This document provides background information on Abraham Lincoln and the Reconstruction era following the American Civil War. It discusses key events and policies from Lincoln's presidency through the Johnson and Grant administrations, including the Emancipation Proclamation, the 13th and 14th Amendments, the Freedmen's Bureau, and the rise of Jim Crow laws in the South. It also examines the roles of Republican and Democratic politicians, the Radical Republicans in Congress, and prominent African American leaders during Reconstruction.
Found at http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CCwQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmrkash.com%2Factivities%2Freconstruction.ppt&ei=lennUtiyAvDKsQTxw4DoBw&usg=AFQjCNHtTnziU5H-r6FUHLjQxTcEKCo4Tw&bvm=bv.60157871,d.cWc
Found at http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&ved=0CCwQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmrkash.com%2Factivities%2Freconstruction.ppt&ei=lennUtiyAvDKsQTxw4DoBw&usg=AFQjCNHtTnziU5H-r6FUHLjQxTcEKCo4Tw&bvm=bv.60157871,d.cWc
PowerPoint on the Reconstruction Era after the Civil War. Topics addressed are President Lincoln, President Johnson, the Radical Republicans, the KKK, Black Codes, Jim Crow and more.
Covers the events that occurred in the aftermath of the American Civil War, including the readmission of former Confederate States to the Union, the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau and the Black Codes, the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and the debates over the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution.
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The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
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Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
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Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. KEY WORDS
GROUP
PRESIDENT
PEOPLE
LEGLISLATION
Successes by 1877 Failures by 1877
Slavery is gone forever. Lacked land/capital/employment
Freedom of:
move/marry/vote/education/worship
Banned from voting and political
opportunities closed as segregation rose
3. President – 1860-65
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Born in Kentucky into moderate family.
• Joined Republicans in 1856.
• Opposed spread of slavery into west, but not
calling for abolition.
• President through Civil War, claiming the
cause was secession of states until 1863
Emancipation Proclamation.
2) Situation:
• AA’s made up 20% of population.
• Slavery united diverse people.
• North disputed slaveries morality.
• Small number of AA’s lived in north as free
citizens but were intimidated at voting
stations, banned from TU’s and northerners
owned slaves.
3) Civil War 1861-1865:
• Abolition feelings grew in mid-19th century but it would require constitutional change.
• President could not achieve this alone as he needed Congressional support – but
southern states resisted.
• Republicans formed in 1854 to oppose slavery.
• Democrat party was split.
• Climax arose over slaveries expansion into the west as Lincoln thought it would wean
if contained in the south but south thought he was out to abolish it.
• 1860 – southern states started succeeding from the Union to join the Confederacy
(made up of 11 states who combined military power with own government system).
4) Emancipation Proclamation 1862:
• Freed AA’s in Confederacy.
• Slightly more slaves left plantations.
• It was a political and tactile move; it satisfied
antislavery northerners and took European
support from the Confederacy.
5) 13th Amendment 1865:
• Formally freed all slaves days
before wars end.
• Established de jure freedom
and AA’s right to marry,
worship, travel, become
educated and travel.
• Freed around 3.5 million AA’s,
which created questions about
how far this freedom would go.
• Lincoln is assassinated that
year and Johnson replaces him.
6) Situation in South:
• AA’s had short term gains from Republicans but the
long term gains were because of themselves.
• South remained devastated: buildings, roads,
railways, churches and schools were ruined/derelict.
• Slaves were vital to south; would need to change.
4. President – 1865-69
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Huge questions
surrounding AA’s rights
and their implementation.
• 1865-1877 -
Reconstruction was
enforced on south which
they resented and AA
rights dwindled.
• Johnson and Congress
continued to clash.
2) Changes in law:
• 14th Amendment 1868 –
all AA’s got citizenship and
equal protection under the
law.
• Civil Rights Act 1866 –
(excluding NA) gave all
races citizenship.
• Military Reconstruction
Act 1967 – divided south
into military districts ruled
by northern Army
Generals.
• 15th Amendment 1870 –
forbade denial of vote.
3) Reconstruction:
• Wanted to readmit south
into the union (was a
southerner) with pre-war
relations quickly to gain
southern supporters.
• Issued 1000’s of pardons
to rebels so rich
plantation owners could
assert their authority.
• Though he begrudgingly
supported the 13th, he
said nothing of AA’s CRs
and allowed the Black
Codes.
• Majority of northerners
saw political advantage in
crushing south and
enfranchising AAs (they
would obviously vote
Republican).
• Could not stop Congress’s
Amendments but could
veto legislation (which
were overridden with
2/3rds majority in
Congress).
4) Impeachment 1868:
• A trial of an authoritative figure for a serious offence and the only way to remove a
President.
• House of Representatives is a prosecutor and the Senate jury.
• Came when Johnson dismissed his successful War Secretary.
• Was acquitted by one vote but weakened and allowed Republicans to rule for the rest of
the year before not re-running at the election.
5) Land Problems:
• After Emancipation
Proclamation, many AA’s had
same lives, just with (little) pay
because of lacking education.
• Most turned to sharecropping.
• Vision of ’40 acres and a mule’
but failed – Johnson's
amnesties meant that only
800,000 acres were ever
available and that was taken
back because of South's
poorness (1/3 mules dead and
50% of machinery gone because
of the war).
• Land owners rose rent on
sharecroppers and the crop-lien
system encouraged cotton
which weakened race relations.
6) Black Codes 1865:
• Varied state by state but all stated that:
• A ‘negro’ had more than or 1/8th black blood.
• Inter-racial marriages were allowed but mixed
were annulled.
• Property could be owned.
• Legal rights were limited.
• AA’s could testify but not against whites or
serve on juries.
• No vote.
• Segregated schools.
• Pre-emptied formal segregation for the 80/90s.
5. 1) Background:
• 1854: formed as an anti-
slavery party and supported
Lincoln’s 1863 Emancipation
Proclamation.
• After the war and Lincoln’s
death, they argued over
harshness of South's
punishments to create the
Radical Republicans and
Republicans.
2) Reconstruction:
• Felt the south should be
controlled from the north
(different to Johnson’s views
that the south should regain
their pre-war power).
• Fear that Johnson’s plan
would cause the south to
remain the same after
reconstruction.
• Had help from ‘American
Dream’ ideologies; all should
have the chance to live it - for
which AAs would need full
CRs.
3) Impeachment 1868:
• Johnson kept vetoing AA CR
bills, but after impeachment,
RR now had more control over
Reconstructions direction.
4) Waning support:
• With the deaths of Stevens in
1868 and Sumners in 1974, two
leading RR, support waned.
• This left the south
unsupervised and segregation
rose.
• Hayes (Republican leader)
agreed to the 1877
Compromise which won them
the election but removed
northern control in the south –
ending reconstruction.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
6. 1) Thaddeus Stevens
1792-1868:
• Important member.
• Elected to House of
Representatives in 1848.
• Took a hard line against
southern states as he
regarded them as
conquered provinces.
2) Blanche K. Bruce 1841-98:
• Background - In 1869, 700,000 AAs were enrolled to vote; a major role in
Convention elections (to chose party leaders).
• This achieved equal AA CR by 1868.
• AAs now had real power with support from scalawags (sympathetic
southerners) and carpetbaggers (northerners in the south).
• AAs were benefiting from RR policies but real power was limited with an
unproportional election rate.
• 95% still lived in south until 1877 and northern rights remained theoretical.
• Politics – 1870 – 22 AAs in Congress, 20 in HoR and 2 in Senate.
• Bruce – 1875-81; sat in Senate.
• First AA to have prominent political career but lacked mass support so did not
advance AAs in general.
• Born into slavery in Virginia, became a landowner and Republican politician.
• On many committees and had some support to run for Vice President in 1888.
3) Frederick Douglass
1817-1895:
• An escaped slave and Anti-
Slavery Society activist with a
newspaper.
• Leading opponent of slavery
before the war.
• Refused an offer to run
Freedmen's Bureau because
of disapproval of Johnson.
• Spoke/took tours arguing for
CRs.
• Lacked before war impact.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
7. 1) Background:
• Apart from voting/a few politicians,
most AAs had no political role.
• Most were technically free but
homeless/unemployed.
• Set up by federal government to aid
AAs in finding homes/employment
and providing food, education and
medicine with Congressional
funding.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) General Howard 1830-1909:
• Surprising success under Howard
who was noted for his military
success in the war with one arm
and a genuine interest in AAs
welfare.
• Supported universities and created
the University of Washington to
further advance AAs – it trained
future lawyers/scientists/teachers
• Was only the minority: 1890, 95%
of AA school age children were
illiterate compared to 15% of white.
3) End:
• Decline of RR at end of Reconstruction
in Congress in 1872 was a sign that the
north were losing interest.
• AAs were left to poverty because of
poor education and no de facto CRs.
• Some moved to southern cities but
numbers remained small.
• Housing remained primitive and
educational support was withdrawn at
the Bureau’s end.
• Fear of violence was high.
8. President – 1869-77
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• White southerners couldn’t see
AAs as equals and used ‘state
rights’ to ignore federal
freedoms.
• 1873 Slaughterhouse Case –
ruled that citizens rights were
under state control, not federal
as the constitutional changes
protected AAs individual rights
but not CRs.
• Grant broadly accepted early
Reconstruction policies from RR
and promised to help AAs in his
2nd term but financial scandals
decreased his authority.
2) Democrats in the South:
• South voted Democrats because
they blamed Republicans for
them losing the war.
• This power was set to fall now
AAs were enfranchised (they
would likely vote Republican) so
they began stopping them
voting.
3) Grant’s 2nd term:
• North hold on south loosened and Freedman's
Bureau ended and federal control withdrew.
• Deaths of RRs meant no one cared.
• Many states had ‘redemption governments’
instead of northern control and north lost
interest now slavery had ended.
