This document provides a history of veterinary medicine from ancient times to the present. It discusses how veterinary practices originated in ancient Egypt, Greece, India and other cultures. Key developments include the establishment of the first veterinary schools in France and India in the 18th-19th centuries. The document also outlines the scope of veterinary medicine and provides classifications of diseases based on origin, systems affected, causes, and intensity/spread. It defines important veterinary terms like symptoms, signs, syndromes, and classifications of diseases.
This document discusses different types of animal health surveillance systems. It describes passive surveillance as provider-initiated reporting, while active surveillance is health department-initiated. General surveillance collects data on multiple diseases, while targeted surveillance focuses on a specific disease. Data sources can include recorded diagnoses, clinical signs, survey reports, indirect indicators, and risk factors. Common surveillance systems are farmer-based, facility-based, sentinel, syndromic, and surveys. Each system has advantages and limitations for early detection and monitoring of animal diseases.
Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting young chickens. It is caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), which destroys lymphocytes in the bursa of Fabricius, impairing the immune system. Clinical signs include diarrhea, lethargy, and immunosuppression. At necropsy, the bursa appears swollen and hemorrhagic. Diagnosis relies on detecting viral antigens or nucleic acids in the bursa. Vaccination is the main control method, with live attenuated and in ovo vaccines available.
Fowl typhoid is a septicemic acute or chronic disease of domesticated birds.
The disease is worldwide distributed and natural outbreaks occur in chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, peafowl, duckling and game birds such as quail, grouse and pheasant.
This can cause mortality in birds of any age.
Broiler parents and brown-shell egg layers are especially susceptible.
Fowl adenovirus: Using serology to control your flocksRafael Monleon
A presentation about Fowl Adenovirus in chickens. It provides insights on: etiology, pathology, monitoring and control among others.
Presented globally on September 9th 2014 via Watt Ag-Net Webinar by Dr. Rafael Monleon
Contact me in LinkedIn for any question: www.linkedin.com/rafaelmonleon
Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro Disease) is caused by a double stranded RNA virus that infects young chickens between 3-6 weeks of age. The virus targets and destroys the bursa of Fabricius, causing immunosuppression that leads to high mortality. Clinical signs include diarrhea, vent pecking, and depression. Post mortem lesions show hemorrhaging in the bursa and muscles. The disease is diagnosed through history, clinical signs, and virus detection. Vaccination is the primary control method through live attenuated or killed vaccines administered to broilers at 7 and 21 days and layers at 14 days and older. Strict biosecurity and hygiene are also important to prevent transmission and control outbreaks
This document discusses causes of abortion in large animals. It describes infectious causes such as bacterial (e.g. Brucella abortus, Campylobacter fetus, Listeria monocytogenes), fungal (e.g. Aspergillus sp.), and protozoal (e.g. Neospora caninum, Tritrichomonas foetus) agents. It also discusses non-infectious causes including genetic factors, nutritional deficiencies, heat stress, and various toxins. The document provides details on abortion rates, timing, lesion presentation, and samples needed for diagnosis for many of the common infectious causes. It emphasizes the importance of rapid and proper sample collection and handling for determining the etiology of abortion
1) Bovine theileriosis is caused by tick-borne protozoan parasites of the genus Theileria, including T. annulata, T. mutans, and T. parva.
2) Clinical signs include fever, lymphadenopathy, and swelling of the lymph nodes. Postmortem findings include splenic enlargement and lymphoid hyperplasia.
3) Diagnosis involves identifying the parasites in blood and lymph node smears via microscopy. Differential diagnosis includes other tick-borne diseases like heartwater and babesiosis.
This document summarizes various causes of infertility in female dogs (bitches). It discusses congenital abnormalities of the reproductive tract such as agenesis of ovaries or uterine horns. It also covers acquired abnormalities, intersex conditions, abnormalities in chromosomal or gonadal sex, and functional abnormalities like delayed puberty or silent estrus. Infectious causes are described including Brucella canis and toxoplasmosis. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra are also summarized as causes related to hormonal imbalances and infections in the uterus.
This document discusses different types of animal health surveillance systems. It describes passive surveillance as provider-initiated reporting, while active surveillance is health department-initiated. General surveillance collects data on multiple diseases, while targeted surveillance focuses on a specific disease. Data sources can include recorded diagnoses, clinical signs, survey reports, indirect indicators, and risk factors. Common surveillance systems are farmer-based, facility-based, sentinel, syndromic, and surveys. Each system has advantages and limitations for early detection and monitoring of animal diseases.
Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting young chickens. It is caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), which destroys lymphocytes in the bursa of Fabricius, impairing the immune system. Clinical signs include diarrhea, lethargy, and immunosuppression. At necropsy, the bursa appears swollen and hemorrhagic. Diagnosis relies on detecting viral antigens or nucleic acids in the bursa. Vaccination is the main control method, with live attenuated and in ovo vaccines available.
Fowl typhoid is a septicemic acute or chronic disease of domesticated birds.
The disease is worldwide distributed and natural outbreaks occur in chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, peafowl, duckling and game birds such as quail, grouse and pheasant.
This can cause mortality in birds of any age.
Broiler parents and brown-shell egg layers are especially susceptible.
Fowl adenovirus: Using serology to control your flocksRafael Monleon
A presentation about Fowl Adenovirus in chickens. It provides insights on: etiology, pathology, monitoring and control among others.
