-hurdle model essentially contains two equations as follows:
(1)
(2)
Where
and
Within this framework, we can describe several different types of econometric models such as the Tobit,
Cragg, Heckman, and Complete Dominance models. The differences between these models revolve around
the assumptions about the farmers’ decision at the two stages of the model and whether the two decisions
can be made simultaneously or not. Here, in the case of farmers’ adoption of stone terraces we assume a
decision on adopting the practice is made first, and then decision on the intensity of use (in terms of the
amount of labour devoted) follows.
Cragg’s double-hurdle model is perhaps the most flexible of the other two stage models as it allows for
censoring at either stage of the model (Brouhle and Khanne 2005). The advantage of the Cragg model over
the Tobit model is that the former allows variables to have differing effects on the adoption and the labour
use decisions (Brouhle & Khanna 2005; Burke 2009). That means, the labour intensity equation and the
adoption equation are allowed to have different coefficients.
Double-hurdle model postulates that to observe positive level of labour use, the farmer must pass two
hurdles: (i) be an adopter of the stone terraces and (ii) actually devote labour for constructing the terraces.
In the Cragg model, Equations (1) and (2) are assumed to be independent, and therefore, the error terms are
randomly and independently distributed, and . This means:
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In the first stage we run a probit model to capture the decision of whether the farmer uses stone terraces or
not. The second stage is a Tobit model for labour use intensity conditional on use of stone terraces (i.e. for
adopters).
The log-likelihood function for the version of Cragg’s model that assumes the probit and truncated
regressions to be uncorrelated is given as follows (Carrol et al. 2005):
(3)
where and are the standard normal cumulative distribution function and density function,
respectively. The first portion is the log-likelihood for a probit, while the second portion is the log-
likelihood for a truncated regression, with truncation at zero. Therefore, the log-likelihood from the Cragg
model is the sum of the log-likelihood from a probit and a truncated regression. More useful, however, is
the fact that these two component pieces are entirely separable, such that the probit and truncated
regression can be estimated separately. This means the probit parameters are not included anywhere in the
truncated regression, while the truncated regression parameters are not included anywhere in the probit
regression.
It is also obvious that the double-hurdle model reduces to the Tobit model when the probit mechanism (i.e.,
) is absent in Equation (2). This is also seen in the likelihood function (Equation 3) when
. In fact, it is possible to compare the Tobit model and the Cragg’s double-hurdle model.
Cragg’s model allows the parameters to differ in the two decisions and Tobit model allows the same
parameters in these decisions. Therefore, it is appropriate to test whether or not the restriction of equal
parameterization is supported by the data. The restriction requires , which is tested through the
application of a Hausman-type test, as suggested by Lin & Schmidt (1984).
The estimates of the double-hurdle model might not be efficient if the error term is homoscedastic across
observations. However, this problem can be further improved by allowing the standard deviation to vary
across observations. Heteroskedasticity is integrated into the model by assuming that the variance of the
error term is an exponential function of a set of exogenous variables, , a subset of (Newman et al.
2003). In particular, the standard deviation is parameterized as follows:
Where h is a conformable parameter vector.
3. Empirical Results and Discussions
Results of the Cragg’s double-hurdle model are presented in Table 2. The analysis reveals that there are
some differences in terms of the magnitude and direction of determinants significantly affecting the
decisions to adopt terraces and its intensity in terms of labour use.
The decision to adopt terraces and the decision on its intensity in terms of labour use are both positively
and significantly affected by size, slope, and ownership of the parcel; training, age, and level of education
of the household head; proportion of t’chat planted; and involvement in off-/non-farm activities.