• Grants scandals and carpetbaggers reputation
encouraged northern ideals of withdrawing that
originated from decentralisation policies.
• 1875 Civil Rights Act – CR applied to public
places in an attempt to stop segregation but
was ruled unconstitutional in 1883.
• 1876 US vs. Cruikshank – Louisiana riot that left
70 AA/2 whites dead and 100 whites arrested
caused a Supreme Court ruling that released
them on the verdict that Enforcement Act only
applied to states, not individuals.
9. CIVILIAN GROUP
KKK 1920’s revival
1) Background:
• Segregation was de facto, but was becoming
de jure with educational segregation an
insight to white mentality (AAs corrupting
white children and unable to appreciate such
high teaching levels).
• AAs relied on places of worship to escape and
that became the place for most campaigners
and self-help groups.
2) Nathan Forrest:
• Created the KKK to use terror not
encouragement to enforce segregation in
1965, Tennessee.
• Opposed enfranchised AAs voting Republican
to guarantee white supremacy as their
domination was ‘God given’.
• Violence to AAs/supporters was
unprecedented and although this wave
dwindled quickly, the terror remained.
• Example:
• Memphis 1866; 3 days of violence after
AA/white carriage crash. Ended with 46
dead and 5 raped.
• New Orleans 1867: attack on AA voters.
Ended with 34 dead and 100 injured.
10. KEY WORDS
GROUP
PRESIDENT
PEOPLE
LEGLISLATION
Successes by 1915 Failures by 1915
Changes in education did increase for AA Equal opportunities in education/courts never
existed
AAs still free to leave and did so more Segregation was become more formal
TI improved economic prospects for AAs Violence/lynching as common
CR movement had began by end - NAACP Vote was still non-existence
11. 1) Background:
• Reconstruction ended in 1877 and for AAs; poverty
was the norm, south was decreasing their CR and
increasing segregation.
• Sharecropping was common and masters preferred
labour intensive crops so AAs did not benefit from
the diversification of southern farming and suffered
from boll weevils in 1892 that killed crops.
• Slow movement towards AAs owning land; by 1910,
25% owned land but it was not helpful to CR as
they had to concentrate on surviving.
• 90% still lived in the south in 1900, decreasing by
1% since 1870.
• Segregation created self-help groups and parallel
businesses (hairdressers) which created an AA
middle class.
• Ghetto’s developed in the north which had no legal
segregation but strong discrimination and poor
quality of life but strong black culture was
developing.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) Jim Crow:
• Character in 19th century act.
• Term became offensive as it was the stereotypical
view of AAs.
• Became a description of southern discriminative
laws.
3) Development:
• Crow laws rapidly developed between 1887 and
1891 when 8 states introduced segregation in
trains, waiting rooms, school and (by 1891) all
public places (parks, cinemas, baseball teams).
• Lower class whites feared that AAs would take jobs
and Social Darwinism reinforced hierarchical ideals.
12. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
States in 1920’s
1) Background:
• Enfranchised AAs were voting Republican in the
segregated south in the 1880’s.
• Their psychological inability to see AAs as
equal/traitors rose tensions further.
• The 1870 15th Amendment forbade discrimination
of voters because of race, not gender/wealth.
3) Additional voting requirements:
• Poll Tax – had to make payment well before voting.
• Property qualifications – had to own property to
vote.
• 1880 Literacy tests – recite/interpret sections of
Constitution. Harder tests for AAs.
• Grandfather clause – only vote if grandfathers had.
• By 1910, AA voting had ended in south.
• Encouraged by the 1898 Mississippi vs. Williams
which ruled the changes constitutional.
4) Lynching:
• Southern states did nothing/encouraged mobs of
white men attacking, beating and then killing
southern AAs, mainly on calls of rape of white girls.
• Cases were rarely brought to court and if they
were, all-white juries did not convict.
• Heightened fear for the whole AA community.
2) 1896 Plessy vs. Ferguson:
• Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation on railway carriages
was constitutional as facilities were SEPARATE BUT EQUAL.
• Acted as legal precedent to extend segregation to all areas of
public life.
• Allowed 1899 Cummings vs. Education to rule that segregated
schools were constitutional, even though more money was spent
on white schools.
13. President – 1885-89
and 1893-97
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Affirmed CR of all citizens in his
inaugural address but allowed
south to continue – boasted
having never shared a table with
an AA.
• Even Republicans/Congress did
not interfere in honouring the
1877 Compromise.
• Views reinforced by Supreme
Court Rulings; 1898 Mississippi
vs. Williams made denials of
votes constitutional.
14. CIVILIAN GROUP
1) Background:
• Believed aspects of American
society (e.g. corruption of rich)
needed reformation.
• However, did little for AAs
struggle.
• Showed the North's disinterest in
AAs now they were ‘free’.
• Supported by President Roosevelt.
15. President – 1901-09
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Showed a passing interest in AAs.
• Discussed problem with BTW.
• Vice President in 1900 after President
McKinley’s assassination.
• Supported the Progressive
Movement.
• Did not really address the AAs
problems.
• Criticised by supremacists for
approving of BTW.
16. President – 1909-12
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Largely followed on with Roosevelt's
policies.
• Style seemed dull and lacking of
Roosevelt's political skills.
• Took little interest in AA rights and he
saw it is state jurisdiction.
17. President – 1912-21
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Held typically racist views as he was
Southern born.
• He dismissed all AAs and stopped
association with their leaders.
• He appointed segregationist
southerners who segregated
employees by race in government
agencies.
2) End:
• By final years, he was broken and
sick and so replaced by Warren
Harding
18. CIVILIAN
CAMPAIGNER
1) Background:
• 1880-1910 was the height of the lynching campaign
after the war and Reconstruction, mainly on AA men.
• Usually accused of a crime (rape of white women) that
had to ‘dealt’ with there and then wit no time for courts.
• Regarded as a public event with women and children
attending.
• States and police did not interfere.
• Never reached court as white juries would not convict.
2) Wells’ opposition:
• Challenged two lynching myths;
1. That lynching was because of rape.
2. White female innocence.
• Had to move from Memphis to New York to escape
violence where she expressed her views in New York
Age (newspaper) and the newly formed 1896 National
Association of Colored Women.
• Because of the reform atmosphere in the north, she
received some sympathy but failed to gain
Congressional/Presidential support for anti-lynching
laws so cases could reach federal courts and bypass
more bias south state courts.
• The southern defence that it would interfere with state
rights always prevailed.
3) Southern fear:
• Obsession with white/black rape was revealing white
fear of a mulatto nation, destroying segregation.
• With segregation/voting, miscegenation laws also arose.
• Leasing of prisoners by bankrupt governments was a
hold on slavery.
19. 1) Background:
• Recognised that CR would have to wait until
they had developed a community.
• Born into slavery and of mixed race, benefited
from education after EP.
• So honoured, he set out to spread this to his
people – taught at Tuskegee Institute from
1881.
• Good at administration, leadership and had
vision
• Personal morality heighted and encouraged at
TI.
• Coincided with segregation – felt options were:
1. Go back to Africa (quickly rejected)
2. Assimilate (even less plausible; South’s
hostility)
3. Move to North (rapidly industrialising but not
the answer – whites preferred Europeans)
4. AAs should become skilled before demanding.
• Therefore, TI focused on
literacy/maths/practical skills rather than
intellectual with good teachers to get basic
jobs that would lead to change.
CIVILIAN
CAMPAIGNER
2) 1895 Atlanta Speech:
• Argued that if whites viewed AAs as economic
partners and not political opponents, tensions
would diffuse but segregation would continue for
now so they must focus on education/economic
opportunities and not campaigning for equality.
• Instant impact; ideas became known as Atlanta
Compromise (AAs reach an accommodation
(would compromised) with whites)
• 6 months after Douglass’s death (who had toned
down in waning years and not led any prominent
protests) and with no other AA leader, it shot
BTW into AA leadership.
• Long term impact: gained interest of TR, who
consulted him on AA questions and invited him
for tea at the White House.
• 1900 – organised the Negro Business League to
be national AA chamber of commerce.
• Autobiography; ‘Up from slavery’ furthered fame
3) Criticisms:
• Seemed to accept white supremacy and did not challenge inequality,
lynching and played down importance of vote.
• Despite his effort, educational gap widened further after 1900 with funding
differences.
• William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963), the 1st AA to gain a PhD
from Harvard in 1895 was an early sociologist who helped fund the 1905
Niagara Movement and the 1909 NAACP, but moved away from this and was
arrested as a communist in the McCarthy era, turned communist and moved
to Ghana (61).
• Claimed that BTW limited/endangered the future of AAs as his ideas were
necessary but were wrong as a basis for AA CRs as it did not mention
segregation or defanchisation.
• Hurt, BTW resorted to petty rebuttals but his followers remained numerous.
• In later years, he realised his campaign was not working.
• Gave money to individual segregation challengers and encouraged others to
publish articles on AA CR progression.
4) Successes:
• Career from slave to Collage Principle was inspiring.
• Set strict behavioural standards that helped students.
• From 1895 he was the main leader/spokesman for
AAs.
• Created valuable political links for future AAs.
• Long term aim was to show whites that AAs could be
equal if they learnt practical skills.
5) Failures:
• Seemed to accept low AA position.
• Tried to work in the system, not change it.
• Did not focus on the vote.
• After 1905, leadership was questioned by
AAs.
• Not effective as he didn’t change law and
paranoia over critics.
20. CIVILIAN GROUP
1) Background:
• BTW was criticised by writers like W.E.B.
and William M. Trotter 1872-1934 (born
into middle class AA family, an academic
at Harvard that planned a career in
international banking but abandoned it
because of prejudice. A newspaper
writer, he was arrested for heckling a
BTW speech as he wanted more vigorous
protests).
• They helped create the Niagara
Movement in Canada which aimed to
radically change the welfare policies of
AAs.
• Wanted a campaign to restore voting
rights/abolish discrimination/CRs.