Presented globally on September 9th 2014 via Watt Ag-Net Webinar by Dr. Rafael Monleon
Contact me in LinkedIn for any question: www.linkedin.com/rafaelmonleon
Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro Disease) is caused by a double stranded RNA virus that infects young chickens between 3-6 weeks of age. The virus targets and destroys the bursa of Fabricius, causing immunosuppression that leads to high mortality. Clinical signs include diarrhea, vent pecking, and depression. Post mortem lesions show hemorrhaging in the bursa and muscles. The disease is diagnosed through history, clinical signs, and virus detection. Vaccination is the primary control method through live attenuated or killed vaccines administered to broilers at 7 and 21 days and layers at 14 days and older. Strict biosecurity and hygiene are also important to prevent transmission and control outbreaks
This document discusses causes of abortion in large animals. It describes infectious causes such as bacterial (e.g. Brucella abortus, Campylobacter fetus, Listeria monocytogenes), fungal (e.g. Aspergillus sp.), and protozoal (e.g. Neospora caninum, Tritrichomonas foetus) agents. It also discusses non-infectious causes including genetic factors, nutritional deficiencies, heat stress, and various toxins. The document provides details on abortion rates, timing, lesion presentation, and samples needed for diagnosis for many of the common infectious causes. It emphasizes the importance of rapid and proper sample collection and handling for determining the etiology of abortion
1) Bovine theileriosis is caused by tick-borne protozoan parasites of the genus Theileria, including T. annulata, T. mutans, and T. parva.
2) Clinical signs include fever, lymphadenopathy, and swelling of the lymph nodes. Postmortem findings include splenic enlargement and lymphoid hyperplasia.
3) Diagnosis involves identifying the parasites in blood and lymph node smears via microscopy. Differential diagnosis includes other tick-borne diseases like heartwater and babesiosis.
This document summarizes various causes of infertility in female dogs (bitches). It discusses congenital abnormalities of the reproductive tract such as agenesis of ovaries or uterine horns. It also covers acquired abnormalities, intersex conditions, abnormalities in chromosomal or gonadal sex, and functional abnormalities like delayed puberty or silent estrus. Infectious causes are described including Brucella canis and toxoplasmosis. Cystic endometrial hyperplasia and pyometra are also summarized as causes related to hormonal imbalances and infections in the uterus.
Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) is associated with several diseases in cattle: infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV), balanoposthitis, conjunctivitis, abortion, encephalomyelitis, and mastitis.
El virus de inmunodeficiencia felina (VIF) es un lentivirus que sólo infecta a los gatos y destruye sus linfocitos-T, debilitando su sistema inmunitario. Aunque similar al VIH, el VIF no se transmite a humanos. El VIF se contagia principalmente a través de la saliva y puede transmitirse de madre a cría. Con detección temprana y tratamiento adecuado, los gatos infectados pueden llevar una vida larga a pesar del VIF.
Babesiosis, also known as bovine babesiosis, is a tick-borne disease of cattle and buffalo caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Babesia. The parasites infect and lyse red blood cells, causing hemolytic anemia. Clinical signs include fever, anemia, hemoglobinuria, and jaundice. Diagnosis is made by identifying the pear-shaped parasites on blood smears. Treatment involves the use of imidocarb or diminazine aceturate. Control relies on controlling tick vectors with acaricides and vaccination.
Avian encephalomyelitis is a viral disease that infects the central nervous system of young chickens and other birds. It is caused by an RNA virus from the family Picornaviridae. Clinical signs include ataxia, leg weakness, and tremors. Diagnosis is based on history, clinical signs, and detection of viral antigen in tissues. Prevention relies on vaccination of breeders to provide maternal immunity to offspring.
Sheep pox is a viral disease of sheep characterized by generalized pox lesions on the skin and mucous membranes, accompanied by fever and lymph node swelling. The causative agent is capripoxvirus, which is transmitted through aerosols, contact with infected materials, or insect vectors like biting flies and mosquitoes. The incubation period is typically 4-8 days, with clinical signs appearing 3-5 days after exposure. Lesions form on the lips, groin, axilla, ears, and tail. The disease course is 4-6 weeks and full recovery may take 3 months. Vaccination provides effective control in endemic areas.
La colibacilosis en aves es un padecimiento de los pollos y gallinas, de curso crónico, que se manifiesta principalmente entre las 4 y 8 semanas de edad, el colibacilo (Escherichia coli) puede manifestarse desde un día de vida y por supuesto a una edad adulta.
Respiratory diseases in poultry are common in commercial flocks and cause great economic loss to farmer. Major respiratory diseases of chicken are discussed briefly here with some uniqueness
Bovine Ephemeral Fever (Three Day Sickness)Muhammad Avais
- BEF, also known as three-day sickness, is an acute viral disease affecting cattle and buffalos. It is transmitted by mosquitoes and biting flies.
- The disease causes economic losses due to reduced milk yield, loss of condition, and infertility. Clinical signs include fever, lameness, stiffness, and difficulty rising.
- Diagnosis is based on clinical signs during outbreaks and confirmed with serology or PCR testing. Control relies on vaccination, vector control, and farm hygiene measures.
This document outlines the process for grading day-old chicks. It describes 7 key steps: 1) removing chicks from the hatcher and disposing of debris, 2) grading and counting chicks and recording information, 3) vaccinating chicks according to veterinary and manufacturer guidelines, 4) carrying out operations like beak trimming according to welfare codes, 5) maintaining temperature and humidity in the processing room, 6) packing chicks for transport in boxes labeled with information, and 7) cleaning and maintaining the processing room and equipment according to procedures and specifications.
Bovine Leukosis Virus: What is it and What Does it Mean for Me?DAIReXNET
Dr. Ray Sweeney presented this material for DAIReXNET on October 14, 2015. To view the full presentation, please see our archived webinars page at http://www.extension.org/pages/15830/archived-dairy-cattle-webinars
This document discusses Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in poultry farms. Some key points:
- M. gallisepticum is a highly successful pathogen that causes chronic respiratory disease in chickens and turkeys. Once infected, the infection remains for life.
- It is transmitted both horizontally between flocks through contact/aerosols and vertically from parent to offspring through eggs.
- Clinical signs include coughing, sneezing, and reduced egg production. Post-mortem lesions include sinusitis, tracheitis, and airsacculitis.
- Diagnosis involves isolation of the bacteria or serological tests like ELISA. Treatment includes antibiotics like tetracyclines and tylos
Newcastle Disease is caused by a virus that affects many bird species and can cause severe economic losses, with clinical signs ranging from mild to severe depending on the strain, and it can be prevented through vaccination, biosecurity measures, and prompt reporting and control of outbreaks.