Plot size influences conservation decision positively. This is because the proportion of the loss in area
devoted to conservation structures is larger on small plots than on large plots resulting in lesser returns
which may not adequately compensate for the decline in production in the former case. Thus, large plots
result in better rewards to the cost of constructing terraces. A similar result has been reported in Bekele &
Drake (2003). In addition, slope influences the conservation decision positively for the reason that erosion
is more serious on steeper plots than on flat plots. Hence, steeper slopes increase the incentive to invest in
land conservation. Similarly, investments in land conservation are greater on owned plots than on rented or
shared plots as ownership implies confidence in securing long-term benefits out of conservation
investments. A similar result that tenure security favours long-term investment has been reported in various
other studies (Illukpitiya & Gopalakrishnan 2004; Clay et al. 1998; Kabubo-Mariara 2003).
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The coefficients for the educational and training dummies imply that the probability of investing in land
conservation increases with the level of education and trainings obtained. Public investments in education
and farmers’ training promote conservation activities. The knowledge farmers gained through education
and training enables them to be equipped with the technical knowhow required for constructing
conservation structures. Furthermore, it makes them far-sighted to look for long-term benefits through
sustainable production and land management practices rather than immediate benefits obtained at the
expense of soil quality. This is in line with the results reported by several studies (Illukpitiya &
Gopalakrishnan 2004; Kabubo-Mariara 2003).
The positive effect of involvement in off-/non-farm activities is contrary to some research results that
indicate the possibility of reduced time available for farm work because of involvement in off-farm
activities (Holden et al. 2004; Mbaga-Semgalawe & Folmer 2000; Amsalu & de Graaff 2007). Here, the
result implies involvement in non-farm income sources is an incentive to invest in conservation structures,
as also supported by a result reported in Marenya & Barrett (2007). Non-farm income, especially where
credit markets are underdeveloped, is important for households in order to buy materials and labour
required in constructing terraces. Similarly, the major cash crop in the area, t’chat, is especially important
in enhancing conservation investment. It provides farmers with the incentive and capacity to make
substantial investments as the proportion of t’chat farm indicates the economic status of households in the
study areas.
The two decisions, adoption and labour use, are both negatively and significantly affected by fertility status
of the plot and the proportion of female members in the farm household. This implies that the way
households rank the soil fertility status are important determinants of adoption and the level of resources
devoted to its conservation. That means households tend to adopt and devote resources for conservation
structure on less fertile soils as compared to more fertile plots. These results are in line with some earlier
studies (Mbaga-Semgalawe & Folmer 2000; Amsalu & de Graaff 2007). In addition, as conservation
measures are relatively labourious activity usually requiring strong male labours, the proportion of female
members has a negative effect on conservation efforts.
There are also variables whose effects are only reflected in one decision and not in the other. The decision
to adopt terraces is affected negatively and significantly by land fragmentation, distance of the plot and
membership to organizations and positively and significantly by extension contact and market distance. A
possible explanation for the negative influence of land fragmentation, the geographical dispersion of plots
measured in terms of Simpson index, can be because of a lesser returns to conservation investment from
small pieces of dispersed plots than that from large-sized plots as related with economies of scale, a result
which is consistent with the finding revealed in Clay et al. (1998). Moreover, the decision to adopt
conservation structure is negatively influenced by farm distance, as home-farm distance detracts the
propensity to construct stone terraces. Another possible reason can be because distant parcels are often
found where soil erosion is less severe and where lands have been brought into production more recently,
as compared to nearby parcels. The negative effect of membership to organizations, which is against other
empirical results, is rather puzzling and a bit difficult to justify. A possible explanation can be based on the
type of information obtained from available organizations in the study area. Available organizations, as
sources of information to farmers, might not encourage farmers to invest on long-term measures if their
major focus is on some other issues or if they favour short-term land management strategies like use of
fertilizer.
On the contrary, extension contact results in increased probability of adopting conservation measures as
extension agents are important sources of technical information in the study areas. A similar effect of
distance to the market can be explained by the availability of alternative activities on which farmers can
devote their labour, other than land conservation, for farmers living nearer to market centres as compared to
those in distant areas.