2) Impact:
• Would never be a mass movement as
they did not relate to normal AAs with
their academic approach.
• BTW would likely become too
confrontational.
• Lacked money/effective
organisation/achieve little.
• Superseded by development of NAACP
but did underline key beliefs about AA
legal/employment/educational equality.
• Supported AA women/backed suffrages.
• Demanded end to racist convict leasing.
21. CIVILIAN GROUP
NAACP in 40s
NAACP SC cases by 41
NAACP IN 1945-55
1) 1908 Springfield Riot:
• Serious race riot in Illinois which began
over rape allegations.
• Police refused to hand over AA – white
residents rioted/attacked/burned AA
homes/businesses.
• Most AAs fled the city.
• 84 year old AA Donnegan was lynched
over the crime of being married to a
white women for 32 years.
• Not the violence that caused change,
but location – Lincoln lived/died there
and Donnegan was rumoured to be his
shoe maker.
2) Impact:
• As a direct response, Du Bois teamed up with
other prominent AA leaders at the New York
National Conference of the Negro to form first
proper, national AA CR organisation.
• They issued a passionate enunciation of this
treatment.
• Du Bois was eager (unlike Trotter) for white
members as he was convinced that the scientific
community were realising racial superiority was
stupid and the group gained many supporters of
both races.
• It remained a peaceful and Constitutional
organisation.
• Successes were not spectacular but important in
the long-term.
3) NAACP operation:
• Aim was to investigate then publicise racism, then make
legal solutions to enforce the law/Constitution to
ensure CRs.
• Adopted a constitutional approach to lawsuits as
though persecution was against constitutional
amendments.
• BACK BY SUPREME COURT: Guinn vs. US stated that the
Grandfather clause was unconstitutional.
4) 1911 Nation Urban League:
• Early NAACP successes inspired
development of the NUL to focus on
AA welfare in north.
• Although not a CR campaign group/no
southern power, the NUL did
campaign against housing/job
discrimination.
5) Du Bois:
• Despite Du Bois, most early NAACP leaders were
white which lead to race-cooperation questions
which continued into the 1960s.
• Played crucial role by editing magazine for 20+
years to increase awareness.
22. KEY WORDS
GROUP
PRESIDENT
PEOPLE
LEGLISLATION
Successes by
1941
Failures by 1941
North were
rejecting
racist views
Despite White/NAACP, success was limited
No charismatic leader had emerged to replace Garvey.
Congress, SC and Presidents showed little interest.
Though slow,
NAACP was
having an
impact
Education still poor with funding low
Still largely excluded from voting in south, allowing all-white juries to avoid AA justice
Lynching had declined, but fear remained
AAs had role
in sports/TV/
middle-class
Housing remained primitive/segregated
Poverty was endemic in AA communities and employment was discriminative
De jure segregation was enforced in south by white Democrats who played the race card
Whites seemed determined to keep supremacy
‘state rights’ were still used to enforce segregation
23. 1) Pull of north/Push of south:
• Number of AAs heading north during and
after WWI rose significantly.
• Even before joining in 1917, war had
impact because of decreasing number of
European immigrants workers and
weapons industry exploded. After the war,
numbers continued to grow because of
demands of US economy for workers in
1920s.
• South encouraged move with segregation,
inequality, disfranchise and violence.
Sharecroppers remained poor/attacked by
boll weevil.
• Heard stories of northern AAs with better
lives but refused to go into the melting
pot.
2) AA WWI soldiers:
• 350,000 served, with 40,000 in active
service and 1,300 officers.
• Half drafted to France in segregated
regiments and did awesomely (none ever
convicted of disloyalty during war).
• The experience broadened horizons on
inequality which stimulated campaigns
3) WWI end:
• White soldiers returned to find no jobs (taken
by AAs).
• Produced brief but intense tension causing
race riots in Chicago (teenager accidently
drifted onto white only beach; stoned and
drowned to death. 13 days of violence insured
when Irish/Polish attacked AA ghetto’s; 23
AA/15 white dead and 1000s homeless.
• Ghetto’s rapidly developed as laws forbade
AAs from moving from where they originally
settled because of fears over riots – ended
freedom of movement.
4) Northern AAs:
• Though different from south, CRs were
blocked.
• Ghettos caused de facto school segregation
because of population patterns which were
under funded/staffed.
• Discrimination in work, mainly clerical/skilled
jobs.
• BUT – no lynching. If AAs on voting register,
they could be jurors. Trials were fairer.
• Institutional racism was weaker but still
segregation/discrimination/poverty.
5) 1920s Jazz era:
• De facto segregation encouraged developing culture.
• Outpouring of writers/poets/musicians/painters.
• Many talented AAs were discovered in the poverty of
Harlem and so the era became the Harlem
Renaissance – AAs expressing their equality desires in
songs and writing.
• Even this showed de facto inequality – whites owned
the jazz clubs and the only AAs allowed in were
performers, prostitutes and cooks.
• AA middle-class developed – more AA
businesses/professional than ever.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
24. CIVILIAN
CAMPAIGNER
1) Garvey state-side (1916):
• He exploited WWI social changes briefly and
efficiently after arriving from Jamaica
• Rapidly gained dynamic followers within a year
but downfall was just as fast.
• Main AA leader for those years and although his
policies did not have immediate affects, they
shaped next generation of campaigners by
creating ‘Black Power’.
2) Ideals:
• Inspired by BTW’s TI, he created the 1914
Universal Negro Improvement Association in
Jamaica to go further than BTW and improve
economic prospect/white acceptance/AAs taking
control of problems.
• Saw the only solution to move back to Africa but
was vague on details. Short term, believe AAs
should focus on building
education/businesses/pride in being AAs.
3) UNIA:
• Aim; to campaign for equal rights and the
independence of AAs rather than absorption into
melting pot.
• Did not ask for government help, but told AAs to
develop their own means of salvation through
self-help groups/own industries/factories.
4) Why successful:
• In tense atmosphere, his movement made
progress.
• His 1917 Harlem speech was cheered and he
moved his base to NY.
• Made use of growing interest in AA newspapers to
laugh ‘The Negro World’, funded by northern AA
middle-class.
• Talented speaker.
• Aided by BTWs death and post-war tensions.
• Idea that AAs had to be proud of heritage appealed
to ghetto AAs as they could relate.
• Disagreed with Du Bois that integration would work
which also appealed to poor AAs who felt true
equality would never happen.
• Black Eagle Star Steamship line (4 ships) to raise
capital was popular but then became broke.
5) Why failure:
• Lacked political strategy/more bothered with
fancy ventures than immediate social and
economic problems.
• Ran out of money.
• As immediate post-war tensions calmed, so did
support.
• Suspicion increased when he talked to the KKK
in 1922 and colleague (Easton) was murdered
soon after.
• ‘Garvey Must Go’ – attack in popular
magazines. AA TU/NAACP opponents created
Friends of Negro Freedom to highlight his
failures.
• Arrested in 1925 and deported in 1929 on
release back to Jamaica – leaving AA CR
behind.
25. CIVILIAN GROUP
NAACP beginning
NAACP SC cases by 41
NAACP IN 1945-55
1) Background:
• Southern AAs were to busy surviving to
become campaigners and didn’t have the
skills because of poor education.
• Whites were worried that northern
campaigners would pass federal anti-
lynching laws which they would have to
obey.
• Growing AA middle-class got opportunity for
AA lead mass movement and Oscar de Priest
was the 1st AA to be elected into Congress
since 1900 in 1928, but he was alone.
2) Post-war impact:
• NAACP embodied AA campaigning after
Garvey’s arrest. Led by both races, was a
more vigorous legal campaign that BTW’s.
• National, it focused on CR not social
conditions
• 1920s Secretary (James Johnson) targeted
changes in desegregation, voting and
education; continued by 1930s leader
Walter White.
3) Policies:
• Races should live/work/be educated
together. Would take federal/Supreme
Court rulings to make changes.
• Non-violent, raising money to defend
accused AA rioters.
• Lobbying, not mass action.
Campaigned unsuccessfully for anti-
lynching laws but it did raise awareness
nationwide and decreased lynching.
• Growth rose rapidly after 1915 – by
1920, it has 90,000 members but that
decreased to 50,000 in 1930.
• Developed reputation of caution and
bureaucratic outlook.
• Run by middle-class and so failed to
relate to working class
4) North situation:
• Opposition was normally peaceful in north, but whole
southern population was violent towards it, discouraging
leaders from speaking out.
• Its only successes were winning court cases; in the tragedy
of Arkansas 1919, after 2 white men where shot in
discussions, mobs of whites attacked the AA community
and all AAs were arrested/killed (death toll from 20-250).
NAACP appealed to SC to overrule convictions.
26. FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• After WSC 1929 and decline of UNIA, CR
action was low.
• Communists showed new militant approach
rapidly for a short period to take advantage
of labour unrest between 1919-21.
• Recruited 7,000 homeless/unemployed
northern or poor sharecropping southern
AAs.
• Organised legal defence for Scottsboro Boys
trial.
• Membership rose in 1934 when ordered by
Soviet Union to fight against Fascism.
2) Successes:
• CR leaders distanced themselves from fear
of prejudice by association (particular during
post-WWII McCarthyism).
• Many saw their rejection of democracy and
Soviet alliance as un-American.
• In 1939 when the Soviets approved of the
Hitler-Stalin pact, their limited power ended.
27. CIVILIAN GROUP
1) Background:
• Influenced by Communist from start.
• Boycotts of discriminating shops failed to
gain mass support.
• Pressure group to ensure AAs got their side
of the New Deal
2) Successes:
• After a well-supported start, it lost support
because of its close Communist ties and
became limited to Communist support.
• Disbanded in 1947.
28. CIVILIAN GROUP
KKK beginning
1) Background:
• Showed southern attitudes to
AAs.