Necrotic enteritis is a bacterial disease of chickens caused by Clostridium perfringens that produces toxins damaging the intestinal mucosa. It is characterized by diarrhea, depression, and increased mortality. Predisposing factors include coccidiosis, cereal-based diets, and animal proteins. Gross lesions are seen in the jejunum and ileum. Diagnosis involves culturing intestinal contents. Prevention focuses on competitive exclusion products, anticoccidial drugs, and antibiotics to control C. perfringens proliferation.
Bio-Security plan is a set of practices designed to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases into and from a poultry farm.
Biosecurity requires the adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people, to reduce risk in all activities involving poultry production and marketing.
Colibacillosis is an infectious disease of newborn calves caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. The prevalence has increased in recent years due to factors like herd size and management. Colibacillosis occurs mostly in young livestock and is characterized by watery diarrhea. Diagnosis involves bacterial culture and PCR. Treatment includes antibiotics and fluid therapy. Prevention focuses on providing adequate colostrum and clean housing to newborn animals.
A 5-year-old cow presented with shooting diarrhea for 2 months, reduced appetite and weight loss. Treatments with antibiotics, antiparasitics and vitamins were ineffective. Laboratory tests on fecal samples are needed to make a confirmative diagnosis. Based on the case history, the confirmative diagnosis is likely Johne's disease or paratuberculosis given the chronic diarrhea and lack of response to previous treatments. The cow should be treated and monitored for Johne's disease.
Infectious Bronchitis is a highly contagious viral disease affecting chickens worldwide. It causes respiratory disease and drops in egg production. The document outlines the etiology, transmission, economic impact, pathogenesis, clinical signs, post-mortem lesions, and diagnosis of the disease. Definitive diagnosis requires isolation or identification of the Infectious Bronchitis Virus through laboratory tests.
Ascariasis is caused by ascarid worms of the family Ascaridae, including Ascaris, Parascaris, Toxascaris and Toxocara genera. Ascaris suum infects pigs worldwide, causing damage during larval migration and intestinal obstruction in heavy infections. Parascaris equorum infects horses, donkeys and mules. Toxocara species infect cattle (T. vitulorum), dogs (T. canis) and cats (T. cati). Clinical signs include coughing, diarrhea, poor growth, and intestinal obstruction or perforation. Diagnosis is made through history, clinical signs and identifying thick-shelled eggs in feces. Treatment
Vaccination failures in poultry can be caused by many factors beyond just vaccine quality. The bird's immune system, including maternal antibodies and stress, influence the effectiveness of vaccination. Proper handling, storage, and administration of vaccines according to the vaccination program are also critical. Other issues like disease challenges, poor management, and immunosuppression can reduce vaccine protection. To prevent failures, it is important to maintain the cold chain, vaccinate only healthy birds, and implement good hygiene and biosecurity practices.
This document provides an overview of various topics related to veterinary medicine, including:
1. It defines veterinary medicine as the diagnosis, treatment, and control of disease in animals including farm/food animals and pet/companion animals.
2. It discusses the history of veterinary medicine and mentions the first veterinary schools in Lyon, France in 1761 and Iowa, USA in 1870.
3. It covers complementary and alternative medicine, scientific medicine, preventive medicine, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and therapeutic approaches in veterinary medicine.
Ch 08 - Human Health and Disease || Class 12 ||SAQIB AHMED
This document discusses health and diseases. It defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Factors that influence health include genetics, lifestyle, infections and environment. Characteristics of good health include being free from sickness and having self-confidence. Diseases are conditions that interfere with normal body functioning. Diseases can be congenital or acquired. Common diseases discussed include typhoid, pneumonia, malaria, amoebiasis and ringworm. Prevention methods include maintaining personal and public hygiene. Immunity against diseases can be innate or acquired. Innate immunity provides non-specific barriers like skin, mucus and cells that fight pathogens.
Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1) is associated with several diseases in cattle: infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IPV), balanoposthitis, conjunctivitis, abortion, encephalomyelitis, and mastitis.
El virus de inmunodeficiencia felina (VIF) es un lentivirus que sólo infecta a los gatos y destruye sus linfocitos-T, debilitando su sistema inmunitario. Aunque similar al VIH, el VIF no se transmite a humanos. El VIF se contagia principalmente a través de la saliva y puede transmitirse de madre a cría. Con detección temprana y tratamiento adecuado, los gatos infectados pueden llevar una vida larga a pesar del VIF.
Babesiosis, also known as bovine babesiosis, is a tick-borne disease of cattle and buffalo caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Babesia. The parasites infect and lyse red blood cells, causing hemolytic anemia. Clinical signs include fever, anemia, hemoglobinuria, and jaundice. Diagnosis is made by identifying the pear-shaped parasites on blood smears. Treatment involves the use of imidocarb or diminazine aceturate. Control relies on controlling tick vectors with acaricides and vaccination.
Avian encephalomyelitis is a viral disease that infects the central nervous system of young chickens and other birds. It is caused by an RNA virus from the family Picornaviridae. Clinical signs include ataxia, leg weakness, and tremors. Diagnosis is based on history, clinical signs, and detection of viral antigen in tissues. Prevention relies on vaccination of breeders to provide maternal immunity to offspring.
Sheep pox is a viral disease of sheep characterized by generalized pox lesions on the skin and mucous membranes, accompanied by fever and lymph node swelling. The causative agent is capripoxvirus, which is transmitted through aerosols, contact with infected materials, or insect vectors like biting flies and mosquitoes. The incubation period is typically 4-8 days, with clinical signs appearing 3-5 days after exposure. Lesions form on the lips, groin, axilla, ears, and tail. The disease course is 4-6 weeks and full recovery may take 3 months. Vaccination provides effective control in endemic areas.
La colibacilosis en aves es un padecimiento de los pollos y gallinas, de curso crónico, que se manifiesta principalmente entre las 4 y 8 semanas de edad, el colibacilo (Escherichia coli) puede manifestarse desde un día de vida y por supuesto a una edad adulta.