On the other hand, the amount of labour invested for terracing increases with an increase in value of farm
equipment, and decreases with an increase in the size of total land holding. The negative relationship
between total land holding and intensity of conservation investment indicates that farmers with relatively
larger landholdings may have more land under fallow and thus may feel less pressured to protect their land,
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or larger farmers are not compelled to take conservation measures to meet daily food and cash needs
because of the adequacy of production from available lands as compared to those with small landholdings.
In addition, owners of large farms tend to have less household labour available per hectare for building and
maintaining conservation structures. A similar finding is revealed by Bekele & Drake (2003), Clay et al.
(1998), and Kabubo-Mariara (2003). On the other hand, a positive effect of value of farm tools indicates
that higher investment in physical capital favour long-term conservation activities.
4. Conclusions
A number of variables are found to be statistically significant in affecting adoption of conservation
decisions and its intensity. Positive and significant effects of variables like size, slope, and ownership of the
parcel; age, level of education, and training of the household head; proportion of perennial cash crop
(t’chat); and involvement in off-/non-farm activities in affecting terrace adoption and its labour use
intensity are revealed in this study. The two decisions are both negatively and significantly affected by
fertility status of the plot and the proportion of female members in the farm household. In addition,
variables whose effects are only reflected in one decision and not in the other are also discussed. This
implies that land and soil moisture conservation through use of long-term investments like terracing can be
promoted by paying attention to all these factors.
It is a fact that tenure insecurity provides little incentive for innovation, better land management, and
increased use of farm inputs. This implies that there is a need for a more secure land tenure policy than
currently prevailing in the country. The limited security needs to be gradually relaxed so as to facilitate
investment in the land. This may initially take a form of use rights granted over sufficiently long periods of
time followed by complete privatization.
In addition, fragmentation of farm lands into small-sized parcels is widespread in the country.
Fragmentation as measured in terms of Simpson index resulted in lesser probability of adopting
conservation structures. This implies that it is necessary to have large-sized parcels and to minimize
fragmentation. This can be through implementing programs of consolidation that leads to the creation of
viable-sized farms, enlargement of fragmented holdings, reduction of production costs and costs per unit
for constructing conservation structures.
Furthermore, both trainings and education level of household heads are found to be important determinants
in enhancing use of conservation structures. Therefore, farm training activities focusing on the benefits of
conservation and technicalities in designing and constructing conservation structures like terraces, and in
managing other measures; and rural education programs in general need to be launched and strengthened.
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ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.3, No.5, 2012
of the World Bank, Report No. 29468-ET. [Online] Available:
http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?print=Y&pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523
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094758
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ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.3, No.5, 2012
Table 1. Detailed description and summary statistics of major variables
Variables Description Obs Mean S.D
Terracing 1 if stone terraces are available, 0 otherwise 489