• Revival in 1915 in Atlanta,
Georgia by William Simmons
1880-1945 (followed old Klan
ideas but did introduce new
features like burning crosses
as a sign of KKK activity).
• Communist growth aided
revival.
• 1915 film The Birth of a
Nation glorified old Klan and
presented a brutal stereotype
of AAs.
• 1922 – Hiram Evans 1881-
1966 (widened target of
hatred to other
races/religions that were not
White Anglo-Saxon
Protestants) took over.
• Created view of AAs as
pitiable creatures, who’s
threat level was less that
Catholics/Jews/Communists.
• Split Democrat Party in south.
2) Support:
• North: group remained shady and had
limited support.
• South: its views on capitalism, religion and
‘traditional’ American virtues increased its
membership to over 5 million by 1924 from
100,000 in 1921.
• Hooded members openly paraded, burned
crosses, intimidated, beat, mutilated and
murdered victims.
• 1930 – 30,000 members remained as
segregation/white way of life went
unthreatened.
29. FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
States in 1800s
1) Background:
• Majority of white southern politicians neither
supported AAs or the KKK.
• Democrat states intended to maintain the status quo
(hohohoooooo stick to the stuff you knowwww):
1. Segregation
2. Cheap AA labour
3. White electorate suspicion of federal intervention
4. White supremacy.
4) Support:
• No doubting that Bilbo and Talmadge had
support because of their re-election
successes, but apart from Governor of
Louisiana (Harry Long) all had to play race
card to undereducated, racist whites to gain
support.
2) Theodore Bilbo 1877-1947
• was born into poor family, became Mississippi
Governor 1916-1920 and 1928-1932 and a Senator
afterwards until death.
• Violently opposed any AA voters, hinting to what
should be ‘done’ to them
• Dubbed ‘America’s most notorious merchant of
hatred’.
• Suggested all AAs go back to Africa.
3) Eugene Talmadge 1884-1946:
• Came from farming family and wrote agricultural
journals.
• Governor of Georgia from 1940-1942 and 1946-1946
(dies)
• Similar to Bilbo and attacked integrated education.
5) Situation by 30s Depression:
• Just before, educated opinion dismissing
supremacy was rising, but depression stalled
CR ideas.
• P vs. F 1896 still very much in place and
facilities were still not equal – for every $7
spent on white schools in 1930, only $2
went to AA schools.
30. President – 1921-23
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Thought that southern states must have
‘superior understanding’ to the problem, a
clear sign he would not intervene.
31. President – 1923-29
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Early on, he declared that the CR of AA were
as ‘sacred’ as whites.
• But took a passive view and let Congress
take the initiative.
32. President – 1929-32
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Was his attempt to appoint a racist Supreme
Court Judge that the NAACP managed to
appose in 1930.
• Resorted to the race card to convince
Democrats of his Republican strategies –
obviously failed.
• Last Republican to receive wide AA support
for presidency because he was a knob.
33. President – 1932-44
(re-elected 3 times)
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Previous presidents were indifferent,
incompetent, preoccupied and powerless to
the Democratic Congress men who would
oppose pro-AA legislation.
• However, he was preoccupied with ‘saving
America’ – in which he could not include AAs
because of Democrat opposition.
2) Support for AAs:
• Frankly told NAACP leader White in 1933
that he could not involve AAs in his New
Deal (initiative to increase America’s
economy after 1929 WSC) if it was to be
passed though Congress.
• If insisted on the AA problems, he would
lose Democratic support.
• AAs plight received more support from
Eleanor Roosevelt 1884-1962 (cousin and
wife to FDR) who became aware of problems
after touring the nation as First Lady. She
publicly supported the NAACP’s Anti-
Lynching Bill 1930s to FDR’s embarrassment.
3) New Deal:
• Encouraged a wage rise and cutting of working
hours.
• By 1935, 30% of AA families were on benefits
compared to 10% of whites – illustrating their
poverty and the fair split of federal funding.
• However, urban AA unemployment rates
remained high and sharecroppers were hit hard
by Depression (not covered by the Social
Security Act or the National Labour Relations
Act that helped whites because of Democrats
refusal to vote for pro-AA legislation)
4) Individual Help:
• Supported the 1941 Philip Randolph
demand for fair employment opportunities
by issuing his Executive Order to ban
discrimination in workplaces.
• Set up the Fair Employment Practices
Commission to implement this.
34. 1) Background:
• Limited progress was being made for acceptance of AAs in
sports.
• Owens won 4 gold medals in the 1936 Olympics and
challenged the ideas of white supremacy.
• After success, he received advertising endorsements like
white athletes.
• Awarded American Medal of Freedom by President Ford
in 1976.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
2) Hattie McDaniel:
• First AA to win an Oscar for Gone with the Wind in 1940.
• Encouraged racial marches; E. Roosevelt withdrew her
support from Daughter of the Revolution after they
banned AA Marian Anderson (who was also banned from
singing in Constitution Hall) and multi-racial crowds began
attending Anderson’s concert at Lincoln Memorial.
35. FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
NAACP 1 + 2
1) Positives:
• With federal, executive
and legislative routes for
AA CR blocked, NAACP
turned to SC.
• Lengthy, but it worked.
• Since Reconstruction, SC
ruling had not helped
CRs apart from some
early successes (1917
Buchanan vs. Warley –
Kentucky residential
segregation was
unconstitutional but the
judgment was on
property rights which
would not allow
precedent for
overturning segregation
in public places).
• Another positive ruling
was the 1923 Moore vs.
Dempsey, which failed
to uphold the death
sentences for 12 AAs
because of unfair trials.
2) Support:
• 1933 Trudeau vs. Barnes ruled that all other
options must be ruled out before a case was
brought to the SC – showing NAACP’s
slowness.
• Old judges were dying off and FRD was
appointing more liberal ones – between
1937-1941, 7/9 died. Verdicts showed this
change:
• 1938 Gaines vs. Canada ruled that separate
facilities must really be EQUAL (subsequently
rose AA teachers salaries to 80% that of
whites)
• However, 15th (voting) was continually not
enforced – showing the importance of SC
rulings.
36. KEY WORDS
GROUP
PRESIDENT
PEOPLE
LEGLISLATION
Successes by 1965 Failures by 1965
MLK’s and others (Shuttlesworth/Baker) leadership
rose AA confidence to protest
Cold War fear of Communism was hard on
supporters who were prosecuted
Success of NAACPs legal tactic lead to favourable SC
rulings
Most presidents were still fearful of southern power
Increasing federal support (especially LBJ)
Public sympathy from white northerners because of
medias increase rose mass support
Poor tactics of southerners (violence) played into
campaigners hands.
37. 1) Impact:
• AA immigration increased
dramatically, with the number
of AAs in San Fran increasing
from 4,800 in 1940 to 32,000
in 1945.
• This caused tensions and
violence to rise – resulting in
the 1943 Detroit riot (after an
AA ‘raped and murdered’ a
white women. 25/34 of the
dead and most of the 1,600
arrested were AAs)
• Also work tensions – if AAs
were promoted, whites would
walk out (as it Mobile,
Alabama 1943)
2) AA WWII soldiers:
• Brought its own
tension/reinforced
segregation.
• Red Cross forced to segregate
AA/white blood.
• Long term positives; 100,000
AAs were sent to England –
experienced more equality.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) Irony:
• Irony of fighting Nazi fascism while
oppressing own people.
• CR campaigners emphasised difference
and fought for fully AA CRs.
• Fought by groups such as Congress of
Racial Equality, set up by James Farmer in
1942 to protest against formal Northern
segregation (split in 1966 over BP and after
Farmer’s resignation, it became more
moderate) [CORE in 60].
38. 1) Background:
• Period after 1945 with high
capitalist/communist tensions.
• Although no formal war was ever
declared, the threat of nuclear
retaliation was very real until 1980s.
• Meant that any radical party/attempt
to change system was questioned –
affecting CRs as they showed
sympathy towards communism and
criticised the establishment.
• Campaigners such as W.E.B. Du Bois
and Adam Powell (first AA House of
Representatives elective who
challenged de facto Northern
segregation but had no mass
support) and groups such as the
NAACP were communist suspects
(despite White being very anti-
communist).
• Meetings were made illegal and then
they were forced to fight expensive
legal battles which lost campaigning
money.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) Impact:
• Wartime Soviet propaganda and irony of fighting Nazi
fascism had rose profile/support for AAs CR
• How could they fight for freedom while oppressing own
people?
• McCarthyism (post-war communist fear. J. R. McCarthy’s
ruthless assault on communism lead to 200 charges in 1950
on members of the D.C. State Department. Discredited by
1954 as accusations became wild.) discredited CORE
because of their direct style. AA oppression played down in
favour of legal and political ones that appealed to American
values/constitution
• Explains why the movement failed when fighting for better
housing/employment; seemed to question Constitutional
rights of property/factory owners.
39. President – 1944-53
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Served as a Democratic Senator 1935-1944,
then became Roosevelt’s Vice.
• Authorised atomic bomb on Japan in 1945.
• ‘Fair Deal’.
2) AA help:
• Used his authority as Commander-in-Chief
of Army to end military segregation in 1948.
• Commissioned a President’s Committee in
CRs in 1946 - committee that reported
directly to him on AA welfare/how to gain
their equality in a peaceful way. Included TU
leaders, churches and teachers but not CR
activists. Issued a report in 1947 after
interviewing 250 people; ‘To Secure These
Rights’.
• Identified major CR problems.
3) Impact:
• Created opinion that changed climate so as
future changes were welcomed but did not
create any legislation as was always blocked
by Congress.
40. CIVILIAN GROUP
NAACP beginning
NAACP SC cases by 41
1) Background:
• Accusations of Communism in 1945
meant they were less directly involved
in protests than before the war.
• Continued to challenge systems of
segregation/discrimination in
employment/voting/education.
2) Successes:
• Employment: by 1953, 20 states implemented
Roosevelt’s fair employment regulations.