Respiratory diseases in poultry are common in commercial flocks and cause great economic loss to farmer. Major respiratory diseases of chicken are discussed briefly here with some uniqueness
Bovine Ephemeral Fever (Three Day Sickness)Muhammad Avais
- BEF, also known as three-day sickness, is an acute viral disease affecting cattle and buffalos. It is transmitted by mosquitoes and biting flies.
- The disease causes economic losses due to reduced milk yield, loss of condition, and infertility. Clinical signs include fever, lameness, stiffness, and difficulty rising.
- Diagnosis is based on clinical signs during outbreaks and confirmed with serology or PCR testing. Control relies on vaccination, vector control, and farm hygiene measures.
This document outlines the process for grading day-old chicks. It describes 7 key steps: 1) removing chicks from the hatcher and disposing of debris, 2) grading and counting chicks and recording information, 3) vaccinating chicks according to veterinary and manufacturer guidelines, 4) carrying out operations like beak trimming according to welfare codes, 5) maintaining temperature and humidity in the processing room, 6) packing chicks for transport in boxes labeled with information, and 7) cleaning and maintaining the processing room and equipment according to procedures and specifications.
Bovine Leukosis Virus: What is it and What Does it Mean for Me?DAIReXNET
Dr. Ray Sweeney presented this material for DAIReXNET on October 14, 2015. To view the full presentation, please see our archived webinars page at http://www.extension.org/pages/15830/archived-dairy-cattle-webinars
This document discusses Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in poultry farms. Some key points:
- M. gallisepticum is a highly successful pathogen that causes chronic respiratory disease in chickens and turkeys. Once infected, the infection remains for life.
- It is transmitted both horizontally between flocks through contact/aerosols and vertically from parent to offspring through eggs.
- Clinical signs include coughing, sneezing, and reduced egg production. Post-mortem lesions include sinusitis, tracheitis, and airsacculitis.
- Diagnosis involves isolation of the bacteria or serological tests like ELISA. Treatment includes antibiotics like tetracyclines and tylos
Newcastle Disease is caused by a virus that affects many bird species and can cause severe economic losses, with clinical signs ranging from mild to severe depending on the strain, and it can be prevented through vaccination, biosecurity measures, and prompt reporting and control of outbreaks.
Necrotic enteritis is a bacterial disease of chickens caused by Clostridium perfringens that produces toxins damaging the intestinal mucosa. It is characterized by diarrhea, depression, and increased mortality. Predisposing factors include coccidiosis, cereal-based diets, and animal proteins. Gross lesions are seen in the jejunum and ileum. Diagnosis involves culturing intestinal contents. Prevention focuses on competitive exclusion products, anticoccidial drugs, and antibiotics to control C. perfringens proliferation.
Bio-Security plan is a set of practices designed to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases into and from a poultry farm.
Biosecurity requires the adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people, to reduce risk in all activities involving poultry production and marketing.
Colibacillosis is an infectious disease of newborn calves caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. The prevalence has increased in recent years due to factors like herd size and management. Colibacillosis occurs mostly in young livestock and is characterized by watery diarrhea. Diagnosis involves bacterial culture and PCR. Treatment includes antibiotics and fluid therapy. Prevention focuses on providing adequate colostrum and clean housing to newborn animals.
A 5-year-old cow presented with shooting diarrhea for 2 months, reduced appetite and weight loss. Treatments with antibiotics, antiparasitics and vitamins were ineffective. Laboratory tests on fecal samples are needed to make a confirmative diagnosis. Based on the case history, the confirmative diagnosis is likely Johne's disease or paratuberculosis given the chronic diarrhea and lack of response to previous treatments. The cow should be treated and monitored for Johne's disease.
Infectious Bronchitis is a highly contagious viral disease affecting chickens worldwide. It causes respiratory disease and drops in egg production. The document outlines the etiology, transmission, economic impact, pathogenesis, clinical signs, post-mortem lesions, and diagnosis of the disease. Definitive diagnosis requires isolation or identification of the Infectious Bronchitis Virus through laboratory tests.
Ascariasis is caused by ascarid worms of the family Ascaridae, including Ascaris, Parascaris, Toxascaris and Toxocara genera. Ascaris suum infects pigs worldwide, causing damage during larval migration and intestinal obstruction in heavy infections. Parascaris equorum infects horses, donkeys and mules. Toxocara species infect cattle (T. vitulorum), dogs (T. canis) and cats (T. cati). Clinical signs include coughing, diarrhea, poor growth, and intestinal obstruction or perforation. Diagnosis is made through history, clinical signs and identifying thick-shelled eggs in feces. Treatment
Vaccination failures in poultry can be caused by many factors beyond just vaccine quality. The bird's immune system, including maternal antibodies and stress, influence the effectiveness of vaccination. Proper handling, storage, and administration of vaccines according to the vaccination program are also critical. Other issues like disease challenges, poor management, and immunosuppression can reduce vaccine protection. To prevent failures, it is important to maintain the cold chain, vaccinate only healthy birds, and implement good hygiene and biosecurity practices.
This document provides an overview of various topics related to veterinary medicine, including:
1. It defines veterinary medicine as the diagnosis, treatment, and control of disease in animals including farm/food animals and pet/companion animals.
2. It discusses the history of veterinary medicine and mentions the first veterinary schools in Lyon, France in 1761 and Iowa, USA in 1870.
3. It covers complementary and alternative medicine, scientific medicine, preventive medicine, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and therapeutic approaches in veterinary medicine.
Ch 08 - Human Health and Disease || Class 12 ||SAQIB AHMED
This document discusses health and diseases. It defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Factors that influence health include genetics, lifestyle, infections and environment. Characteristics of good health include being free from sickness and having self-confidence. Diseases are conditions that interfere with normal body functioning. Diseases can be congenital or acquired. Common diseases discussed include typhoid, pneumonia, malaria, amoebiasis and ringworm. Prevention methods include maintaining personal and public hygiene. Immunity against diseases can be innate or acquired. Innate immunity provides non-specific barriers like skin, mucus and cells that fight pathogens.