Parcel size Parcel size (ha) 489 0.37 0.259
Slope: Flat 1 for flat slope, 0 otherwise 489 0.313 0.464
Gentle 1 for gentle slope, 0 otherwise 489 0.410 0.492
Steep 1 for steep slope, 0 otherwise 489 0.239 0.427
V. steep 1 for very steep slope, 0 otherwise 489 0.039 0.193
Fertil. level: Poor 1 for poor fertility, 0 otherwise 489 0.438 0.497
Medium 1 for medium fertility, 0 otherwise 489 0.213 0.410
Good 1 for good fertility, 0 otherwise 489 0.349 0.477
Farm distance Home-farm distance in kilometre 489 2.06 2.033
Land size Total land holding (ha) 211 0.84 0.466
Livestock holding Livestock in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) 211 3.26 2.187
Farm equipment Value of farm equipments (Br) 211 192.2 120.0
Fragm.(SI index) Land fragmentation in Simpson Index (SI)* 211 0.48 0.226
Prop. of t’chat Proportion of earnings from t’chat (Br) 489 0.25 0.247
Extension 1 if extension contact, 0 otherwise 211 0.569 0.496
Membership to org. 1 if member of organization, 0 otherwise 211 0.332 0.472
Trainings 1 if attended trainings within 5 years, 0 otherwise 211 0.251 0.435
Land ownership 1 if owned, 0 if rented-/shared-in 489 0.914 0.280
Age Age of the household head (years) 211 40.8 9.96
Sex 1 if a household is male-headed, 0 otherwise 211 0.877 0.329
Educ: no formal ed. 1 if no formal education, 0 otherwise 211 0.360 0.481
Primary 1 if primary level of education, 0 otherwise 211 0.450 0.499
Secondary 1 if secondary level of education, 0 otherwise 211 0.190 0.393
Adult equiv. Family size in adult equivalents 211 4.47 1.743
Dependency ratio ‘dependents’ (0-14 & 64+) to ‘active’ members (15-64) 211 1.32 0.768
Female prop. Proportion of female members in the family 211 0.46 0.127
Market dist. Distance to the nearest market in kilometres 211 6.57 4.431
Off-/non-farm 1 if involved in off-/non-farm activ., 0 otherwise 211 0.332 0.472
Districts: Metta 1 if Metta district, 0 otherwise 211 0.304 0.021
Goro-gutu 1 if Goro-gutu district, 0 otherwise 211 0.355 0.480
Tullo 1 if Tullo district, 0 otherwise 211 0.341 0.475
* Simpson Index (SI) is computed as where Ai is area of ith parcel and n is number of
parcels; SI lies between zero and one; and a higher SI means a higher degree of fragmentation.
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11. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
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Table 2. Estimates of Cragg’s double-hurdle model for adoption of terraces and its labour use intensity
adoption model Labor intensity model
Variables (pobit) (Truncated)
Coef. S.E. Coef. S.E.
Parcel size 0.481* 0.275 2.055* 1.155
Slope (cf. flat) Gentle 0.529*** 0.154 3.643*** 1.241
Steep 0.866*** 0.191 5.381*** 1.325
Very steep 1.176*** 0.381 8.431*** 2.113
Fertility level (cf. poor) Good -0.612*** 0.150 -4.594*** 1.154
Medium -0.703*** 0.191 -4.306*** 1.315
Farm distance -0.081** 0.035 -0.312 0.341
Land holding 0.075 0.176 -2.582** 1.206
Livestock holding (TLU) -0.017 0.040 -0.081 0.333
Farm equipments 0.001 0.001 0.015*** 0.005
Land fragmentation (SI index) -0.250* 0.137 -2.055 3.196
Proportion of t’chat 0.817*** 0.303 4.845* 2.766
Extension 0.355* 0.189 0.815 1.568
Organization member -0.277* 0.163 -2.205 1.544
Trainings 0.608*** 0.161 3.469** 1.576
Land ownership 0.411* 0.235 3.028* 1.684
Age 0.020** 0.009 0.161** 0.068
Gender 0.076 0.260 1.567 1.751
Level of educ. (cf. no formal educ.)
Primary 0.250 0.171 2.532* 1.548
Secondary 0.562** 0.233 3.015* 1.711
Adult equivalent -0.059 0.040 -0.336 0.362
Dependency ratio 0.039 0.093 -0.056 0.778
Proportion of female -0.866* 0.530 -8.026* 4.407
Market distance 0.031* 0.0167 0.109 0.134
Off-/non-farm activities 0.355** 0.158 2.412* 1.247
District (cf. Metta) Goro-gutu -0.098 0.171 -0.081 1.641
Tullo -0.074 0.181 -0.068 1.572
Constant -2.869*** 0.736 -15.352*** 5.816
No. of observations 489 253
Chi-square 104.50*** 57.32***
Log likelihood -268.209 -699.805
Sigma 5.114***
Notes: ***, **, and * indicate significance at 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively.
17
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