• Votes: 1944 Smith vs. Allright outlawed all white
primary in Texas, meaning that AAs registered to vote
rose from 2% in 1940 to 12% in 1947. Few AAs were
elected for state legislatures but none in Deep South.
Powell was elected to HoR. NAACP launched voter
registration drives to encourage AA voters but these
were opposed in DS. Especially difficult for AA women to
vote.
• Education: attempted to challenge P vs. F separate but
equal ruling in education. 1949 – South Carolina, $179
was spent on white students and $43 on AAs. Pupil-to-
teacher ratio was 20% better in white schools. NAACP
sued on behalf of children. Thurgood Marshall 1908-93
(AA lawyer who fought SC rulings for NAACP and won
almost all of them – including Brown vs. Board.
Appointed first AA SC judge by Johnson in 1967) argued
that the legal system should acknowledge/tackle
inequality in education.
• Slow but effective.
3) Roy Wilkins 1910-1981:
• Leader from 1955 until death.
• Continued White’s moderate policies –
uneasy with confrontational policies by
other 60s CR groups.
• Around at same time as MLK and
continued his cautious and legal
approach.
41. President – 1953-61
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in
WWII.
• 2 terms as Republican President – popular
because of military past.
• Conception of Presidency; passive not active
(only active as last resort)
• Appointed Earl Warren as Chief SC judge.
• Failed to enforce B vs. B.
• Failed to act in 1956 when Governor Daniel
of Texas sent in Rangers to stop integration
enforcements so as to avoid opposition.
• However, did take action in Little Rock in
1957.
42. COURT CASE
1) 1954 SC verdict:
• Unanimously ruled that
Brown should be allowed to
go to the much closer white-
school and that to bar her
would be unconstitutional.
2) Earl Warren (1891-1974):
• Lawyer and Republican
politician.
• As Attorney-General of Cal.,
made over 100,000
Japanese-American arrests
in 1943 because of WWII.
• Appointed Chief Justice of
SC in 1943 by Eisenhower
(helped him win election).
• Surprised Eisenhower with
liberal AA judgments.
• Later headed investigation
on JFK’s assassination.
• In B VS. B, accepted all the
arguments of Marshall
(schools should have equal
funding and integrated –
used psychologist to show
segregations effect on AA
children's self-esteem).
3) Immediate impact:
• Created legal precedent and expected to
make changes.
• Effected non-DS states; Washington DC,
Baltimore, St. Louis etc.. started integrating
schools.
• Process was slow – by 1957, only 12% of
southern schools were integrated.
• Southern states used state rights to argue
against ruling. Federal government was seen
as dictating its values onto states and
southern states would simply close public
schools so there was no AA education and
fund white children to attend private schools
4) Long-term impact:
• TURNING POINT: showed SC would no longer
block AAs CR – which Presidents and
Congress were still doing.
• ENDED P VS F!!!! Which had dominated race
relations since then.
• Went further than attacking inequality by
insisting segregation was psychologically
harming AAs.
• Allowed more liberal verdicts to follow.
• Gave southern AAs confidence in legal
system which was then exploited by MLK
• Signalled new era of fair judgments for more
campaigns.
5) Southern attitude before:
• Although economic, political and educational AA advances were small, still
met southern opposition.
• All Confederate states remained segregated – politicians increased racism near
elections to gain votes.
• Sharecroppers/labourers were easily fired if they attempted to vote.
• Few AAs took legal action and fewer hoped for favourable verdicts.
• KKK still present in DS/lynching less but occurring - Emmet Till 1955
• Still used state rights to dismiss ruling. Strom Thurmond disliked Truman’s
army desegregation/CR Commission so deserted Democrats in the 1948
election to run as a 3rd Party Candidate (gained 1 million votes compared to
Truman's 24 million and Dewey’s 22 million).
• 1948 election – reminded to DS that no one else believed in segregation/state
rights anymore. Since Roosevelt’s New Deal, presidents had more power and
used it. States were depended on federal grants and could therefore not
refuse demands. Resistance after B vs. B was last phase of opposition.
6) South attitude after :
• DS now had new measures to resist change; developed White Citizen’s
Councils (1st in 1955 because of B vs. B to maintain segregation through
economically smiting supporters) and passing segregationist measures
(Miss. and Loui. amended constitutions to retain segregation) – the whites
were now on the defensive.
• Became apparent that the ruling would have to be enforced in south
because of their resistance (north accepted decision; respected fed. gov.).
• Problem needed Eisenhower to enforce ruling but he did not act – not
because of racism (outlawed any segregation in Columbia) but out of fear of
opposition – did nothing when Texas brought in Texas Rangers in 1956 to
prevent forced integration.
43. 1) 1955:
• 14 year old AA from Chicago visiting Mississippi.
• Whistled at a white women and was (rightly) shot in the
head and dumped in a river.
• Received great public interest and mother invited
reporters to open-casket funeral to see injustice.
• Showed events were becoming rarer and attitudes were
changing.
• However, also showed lack of southern justice – despite
clear evidence on 2 white murderers, all-white jury did
not convict.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNERNot for Emmet
44. 1) Background:
• Eisenhower did act after blatant southern resistance to integration in
Central High School, Little Rock.
• Governor Orval Faubus used Nation Guard to ban 9 AA students from
the school after federal ruling that the school must be desegregated.
• Annoyed with Faubus’ dereliction of duty (thought Faubus had agreed
to obey ruling), Eisenhower used his authority as Commander-in-Chief
to send in paratroopers (federal troops) to put the NG under federal
control.
• The soldiers who had banned entry now had to hold back protesters
and escort the children to school.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) Impact:
• Only time Eisenhower used authority to enforce B vs. B ruling.
• Showed limitations of SC power in terms of acceptance, enforcement
and presidents caution when implementing their rulings.
• 1957 CRA – proposed bi-partisan CR Commission and division in
Justice Department to look at CR problem. Thurmond spoke for 24
hours in Congress against it. Senator Lyndon Johnson only scrapped
bill though the Senate by watering down its provisions.
• 1960 CRA – renewed CRC to allow judges to make special
appointments of pro-AA whites who would help them get onto voting
register and introduced federal criminal penalties for bombing and
mob action.
• Both CRAs very weak and had no impact.
45.
46. 1) Background:
• Southern public transport segregation was
always most hated by AAs – made to
stand, poorer seats, thrown off buses for
no reason and spoken down to/humiliated
by white drivers but majority of AAs lived
out of towns and so relied on them.
• 1955, NAACP activist Parks was thrown off
a bus for refusing to give up her seat,
giving birth to new era of CR campaign.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
2) Parks:
• Methodist Christian and member of
NAACP who was highly regarded in local
community.
• Others arrested for similar offences, but
campaign needed person of impeccable
character/morals of whom breaking the
law would normally be unthinkable.
• After boycott, harassment drove
Parks/family out to Detroit in 1957.
• Set up the Rosa and Raymond Parks
institute for self-development which gave
young AAs career training.
• Awarded the Presidential Medal of
Freedom in 1996 and Congressional Gold
Award in 1999.
3) Why is succeeded:
• Not 1st example of direct action protest but 1st that had
success.
• Gained near-unanimous support from ORDINARY AAs –
giving them chance to participate in behaviour without
fear/danger.
• Impressive display of unity/stamina for;
1. Waling to work.
2. Persisting with boycott for almost a year.
• Showed they could organise protests and co-operate
with each other with minimal white participation.
• Put financial pressure on local authorities who initially
refused the slightest concession.
• November 1956 after NAACP initiative in another
favourable SC ruling on Browder vs. Gayle – ruling that
bus segregation was unconstitutional with similar
reasoning to B vs. B ruling
47. 1) Background:
• Born in Atlanta was brought up in well off
family but suffered from inequality.
• Forced to move north to Boston to gain
his PhD.
• Became a Baptist Minister in 1954 to 1960
after which he returned to Atlanta and ran
his fathers church and became fully
involved in the CR campaign.
• Assassinated in 1968.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
60s
2) Turing point?:
• Chosen for his cautious reputation, was an
effective organiser, brilliant speaker and
great motivator.
• Organised night-time church rallies that
recharged AA commitment and
determination.
• By articulating all AAs frustrations in
persuasive way, made vital link between
CR campaigners and less educated general
public (NAACP/Du Bois failed at).
• Non-violence argued throughout life
which set next 10 years of campaigning
agenda.
• Set up the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference in 1957 – widened CR field to
react to events, not individuals (NAACP)
48. 1) Background:
• 1960 – 4 AA students staged
sit-in in Woolworth’s in North
Carolina (who were proud of
race relations)
• State hesitated which
allowed numbers to grow
rapidly.
• Started concept of sit-ins
which spread to
neighbouring states.
CAMPAIGNER
LEGLISLATION
2) Ella Baker 1903-1986:
• Ran AA voters campaign in
30s.
• Joined NAACP in 40s.
• Moved to Atlanta to assist
MLK/SCLC in 57 and
convinced him to visit
protesting students.
• Disliked his style and so
encouraged students to form
the Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee in
60s (which organised swim-
ins, read-ins, watch-ins and
shoe-ins. Spilt by BP in 70s)
3) Impact:
• Protests were not violent but more
confrontational than boycotts as it forced
authorities to respond.
• If response was violence, press showed it
on TVs (1949 – 1 million houses had TVs
which rose to 45 million by 1960.
King/Baker deliberately used this
attention).
• This increased public support.
• If state did not act, then it ended
desegregation.
• Meant that by 1961, 810 southern towns
had desegregated facilities.
49. 1) Background:
• Reinforced sit-ins success in
1961.
• Took advantage of white
support (TV/media creating
liberal opinions in north to
such extent that white CR
campaigners were emerging,
despite fact that they were
more brutally attacked for
betraying their race).
CAMPAIGNER
LEGLISLATION
2) Freedom rides:
• Whites and AAs would board
inter-state buses in north
where they could sit together,
and then remain in their
places when it became illegal
after crossing southern
boarders.