9th why do_we_fall_ill-chapter_notes by rachitmlpnkobji
- Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, while disease refers to the malfunctioning of the body or mind due to various intrinsic or extrinsic factors.
- Diseases can be classified as acute, chronic, congenital or acquired and communicable (infectious) or non-communicable. Common communicable diseases discussed include malaria, influenza, hepatitis, rabies, AIDS, tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid and diarrhea.
- Diseases spread through various means such as air, water, physical contact, vectors etc. Symptoms depend on the organ affected while treatment aims to reduce effects or kill pathogens. Prevention focuses on hygiene, nutrition, immunization while
This document provides an overview of health and diseases. It defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. Ancient beliefs held that health was influenced by four bodily fluids or "humors", but this was later disproven. Modern conceptions recognize the influence of genetics, lifestyle, infections and other factors. Diseases can be congenital or acquired, infectious or non-infectious. The immune system protects against disease through innate and acquired immunity. Vaccines help prevent infectious diseases by stimulating immune memory. Allergies represent inappropriate immune responses.
This document provides an overview of diseases and related terminology. It defines a disease as a condition that impairs normal functioning of the body. Diseases can be infectious, caused by microbes, or non-infectious such as cancer. Risk factors include genetics, age, lifestyle, stress, environment, and preexisting conditions. Diseases are classified and named through standardized systems. The mechanisms of disease include genetic, pathogenic, tumor/cancer, physical/chemical agents, malnutrition, autoimmunity, inflammation, and degeneration.
This document provides an introduction to pathophysiology. It defines pathology and pathophysiology, differentiates the two, and discusses the basic concepts of disease development and the five components of the disease process. Pathology is defined as the study of disease causes and effects, while pathophysiology is the functional changes associated with or resulting from disease or injury. The five components of the disease process are prevalence, etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, and outcomes.
This document discusses the diagnosis of parasitic diseases through clinical, laboratory, and imaging techniques. It covers the importance of clinical evaluation as the initial step, noting that many parasitic infections present with nonspecific symptoms. Laboratory tests play a pivotal role through microscopic examination of samples and newer PCR assays. Imaging such as X-rays, ultrasound, CT and MRI can detect parasitic infections in difficult to access organs. The document also discusses specific clinical manifestations of parasitic diseases, including fever, jaundice, abdominal signs, and genitourinary symptoms, as well as different parasites that can cause similar manifestations.
Vector-borne and zoonotic diseases are described. Vector-borne diseases are transmitted through the bites of infected arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks, while zoonotic diseases are transmitted from animals to humans. Common vector-borne diseases discussed include dengue, malaria, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever, and chikungunya. Zoonotic diseases can be spread through direct or indirect contact with infected animals. Climate and environmental factors influence the spread of these diseases. Control and prevention relies on reducing vector populations and limiting human exposure.
Medical ethics examines the moral issues that arise in medicine. It has a long history dating back to ancient times when diseases were viewed as supernatural. Over time, medicine became more scientific and data-driven. In Ethiopia, modern medicine was introduced in the 16th century and hospitals were established starting in the early 20th century. There are several frameworks for analyzing medical ethics issues, including utilitarianism which focuses on producing the greatest benefit for the greatest number, deontology which emphasizes moral duties and rules, and virtue ethics which focuses on good character.
Natural History of Diseases & Levels of Prevention.AB Rajar
This document provides an overview of the natural history of disease. It defines natural history as the progress of a disease process in an individual over time without medical intervention, beginning with exposure to factors that can cause disease and ending in recovery, disability, or death. The document discusses various concepts related to natural history including phases of disease progression, models of causation, factors that can cause disease, and levels of prevention. It also provides examples to illustrate concepts like the spectrum and iceberg phenomenon of disease.
Selected Definition in Infectious Disease Epidemiology & Uses.pptxDr. Anuj Singh
1. Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to control relevant health problems.
2. Key components of epidemiology include measuring disease frequency and distribution, and identifying determinants and risk factors of diseases. Infectious disease epidemiology studies topics such as infection, contamination, infestation, and the definitions of an infectious disease.
3. Epidemiology is useful for community diagnosis, disease surveillance, planning and evaluation of health programs, and identifying risk factors and the natural history of diseases.
This document discusses different types of diseases including infectious, deficiency, genetic, and physiological diseases. It provides definitions and examples of each category. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. Deficiency diseases result from a lack of nutrients in the diet. Genetic diseases are passed down from parents to children through genes. Physiological diseases occur when parts of the body malfunction. The document also discusses how diseases can be treated and prevented.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in epidemiology:
- Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems.
- Descriptive epidemiology examines disease distribution and features, while analytical epidemiology investigates hypotheses about causes by studying exposure-disease relationships.
- The epidemiologic triangle models the interaction between an agent, host, environment, and time in disease transmission and spread. Understanding these factors aids public health prevention and control efforts.
- Various epidemiological study designs are used including observational (cohort and case-control) and experimental approaches to identify risk factors and test interventions.
Pathology is the study of disease and disease processes. It aims to determine the cause, understand the mechanisms, and describe the effects and progression of diseases. Pathology explains how diseases cause observed symptoms by detailing the steps from risk factors to physiological disruption to resulting body changes and responses. Understanding the pathology, epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, investigations, natural history, and management of a disease is important for pharmacy students to properly diagnose, treat, and communicate with patients and other healthcare professionals.
Powerpoint Presentation of Why Do We Fall Ill? is a presentation about health, diseases, types of diseases, and list of 5 main diseases.
Hope you LOVE it!!!!!!!!!!!!
The document discusses factors that influence health at both the personal and community level. It explains that personal health is influenced by genetics and environment, including hygiene, sanitation, and socioeconomic conditions, while community health also depends on access to healthcare services, health education, and disease prevention efforts. Both personal and community health factors can impact whether individuals fall ill or remain healthy. The document also provides definitions and comparisons of key health-related terms like disease, acute vs chronic conditions, communicable vs non-communicable diseases, and their typical causes.
The document provides information about common infectious diseases in Malaysia, including definitions, terminology, and details on specific diseases. It discusses AIDS/HIV, hepatitis (types A-E), and dengue. For AIDS/HIV, it describes transmission, signs and symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. For hepatitis, it explains the different types and how they are transmitted. Dengue is described as a mosquito-borne viral disease causing fever and in severe cases, hemorrhagic fever.
The document discusses various topics related to health and disease. It defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. It discusses factors that influence personal and community health, such as hygiene, sanitation, socioeconomic conditions, and health education. It also defines and compares acute and chronic diseases, communicable and non-communicable diseases, and discusses various causes of diseases like viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. The document also discusses the immune system and process of immunization to build immunity against diseases.
Promoting Wellbeing - Applied Social Psychology - Psychology SuperNotesPsychoTech Services
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There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
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2. History of veterinary Medicine
• Medicine
• Science of treating animals – healing art
• Veterinary Medicine
• Branch of medical science which deals with the diagnosis,
treatment, prevention and general study of diseases in animals,
especially domesticated animals.
3. • Apollo was regarded as God of healing (Greece)
• First written record of veterinary Medicine was provided
by Papyrus of Kahun (Egypt 1900 BC)
• Oldest document of veterinary medicine: Code of
Hammurabi (1700 BC)
• Greek physicians – proposed humural theory for disease
• Human body is composed of four “humours” – Cholor
(yellow bile) melancholy (black bile), phlegm and blood
• Hippocrates: Father of human medicine
• Disease is a reflection of imbalance of the body humours
• Lifted the medicine from the art of philosophy to a
systemic clinical disease
4. • In Greece – A class of people known as “Haippiathri”
(Horse doctors)
• Democritus : disease is produced due to the change in
the density of the body
• Renatus Vegetius – Father of Veterinary Medicine
• France – devastating outbreak of Rinderpest (1710-1714).
This paved the way for establishment of first Veterinary
School at Lyons (1761)
5. • Rene Laënnec (1781-1826) was a French physician who,
invented the stethoscope (1816)
6. • Francis Rynd, Irish physician developed hypodermic
needle and syringe
7. • In India during vedic period , people were concerned
about the management, diagnosis and treatment of
diseases of animals
• In ancient India, animal treatment was mostly confined to
“Ayurveda”
• King Ashoka (250 BC) established veterinary hospitals
manned by veterinarians
• Salihothri – was the term used for horse doctors
8. • First army veterinary school in Pune (1862)
• The first civil veterinary school was started in Babugarh
(Hapur), in Uttar Pradesh (1877)
• First veterinary college was started at Lahore, now in
Pakistan, in 1882
• Veterinary College at Bombay 1886
• Veterinary College at Calcutta 1893
• Veterinary College at Madras 1903
• College of Veterinary Science, Bapatla 1955 , shifted to
Tirupati 1957
• Veterinary Council of India (VCI) established in 1984
9. • The English word 'veterinarian' as defining one who
provides medical care to animals, comes from the Latin
verb “veheri” meaning “to draw” (as in "pull") and was first
applied to those who cared for “any animal that works with
a yoke” – cattle or horses
10. Scope of Veterinary Medicine
• Clinical practice of food animal medicine
• Clinical practice of small animal medicine
• Laboratory animal medicine
• Zoo animal medicine
• Public health & Zoonoses
• Regulatory services – control of infectious disease
• Environmental health & safety
• Research
11. • Medicine which deals with the diseases of farm animals is
termed as “Farm animal medicine”
• Medicine which deals with the diseases of pet animals is
termed as “Companian animal medicine”
12. • Veterinary medicine broadly divided into
• Clinical Veterinary Medicine
• Preventive Veterinary Medicine
• Clincal Veterinary Medicine (bed side medicine, internal
medicine, curative medicine) is that branch which covers
the art of making a correct diagnosis and extends the
remedial and curative measures against diseases of
animals
• Preventive Veterinary Medicine is that branch which
ensures measures to maintain health when disease is
imminent. It deals with all measures to control and
prevent animal diseases
13. • Health indicates physical, physiological and mental well
being of an individual.
• ( Health denotes the condition of bodily structure and
function which on appraisal of larger number of similar
individuals are observed to be identical or prevailing one)
• Disease : any deviation from normal physical or
physiological conditions will be considered as disease
• It indicates inability to perform normal physiological
functions though the nutrition and other environmental
factors are maintained at optimum level
14. Classification of disease
According to mode of origin / Gnesis
• Hereditary disease : diseases which are transmitted to
the offspring through sire or dam
• Diseases are handed over through sperm or ovum of
parents to the progeny
Ex: Epilepsy, Haemophilia
• Congenital disease
• Diseases which are acquired during intra-uterine life of an
individual and appreciable at birth
• Denotes “begotten” or “ born with disease”
Ex: Atresia ani, Brucellosis, Tuberculosis
15. Classification of disease
• Acquired disease
• Diseases which are neither hereditary nor congenitalbut
are contracted during the entire life span of an individual
Ex: Senile cataract
16. Classification of disease
Based on systems involved
• Localised disease
• Clinical changes attributable to a disease is prominent
and confined in a particular spot or organ
• Ex: Glossitis, Abscess
• Generalised disease
• Diseases which affects most or all parts of a body
• Systemic involvements are prominent in this form of
disease
• Ex: Toxaemia, Septicemia
17. Classification of disease
Based on changes in the organ
• Structural or organic disease
• Disease which brings about pathological changes in the
structure of any organs
Ex: Pericarditis, Nephritis, Rickets
• Functional disease
• Disease which affects functional efficiency of any organ
without altering the structural components of it
Ex: Idiopathic Epilepsy, Arrhythmia
18. Classification of disease
Based on specific cause
• Specific disease
• Disease which have got a definite identity and are produced by
a specific pathogen
• Contagious disease (contagion – pollution by touching
• Disease is spread by intimate contact with the diseased animal
Ex: Rinderpeat, FMD
• Infectious disease
• Disease is caused by living infecting organisms
• Ex: Viral , bacterial, protozoal, mycotic diseases
• Non specific diseases:
• Diseases whose cause is indefinite or multiple
Ex: Diarrhoea, Vomiting
19. •All infectious diseases may or may not
be contagious
but
all contagious diseases are infectious
20. Classification of disease
According to the intensity and spread of disease
• Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic, Sporadic
• Endemic
'Endemic' is used in two senses to describe:
1) the usual frequency of occurrence of a disease in a
population
2) the constant presence of a disease in a population
21. Classification of disease
According to the intensity and spread of disease
• Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic, Sporadic
• Epidemic
• sudden, usually unpredictable, increase in the number
of cases of an infectious disease in a population
• In modern epidemiology, an epidemic is an occurrence
of an infectious or non-infectious disease to a level
in excess of the expected (i.e., endemic) level.