• Confrontational strategy was
employed effectively because
of raised publicity and
negative response of states.
• In Alabama – police ignored a
white mob attacking AA riders.
• CORE revitalised to co-
ordinate events.
3) Federal Government response:
• SC liberal verdicts continued to aid CR
campaign – particularly inspired by 1960
Boynton vs. Virginia which outlawed all inter-
state travel segregation.
• Kennedy viewed it as states defying law.
• Helped in 1962 after 2 deaths to get James
Meredith through the gates of Mississippi
University to be the first AA student.
• This paved way for 2 AA students to attend
the University of Tuscaloosa with no response
from the militantly racist Governor of
Alabama, George Wallace.
50. President – 1961-63
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Elected as Congressman in 1945 and Senator in
1952.
• Became President in 1961 (youngest ever)
• ‘New Frontier’.
• Slow to take up CR cause, but determined to take
up CR Bill in 1963 after troubles with FR and
Birmingham riots.
• Prevented from seeing its success after
assassination in November.
2) Response to FR:
• Saw it as southern state refusal to obey federal
law/maintain order.
• Response had previously been lukewarm –
worried about loosing southern support
• Determined to keep up with Eisenhower’s
intervention at LR – that failure to keep order
would not be tolerated.
3) Robert Kennedy 1925-1968:
• Attorney General from 1961-64.
• Forcibly implemented favourable SC rulings
(including desegregation of inter-state travel).
• Leading role in passing CR legislation.
• Feel out with Johnson, especially over Vietnam.
• Could of won the Democratic nomination for
Presidency but was assassinated.
51. 1) Background:
• MLK/SCLC planned to take
advantage of favourable
climate.
• Birmingham, Alabama was
large and rigidly segregated but
MLK felt that if they succeeded
here, everywhere else would
follow.
CAMPAIGNER EVENT
2) Fred Shuttlesworth 1922-
2011:
• Baptist Minister who formed
the 1956 Alabama Christian
Movement for Human Rights.
• Invited SCLC to Birmingham for
major campaign.
• Strong non-violence believer,
he was one of the most
courageous CR leaders.
• 1963 – confronted police
dogs/fire hoses head on – sent
him to hospital.
• Since the 80s his housing
foundation helped many poor
families.
• Retired in 2006.
3) Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor 1897-1973:
• Birmingham Commissioner of Public Safety in 1937-
53 and 1957-63 (re-elected 5 times)
• Known for his determination to keep segregation at
all costs/over-reacting/encouraging violence against
FRs in 1961.
4) 3/4/63
• SCLC arrived, demanding desegregation and end to
employment racism.
• Limited progress to start and MLK was arrested.
• Arranged march in May which included AA high
schoolers.
• Conner over-reacted and sent in police dogs and
water canons.
• Whole world/Kennedy saw violence unfold on TV and
the over-reaction (which was what MLK needed)
created the publicity the campaign needed.
5) Conclusions:
1. White business owners realised that a few
concessions (such as desegregated shops) was less
damaging that the continuing chaos/losing profit
from boycotts.
2. Kennedy decided that law/order had been broken
and would continue to fail if he did not take federal
action.
52. 1) Background:
• MLK argued that waiting was not an option (spent
20 periods in jail for violating segregation laws – in
Birmingham jail he wrote to clergymen who argued
that AA had to wait – ‘perhaps it is easy for those
who have never felt the stinging darts of
segregation to sat ‘wait’.’)
• To maintain pressure, CR campaigners organised
the Washington march to take their cause to the
capital, directly at the heart of government.
• Took place 100 years after the EP – highly emotive.
CAMPAIGNER EVENT
2) I Have a Dream:
• During the march, MLK’s powerful speech in front
of the Lincoln memorial.
• Stated that the march was for ‘jobs and freedom’,
indicating concerns for AAs economically and
segregationally.
3) Impact:
• Over 250,000 people marched (1/3 white, with
members of the NAACP who normally were wary of
marches – display of strength/unity)
• Peaceful/disciplined protesters contrasted with
opponents; 3 weeks after the march, 4 AA children
at Sunday school were killed in a bombing attack
on an AA Baptist church in Birmingham.
53. President – 1963-69
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• President after JFK’s assassination and won
landslide victory in 1964 election.
• Though not always consistent, he was one of the
few southern Senators who gave support to CR in
50s.
2) 1963 CRA:
• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully
used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience
with Congress/southern background to get
together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and
Democrats that alluded previous presidents.
54. 1) Background:
• The assassination of JFK while he was preparing
the Bill seemed to be a setback.
• However, MLK/SCLC kept pressure on with strong
campaign in Florida.
• Also, LBJ needed little persuasion to act and
skilfully used nations shock at JFK’s
death/experience with Congress/southern
background to get together a pro-CRs coalition of
Republicans and Democrats that alluded previous
presidents.
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION
3) Impact:
• Made universal what was already happing out of
DS and was a major achievement as it largely
defeated southern resistance.
2) Content:
• Ban on exclusion from public places.
• Attorney-General could file law suits to speed up
desegregation, mixed schools and voting rights.
• Fair Employment Practices Commission set up on
permanent legal basis.
• No racial, sexual or religious discrimination was
lawful.
• No discrimination in any federally aided
programmes.
• Community Relations Service was set up to deal
with disputes.
55. 1) Background:
• Movement now focused on gaining legislation for
voting rights after 64 CRA.
• Slow but steady progress made before with 50s
voters drives but voting was still low.
• SCLC pursued similar tactic to Birmingham March
by targeting Selma, Alabama which also had rigid
segregation.
• Selma had a 50% AA population but only a 1% AA
voting rate and a violent police chief, Jim Clark.
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION
Impact
2) Protest:
• As in Birmingham, TV showed violence of police
towards peaceful protesters lead by MLK.
• This generated public support for CRs and federal
protection for a march to Montgomery.
• Also lead to Johnson passing the 65 VRA in the
summer.
• As the march reached the place of the successful
Montgomery Boycott 10 years earlier, LBJ prepared
to sign the Act.
3) Act:
• Following conditions for voter registration were
made illegal:
1. Demonstration of educational achievement.
2. Knowledge of any subject.
3. Ability to interpret material.
4. Proof of moral character.
• Meaning that AAs could register to vote on equal
terms to whites.
56. KEY WORDS
GROUP
PRESIDENT
PEOPLE
LEGLISLATION
Successes by 1992 Failures by 1992
Public-place segregation had disappeared 23% of AA men in prison – King Affair.
Equal basis for voting that whites. Elected into public
offices
AA economic gap widened – 1/7 of AA households
had income of over $50,000 by 1990 but female-
lead poorer families had $6,000 average.
Opposition/KKK had largely disappeared. Still white-AA split in housing
All politicians accepted equality/condemned
discrimination
High unemployment’ 1992 – 14.2% (2x national
average) for whole and 50% for teens
Middle-class AA numbers had increased/important to
economy
1992 – 76% of AAs graduated from HS (6% lower
than whites) but schools were re-segregating
57. 1) Unemployment and Poverty:
• With southern AAs moving north to escape
segregation, unskilled jobs were rare and because
of poor education, these were the only ones they
could do.
• 50s – machines took over and over 1 million jobs
were lost.
• 60s – average wage for 1/10 of whole US was
$5000 per year but for AAs was only 1/3.
• 70s – ½ of AAs lived in north (1/3 in 50s)
• With no employment, job discrimination rose
especially in youth.
FEDERAL PROBLEMS
2) Housing:
• Segregated housing still prominent; 90% lived in
segregated areas in Detroit in 70s – 85% in
segregated schools in Chicago in 1964 and this was
increasing.
• Areas had indifferent schooling, high crime rates
and no money and therefore no escape.
• Blockbusting (agents encouraging white owners in
AA neighbourhoods to sell cheaply and selling
them to AAs at higher prices) further encouraged
segregation.
3) Education:
• Still de facto segregation because of segregated
housing.
• Caught in poverty cycle – no qualifications – no
good job – stay in same conditions.
• 64 CRA had little impact; not focused on social
problems
• Southern schools were now more desegregated
than north.
58. 1) Background:
• Born into poor AA family in
Nebraska.
• Garvey supported farther murdered
in 1931 and in 37 his mother when
insane.
• No educational opportunities – went
to drugs/crime in NY.
• When in jail in 1946-52, converted
to the Nation of Islam (aka Black
Muslims – founded/led in 30s by
Wallace Fard until his disappearance
in 34, when Elijah took over until his
death in 75)
• Changed his life – dropped Little
(slave name) to become Malcolm X.
• Minister in NOI temples in 50s and
spokesman for organisation in 60s.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
2) Support:
• Northern AAs did not support MLK
as southerners did as he focused on
desegregation/voting and not social
issues. Also – non-violent Christian
part didn’t strike northern cultural
cords (complained Washington
March ignored half of its aim; ‘for
JOBS and freedom’.)
3) Importance:
• Northern and critical of non-violent
approach, X was a prominent
member of NOI until 1963. Here he
heard of AA supremacy (all humans
first made black until unpure white
race emerged).
• Proud to be an AA and critical of
white society, thinking that they
should not ‘beg’ whites for favours
as he felt NAACP and MLK were
doing.
• Views spread quickly among poor
northern AAs in way MLK failed.
• Quick-witted debater and power
over supporters.
• Restricted from speaking in direct
political terms by leader of NOI,
Elijah Muhammad, which meant he
lacked platform for campaigning.
• However, did used NOI’s
magazine/TV/campus talks/radios
to get message across.
• Dismissed from NOI in 1963 for
criticising Elijah/talking out.
• Changed to mainstream Sunni
Muslim faith – got greater
opportunities to speak
4) Elijah Muhammad 1897-1975:
• Born Elijah Poole.
• Converted to Muslim as a young man
and became NOI leader in 34.
• Jailed for avoiding draft in 1942-46.