22. Classification of disease
According to the intensity and spread of disease
• Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic, Sporadic
• Pandemic occurrence
• A pandemic is a widespread epidemic that usually
affects a large proportion of the population.
• Many countries may be affected
23. Classification of disease
According to the intensity and spread of disease
• Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic, Sporadic
• Sporadic
• Disease which affects a single animal and shows no
tendency to spread with in the herd
• Disease occurs irregularly and haphazardly
24. Symptomology
It is the science that deals with the symptoms of various diseases
• Symptom :
• It denotes adverse feelings by the animals owing to
abnormalities in bodily or mental condition.
• In human medicine, the abnormal sensations or feelings are
expressed by the patient which is out of question in vet.medicine
• Sign
It is outward manifestation of a disease observed through
objective evidence
• It is observed by veterinary clinician, animal attendant or others
• Ex: Bottle jaw, red urine, loose stools are the signs of anaemia,
haemoglobinuria and enteritis respectively
25. Symptomology
Subjective symptoms
• It indicates the feelings expressed by the patient
• In Human medicine, patient voluntarily expresses his
difficulty to the clinician
• Actual location of pain in any organ can be obtained
through interrogation of human patient
Objective symptoms
• Symptoms which are observed by the clinician through
various methods of examination
26. Symptomology
Premonitory/ precussory symptoms
• An initial phase of a forthcoming disease, the balance of
health become upset and some symptoms may appear
and thus serve as warning of approach of a disease
• Ex: suspension of rumination, lack of appetite, feeling of
chill before the onset of fever
27. Symptomology
Direct or Idiopathic symptoms
• These symptoms which are spontaneous in nature and
are directly reflected from a disease process and are not
secondary to some other affections of organs
• Ex: Mucus and blood accompained with tenesmus in
dysentery
Indirect / sympathetic symptoms
• Symptoms which are associated with the disease of any
remote organ
• Ex: Vomiting due to nephritis, dyspnoea due to
hypertrophy of liver
28. Symptomology
Typical symptoms
• Symptoms which are characteristic of a disease
• Clinician may distinguish the disease from its typical
manifestation (diagnostic symptoms)
• Ex: Septicemia along with crepitation of muscles
• Black quarter
Atypical symptoms
• Symptoms which are irregular and do not bear any
conformity of typical symptoms
• Ex: Nervous manifestation of calf suffering from
Coccidiosis
29. Symptomology
Diagnostic / pathognomonic symptoms
• Symptoms which point directly and definitely to a
particular disease and afford a distinct basis for diagnosis
• Ex: Lock jaw
• – Tetanus,
• Oozing of tarry coloured unclotted blood from natural
orifices
• - Anthrax
30. Symptomology
Prognostic symptoms
• Symptoms which help the clinician to determine the
course of termination of disease
• The prognosis of a disease following therapy may also be
assessed
• Ex: Sudden relief of pain after severe colic in equines-
rupture of organ
31. Syndrome
• A syndrome is a set of medical signs and symptoms which
are correlated with each other and often associated with a
particular disease or disorder
• A combination of symptoms and signs that together
represent a disease process
• Ex. Acid indigestion may produce concurrent heaptic
insufficeincy, renal insufficiency, polyencephalomalacia
symdromes
32. DIAGNOSIS
• Most difficult task in treating a patient
• It is an art of recognition of disease and determine the
nature of disease
Snap shot diagnosis
• Diagnosis which is declared at the very approach of a
patient at a glance
Direct diagnosis
• Made directly by observing structural or pathognomonic
lesions
33. DIAGNOSIS
Differential diagnosis
• Art of differentiation of disease by comparison and
contrast with similar disease
Exclusion form of diagnosis
• A method of diagnosis by the process of excluding all
other similar disease
34. DIAGNOSIS
Tentative diagnosis
• Process of determination of disease on the basis of
subjective changes evidenced through clinical
examination
• Considered as presumptive diagnosis where a precise
diagnosis is not feasible unless laboratory and other
measures are not adopted
Confirmatory diagnosis
• Actual disease condition of the animal diagnosed through
clinical and clinico-pathological examination
35. DIAGNOSIS
Symptomatic diagnosis
• When etiological diagnosis is not possible and the leading
symptoms are poorly manifested, diagnosis has to be
made based on principal pathological changes
Herd diagnosis
• Examination of most of the affected animals
• Meticulous search of the environment on which animals
are kept in relation to grazing pasture, housing condition,
feeds offered
• Post mortem examination of dead animals
36. PROGNOSIS
• It is the forecast of the probable course and termination of
a disease process
• Prognosis depends on
• nature & course of the disease
• success/ failure of previous treatment
• state of appetite
• behaviour, physical condition of the animal
• involvement of vital systems or
• any other complications arising out of the primary disorder and
• extent of the local lesion or functional disorder
37. PROGNOSIS
• Grades of prognosis
Favourable Uncomplicated traumatic peritonitis in cattle
Doubtful
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis with adhesion of
diaphragm with abdominal wall
Poor
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis complicated by
abscess in liver
Grave
(Hope less)
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis following penetration
of sharp foreign object
38. TREATMENT
• Application of knowledge of pharmacology in treatment of
disease
• Cost of treatment should not exceed cost of animal
• Treatment may be General / Specific
1) General treatment
• Measures adopted to combat certain complications during
the course of a disease & to resuscitate the vitality of
animal
a) Fluid therapy : dehydration
b) Mechanical treatment : Ex: Exercise, Massage etc.
Massage with various counter irritants is frequently
done in paraplegic dog
39. TREATMENT
c) Physical treatment : e.g. use of heat, electricity, X-rays,
U.V. rays, Infra red rays. Rays are generally used in
diseases of musculoskeletal system
d) Helio treatment : e.g. Exposure to sunlight in case of
Rickets, Hypopigmentation
e) Dietetic treatment: (therapeutic nutrition) Regulation and
monitoring of diets in different diseases
e.g. Diabetes, obesity, renal diseases, hepatic disease,
cardiac disease
40. TREATMENT
f) Psychologic treatment : it includes sympathetic
approach, training and psychiatric management to prevent
behavioural stress and various vices of animals
g) Aerosol treatment: therapy done for humidification of
respiratory mucous membrane. Aerosol drugs are used
41. TREATMENT
2. Symptomatic treatment : Adm. of medicines in order to
get rid of symptoms which may be causing distress
e.g. Expectorants in respiratory disease,
Carminative mixtures in tympany
3. Specific treatment : Adm. of specific curative agents
against disease causing agents
e.g. specific antidote in poisoning,
Calcium therapy in milk fever,
antibacterial agents against bacteria,
anthelminthics for helminths
4. Palliative treatment : Type of treatment extended in case of
incurable diseases to prolong the life span of the individual
e.g. Insulin in Diabetes mellitus
42. TREATMENT
5. Emperical treatment : Art of treating the patient with
experienced gained through a long time trail & error methods.
The basis of such treatment is ill understood & very often the
exact pathology and pharmacology are not known
e.g. Inflation of udder with air in case of milk fever in cattle
6. Rational treatment : Adm. of medicines based on
pathophysiology of the disease process and knowledge of
pharmaco therapeutic of drugs
e.g. Atropine sulphate to alleviate spasmodic colic in horse
7. Prophylactic treatment : It embraces all measures to prevent
spread of disease when it is likely to be contracted by animals
e.g. Quarantine, disposal of carcasses, balanced
nutrition, Vaccination
43. Period and Course of Disease
• Disease process in body can be divided into 2 main
groups
• Those associated with inflammation
• Those of non-inflammatory nature
• Inflammatory diseases usually give rise to pain, redness,
swelling, body temp & impairment of function
• In non-inflammatory process swelling and disturbance of
function may occur but erythema, heat and pain are
generally absent
• Diseases – rapid course – signs are well marked
• Disease – slow course- signs are much less obvious
44. Period and Course of Disease
Disease
Latent
period
Prodromal
period
Period of
manifestation
Outcome
of disease
Recovery
Complete
recovery
Incomplete
recovery
Relapse
Complica
tion
Sequelae Death
45. Period and Course of Disease
• Latent period
• Time lapses between infection and the shedding of the
agent (parasite's prepatent period, a virus's eclipse
phase, and a bacterium's latent period)
• Incubation period
• The period of time between infection and the development
of clinical signs.
• Inapparent infections have a prepatent period, but do not
have an incubation period
• Generation time
• Period between infection and maximum infectiousness
46. Period and Course of Disease
• Prodromal period
• Period characterized by the presence of early signs
and nonspecific symptoms of a disease
• Period between incubation period and the illness period
• Period of manifestation
• Period of development of marked clinical manifestations
which help the clinician to diagnose the disease
47. Period and Course of Disease
• Outcome of disease
• Recovery
• In some cases the disease ends in restoration of functions
and complete recovery
• Infectious diseases- host acquires a state of immunity to
the given infection
• Recovery or cure may occur through gradual diminishing
of marked manifestations and fever with slow return
health. This type of cure is known as “Lysis”
• E.g. Infectious canine hepatitis, Canine distemper
48. Period and Course of Disease
• Recovery or cure may occur by rapid loss of
manifestations and fever with rapid return of health. This
type of cure is known as “Crisis”
• E.g. Acute bronchopneumonia
• If the functional disturbances caused by disease do not
completely disappear then the cure is incomplete
• In some cases, structural and functional changes persist
• E.g. 1) Vegetative endocarditis - heart valve retain lesions
2) Joint remain immobile after tubercular arthritis
49. Period and Course of Disease
• Relapse : recurrence of the disease after clinical cure
during the period of convalescence
• E.g. Recuurrent endocarditis
• Relapse may be due to break in the immunity
competency of the host as a result of exposure, exertion
and errors in diet
• Complication
• Primary disease causes a weakness of the body and
animal become susceptible to other diseases
• E.g. after canine distemper infection dog suffers from
secondary bacterial infection
50. Period and Course of Disease
• Convalescence
• It is the state through which a patient passes after
prolonged illness till it regains normal health and optimum
power of production
• Sequelae
• Affections which may arise after the apparent recovery of
a primary disease
• E.g. Chorea observed after Canine distemper in dogs
51. Death
• Clinical death is characterised by deepest depression of
the activity of central nervous system.
• The metabolic process are greatly disturbed
• The energy reserves are depleted, but changes in tissues
remain reversible for 5-6 minutes. After that, there is
appearance of irrevesible changes in the tissues, which
first occur in the higher part of the CNS and there by state
of biological or true death sets in.
Three modes of death
• Coma – death from failure of functioning of brain
• Syncope- death from failure of functioning of heart
• Asphyxia - death from failure of functioning of lungs
52. Death
signs of death
• There is cessation of respiration
• There is cessation of circulation
• There is no response to external stimuli
• There is dilatation of pupil & fixation of eye ball
• There is fall of body temperature
• There is setting up of rigor mortis
53. Death
Types of death
1) Apparent death : vital functions are feebly maintained
and thus not apparent
2) Intra uterine death: death of fetus while still in the uterus
3) Neonatal death: death of newly born animals
4) Somatic death: death of whole body of animals
Editor's Notes
This implies that appropriate circumstances have occurred locally, producing small, localized outbreaks.
This implies that appropriate circumstances have occurred locally, producing small, localized outbreaks.