• Called for separate homeland for AAs
but avoided political announcements.
• Revered by X until discovered that he
was immoral (affairs with secretaries)
5) Emphasis:
• Disliked focus of CR and preferred
focus on appalling economic and
social conditions of inner-cities AAs
• Rejected white-AA integration as
thought whites were inherently racist
and never apply their values to AAs
(saw them as Africans, not American
but dismissed moves to Africa for
practicality)
• Rejected non-violent emphasis but
did not encourage violence – only
self-defence.
• MLK avoided commenting/FBI ran
surveillance from 60s onwards but X
was focused on NOI threats and cared
little of white opinions on him, even
praise.
6) View Change:
• X dismissive of CR but
re-thought after 63
successes.
• Could not do a public
change of views.
• After NOI dismissal,
travelled Africa/Asia
and realised that many
Muslims were white.
• Came around on other
campaigns just as MLK
moved towards X’s.
• Needed time to make
an impact but was
assassinated by NOI –
ideas remained
influential.
59. President – 1963-69
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• President after JFK’s assassination and won
landslide victory in 1964 election.
• Though not always consistent, he was one of the
few southern Senators who gave support to CR in
50s.
2) 1963 CRA:
• LBJ needed little persuasion to act and skilfully
used nations shock at JFK’s death/experience
with Congress/southern background to get
together a pro-CRs coalition of Republicans and
Democrats that alluded previous presidents.
3) Vietnam:
• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ
and Congress because of war.
• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –
violence against most basic principles/diverted
funds/attention away from CRs in
newspapers/TV.
• Ended tenuous relations with President.
• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing
Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or
mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over
MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)
60. 1) Background:
• Disillusioned by lacking white
support for campaigns.
• Realising that CR movement
must address
social/economic problems to
achieve northern equality.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
Beginning
2) 1966 Chicago Campaign:
• Confirmed MLK’s pessimism.
• Invited to Chicago and tried
to address their de facto
segregation in education,
housing and employment.
• Found less cooperation from
AAs and resistance from
racist whites.
• Mayor Daley more weasely
than Connor so no direct
violence towards SCLC but
also no co-operation/evasive.
• Highlighted the housing
problem but did not solve it
as Daley broke promise to
improve housing and end
housing segregation.
3) Vietnam:
• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support
from LBJ and Congress because of war.
• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside
Church – violence against most basic
principles/diverted funds/attention away
from CRs in newspapers/TV.
• Ended tenuous relations with President.
• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair
Housing Act – no discrimination allowed
on sale, rent or mortgaging of properties
(LBJ used emotion over MLK’s death to
pass it through Congress)
4) View change:
• Never changed non-violent views but
was disillusioned in 60s to lack of de
facto change
• Realised that unless problems stopped,
rioting (big in 65-8) would continue –
undermining non-violent strategy.
• Moved towards socialism bordering on
Communism and planned a Poor Man’s
March from Mississippi to D.C. to protest
poverty.
• 4/4/68 – assassinated in Memphis while
supporting AA dustmen’s fight.
5) Impact of death:
• After, non-violent
wishes were ignored
and there was a
swathe of rioting
nationwide.
• The movement was
now leaderless,
directionless, divided
and confused.
61. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
2) Vietnam:
• 1966 – drastic reduction in CR support from LBJ
and Congress because of war.
• 1967 – MLK spoke out in NY’s Riverside Church –
violence against most basic principles/diverted
funds/attention away from CRs in
newspapers/TV.
• Ended tenuous relations with President.
• Ended CR legislation except for 1968 Fair Housing
Act – no discrimination allowed on sale, rent or
mortgaging of properties (LBJ used emotion over
MLK’s death to pass it through Congress)
1) Background:
• North (communist) and South (capitalist) parts of
Vietnam from 50s to 75.
• US supported South and became increasingly
involved in the anti-communists crusade.
• By 1968, ½ million US troops (including AAs) were
sent.
• CR campaigners pointed out that $½ million were
being spent on killing communists but only $35
sent to poor citizens.
62. CIVILIAN GROUP
1) Development:
• X’s views had more power after his death
even in previously non-violent groups.
• Violent groups saw MLK as a ‘tool of the
white man’ and thought AAs should have
complete self-control over lives.
• SNCC and CORE increasingly questioned
non-violence which had made no de facto
change.
• Demanded more effective and fairer
following of the law and radical social
change (especially in housing/education).
• Many rejected help from
whites/dismissed AAs working with them.
2) Stokely Carmichael 1941-1998:
• Born in Trinidad but moved to US at 11.
• Organiser for the SNCC from 64-66, then
chair.
• Co-author of Black Power in 1967 which
outlined vision for AAs in US.
• Extreme speeches; ‘smashing everything
that white civilisation has created’.
• Left to join Black Panthers in 67
• Left US for Guinea in 69 and changed his
name to Kwame Ture.
63. CIVILIAN GROUP
1) Development:
• A Black Power group starting in California.
• Received national attention quickly
because of armed parades for ‘self-
defence’ against police brutality in
distinctive uniform of berets/dark glasses.
• 3 years – focus of CR attention and had
1000s of members but declined after
shot-outs with police in 1969.
2) Newton and Seale:
• Huey Newton (1942-89) had little formal
education/self-taught. Bobby Seale (1936)
from air force.
• Met in San Fran. School of Law and
formed BPs.
• 1967 - Newton was shot, arrested and
convicted of violent offences.
• 1971 – Seale dropped a murder charge.
• 70s – both moved from violence
• 1974-7 – Newton fled to Cuba.
• 1989 – Newton shot dead in California.
• 1973 – Seale ran for Mayor and came 2nd
• 1981 – wrote history of BP and then
worked to improve economic/social
conditions in AA neighbourhoods.
3) Aims:
• Both wanted to end
white capitalism and
police brutality.
• Emphasised economic
improvements for AAs
and were clearly
influenced by X and Black
Power.
• Developed a 10 point
programme with similar
demands to mainstream
CR activists and some
more distinctive (request
for AA-white juries was
common but Black
Panthers demand for all-
AA juries indicated
emphasis on self
determination/racist
views towards whites.)
• Long way from
SCLC/NAACP and the fact
that it gained SNCC
support showed just how
broken CR movement
was.
4) 10 Point Programme:
1. Freedom – power to
determine own destiny
2. Full employment
3. End to discrimination
4. Fit housing
5. Truthful education
6. Conscription
exemption
7. End to police brutality
8. Freedom for jailed AAs
9. AA juries
10. Land entitlement
5) Help or hindrance:
• Plan of gaining powerful
white support was
working in 65/6 but
militant BPs were
ruining it.
• BUT- redefined CR
question so as AAs were
proud of heritage and
didn’t want to integrate
and ever received MLK’s
support.
64. President – 1969-74
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Growing BP support meant many more
whites were voting Republican.
• Nixon took a hard line against militants
and wanted a pause in the drama.
• Eisenhower’s running mate in 52, took a
hard line against Communism.
• In 50s in Senate, took moderate line for
AA CRs.
• Ran for Presidency in 60 but Kennedy
won
• Though he opposed militant CR,
affirmative action and bussing were
helpful.
• Watergate scandal ruined reputation in
second term and withdrew rather than
be impeached.
2) Actions:
• Took strong line on law and order but
after early initiative, no CR actions were
taken as he was dominated by WS.
• Meant overcrowding continued and AAs
remained poor (especially in recession)
• However, pervious CR gains provided
momentum for changes in employment
and education.
3) Employment:
• Encouraged affirmative action – meant
that AAs were hired over whites to work
against discrimination over past 100 years.
• Controversial; could positive discrimination
be justified by giving AAs employment
quotas in large companies? Could they
overlook lacking education?
• Some, including SCLC members, thought it
was unwise as the American society was
known for its emphasis on meritocracy.
• Resulting in AA workers in Philadelphia
contracts to rise from 1% to 12% from
1969
• For first time, all three American
Constitutional powers worked together;
Congress passed 1972 Equal Opportunities
Act, giving more power to Equal
Opportunities Employment
Commission/enforcement of federal
guidelines in Courts. SC passed 1971
Griggs vs. Duke Power Company
(expectation of employers for AAs to pass
exam was unreasonable because of past
educational discrimination).
• Didn’t do it for AAs – thought it would split
TUs and was clear that voting equality was
de facto and Nixon was buying votes.
4) Education:
• Desegregation of schools was still implemented
because of liberalism of SC.
• Bussing – mandatory transportation of children
to even out race ratios in schools. An extreme
way to de facto enforce desegregation. Those
who liked closer schools/racist opposed it.
• Effect – by 1972, southern schools were more
integrated than most other US states.
65. FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
NAACP 1 + 2
1) Background:
• NAACP stayed focused and undertook
more legal battles to desegregate
schools on state and SC levels.
• 1971 Swann vs. Charlotte-Mecklenburg
Board of Education – ruled that since
buses were already used, bussing was
constitutional.
• However, later verdicts (1974 Milliken
vs. Bradley - stopped bussing unless
there was deliberate segregation) were
less enthusiastic and bussing declined.
• If enforced, whites moved to suburbs
where it wasn’t and if it wasn’t, re-
segregation stated.
2) Higher Education:
• Another case where south tried to keep
colour-bar.
• 1970 Green vs. Connelly made clear
that segregated HE institutes would not
have federal funding.
• Progress was slow – remaining AA or
white only collages de facto
• 1971 – 1/3 of AAs nationally were in
traditional AA collages but in south it
was 90%.
66. President – 1974-77
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Selected by Nixon to replace previous
Vice.
• Voted for main CR Bills in 60s but was
sceptical of too much federal help.
• Only limited change of CR policies.
• Enjoyed better race relations than Nixon
and appointed first AA Transport
Secretary (William T. Coleman)
• However, continued with anti-bussing
legislation.
• 90% of AAs voted against him in 1976
election, meaning that AA voting had
done a 360 in the past 100 years.
67. President – 1977-81
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Inactive on CRs as young Democrat, but
more positive while Governor.
• 1976 defeated Ford and became strong
AA presidential supporter.
• However, inexperience of federal politics
was a major handicap but positive
towards AAs.
• Appointed 37 AA federal judges.
• But lacked popular support/economic
conditions Johnson had and liberalism
of SC to further CRs.
• 1978 Regents of the University of
California vs. Baake – ruled white
student was discriminated against.
Showed result of too much affirmative
action.
68. President – 1981-89
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Hollywood actor, losing his
liberal views after becoming
president of the Screen Actors’
Guild.
• Governor of California in
1966/70 where he dealt
forcible with student rioting.
• Opposed 1965 Voting Rights
Act as ‘humiliating’ south.
• As president, tended to
oppose welfare and
employment programmes
focusing on AAs.
• Following conservative
economic/social policies was
popular.
• Anti-communist but improved
Soviet ties.
• After opposing positive
legislation while it passed, he
now accepted it and claimed
his administration was ‘colour-
blind’ but this was a way of
resisting affirmative action.
• Appointed fewer AAs to his
administration since
Eisenhower.
2) Effect:
• Presidency coincided with
economic slowdown.
• Reductions in welfare payments
hit AAs hard; in 1980, AAs made
up 11.7% of the population but
made up 43% of Aid to Families
with dependent children claims,
34% of housing subsidiary claims
and 35% of food stamp claims.
• Reagans shit policies impacted
most severely poor AA families
worst.
• After 1983, economy recovered
but many AAs did not benefit
(caught in poverty trap).
3) Judicial Appointments:
• Felt judicial merit should not be
sacrificed for equality.
• Appointment of conservative SC
judge William Rehnquist caused
more cautions interpretations of
CR legislation.
• Though no negative precedents
made, they gave other rulings
that modified previous CR
changes.
4) Congress:
• Forced to accept Congress
ruling which he could delay
but not stop.
• 1982 – renewal of VRA,
Congress strengthened it
with stricter laws
concerning discrimination
against groups of voters.
• 1983 – insisted on MLK’s
birthday becoming a
national holiday to which
Reagan reluctantly agreed.
• 1988 – strengthen the
1968 Fair Housing Act and
passed another CR
Restoration Act over
Reagan’s veto (the 1984
Grove City vs. Bell ruling
that organisations
receiving federal funding
only had to abide by the
CR legislation for the area
they were focusing on was
overruled so that all
aspects of CR legislation
must be met before
funding was allowed).
69. President – 1989-92
FEDERAL
GOVERNMENT
1) Background:
• Born into political family, was decorated
for bravery in WWII.
• Represented Texas in House of
Representatives 1966-70
• US Ambassador for UN 1971-74.
• Reagans running mate in 79.
• Claimed liberal CR voter – voted for FHA
68
• Less keen on ‘artificial’ CR (affirmative
action/bussing)
• Vetoed CRB 1990 – saw as ‘quota bill’
only to statistically increase AA
employment opportunities by
affirmative action.
• Only 6.9% of his judicial appointments
were from racial minorities and those
that were were for political gains.
70. 1) Background:
• NAACP tried to encourage AAs in southern
states to register – voters in Mississippi
rose from 6.7% in 1964 to 67.5% in 1968.
• However, after initial rise numbers levelled
out so that by the 1976 election only 50%
of AAs voted
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION
Implication
2) AA representation:
• AAs were being elected into public offices,
even in the DS.
• Supported by Democrats (turned tables) as
VRA meant that AAs had control in
politics.
3) North:
• Smaller numbers and so harder to become
elected.
• Reflected economic upturn; 100,000 AA
voters convinced to vote by AA
businessmen.
• More in public offices; 1964, only 100 AAs
were in but rose to 8000 by 1992.
• 36 HoR by 1992, meaning that they
occupied 8% of the representatives (for a
11% population)
4) Make difference:
• Political involvement only benefited rich
AAs and not rest.
• AA mayors had to avoid alienating white
supporters.
• Overall mood was not money-giving and
support of wealthy AAs was uncertain.
• Advantage of public office places ended
with financial/political troubles and lack
of AAs voting.
71. 3) Significance:
• Highlighted importance of AA vote as they
tended to vote for AAs.
• Some saw him as old-fashioned minister
dictating to flocks – unnecessary now they
have the vote.
• Promoted aim to move from individuals to
proportional representation of AAs in political
life as a whole.
• Accepted by whites – 1992 Bill Clinton wanted
his administration to ‘look like America’.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER
2) 1980s:
• In position to be strong leader of AAs and
MLKesque style was popular and persuaded
AAs to have faith in political system.
1) Background:
• Emerged as prominent SCLC official in youth.
• MLK used Jacksons knowledge of poor
northern AAs to win support.
• Founded 1971 People United to Serve
Humanity which got 1000s jobs using
affirmative action.
• Campaigned twice for democrat presidency
with the Rainbow Coalition (all minority races
– came second in 88).
72. FEDERAL LEGLISLATION
1) Background:
• Splitting of AA communities in two as
wealthier AAs got more money/power as
bankers/civil servants/lawyers and poor AAs
became poorer – developed different
social/political attitudes.
• Some well off were detached from fellow AAs.
• By 1980s – 40% were middle class but 30%
were deeper in poverty (who were changed
more by drug market/decreasing benefits)
• ENDED SHARED SUFFERING.
• Middle-class moved out of ghettos – leaving
AA underclass (poorly educated with no help)
– away from crime, unemployment and urban
chaos.
• Left no leaders/stable presences.
73. CIVILIAN
1) 1991:
• Stopped, resisted arrest and then severely beaten
repeatedly by police.
• Caught on camera but an all-white jury acquitted
police in 1992.
• Race riots – 50 killed and 2000 injured as jury was
in denial of police’s racism/protesters clearly
rejected MLK
Editor's Notes
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE:
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: allowed AAs to have de jure legal rights for the first time
HELP: gave them legal president to be citizens and leave plantations and right to worship which was foundation for latter CR groups
HINDERANCE: was only for political advantage/emancipation proclamation was only for southern AAs.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: started to allow Black Codes to develop/rich whites to get around 13th
HELP: law changes (14th (citizenship), CR 66 (all races citizenship), Mil. Rec (reorganised south to take away power), 15th (vote) but they were mainly Congress.
HINDERANCE: allowed Black Codes and fought Congress on legislation.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first party to support AAs and fight for their de jure rights
HELP: set legal president for AAs to help themselves and got first politicians actually wanting to help AAs (not for political gains). Recognised need for full CRs.
HINDERANCE: most only wanted to help for more votes. Quickly lost power with death of leaders. Allowed end of Reconstruction for Presidency.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first leaders of CR movement who set the tone for the next 100 years. First prominent AA politicians. Got equal AA CRs.
HELP: fought to raise the voices of AAs in courts. Set path for future leaders. Took advantage of positive AA feelings in north.
HINDERANCE: not mass solidarity in communities so no actual change. Unproportional election rate.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first aid group that had an impact to AAs every-day lives. Set up system for self-help groups.
HELP: Set up university, schools, housing and jobs.
HINDERANCE: was only for the minority and no lasting impact.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT NURTRAL:
TURNING POINT: allowed first legislation that encouraged formal segregation
HELP: promised to help AAs in second ter. Accepted RRs policies.
HINDERANCE: scandals/carpetbaggers took power. Allowed south and Supreme Court to legalise segregation.
CIVILIAN GROUP HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: first pressure group that used violence to oppress AAs.
HELP: ended quickly.
HINDERANCE: terror remained and AAs stopped voting. Formal segregation grew.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE:
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: AAs started to loose rights gained in 13th/EP as south created BC/JCL as segregation became legal.
HELP: created small AA middle class.
HINDERANCE: left AAs in poverty/uneducated with no help or way to move out of it as government turned against the/left them.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: states made it legal and ignore actual violence towards AAs and set legal precedent for future segregation.
HELP: brought together AAs in community.
HINDERANCE: allowed AAs to be killed and made sure juries would not convict.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: continued Johnson’s dickiness
HELP: promised to get CR for everyone
HINDERANCE: encouraged South's segregation. Republicans did nothing to honor Compromise.
CIVILIAN GROUP NEUTRALITY:
TURNING POINT: first northern group that ignored AAs while fighting for liberty.
HELP: could of raised AA profile
HINDERANCE: ignored AAs. Showed North’s disinterest.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT NEUTRALITY:
TURNING POINT: first President to talk to AAs about the issues.
HELP: talked to Booker T.
HINDERANCE: did not really do anything.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: continued with previous Presidents policies of ignoring South's immorality.
HELP: Sat with Booker T.
HINDERANCE: did not really do anything.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: segregated government organisations
HELP:
HINDERANCE: fired AAs and split remaining into factions.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: first women campaigner against lynching that got northern sympathy.
HELP: brought issue up for discussion in north.
HINDERANCE: did not change laws and lynching continued.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: 1st prominent AA leader that had Presidential support.
HELP: raised profile of AA problems and helped individual cases.
HINDERANCE: did not change any laws and paranoid over critiques.
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: first prominent civilian group that demanded change for women/all AAs/convicts.
HELP: rose profile of AA suffering and opposed BTWs moderate views.
HINDERANCE: didn’t create any concrete/legal change. Lacked money/mass support.
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: backed by SC in case. First group to make change and last ages.
HELP: rose profile of AA suffering and had leader. Helped future leader (MLK/PARKS) and cases (BROWM/GUINN)
HINDERANCE: slow
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE:
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT NEUTRAL:
TURNING POINT: first mass movement of AAs to north.
HELP: enforced a strong AA culture/middle-class/away from violence
HINDERANCE: still de facto segregation and ruling of whites. Race riots increased. Lost right to move. Segregated regiments
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: came close to developing mass support
HELP: anticipated later ideas of Black Power/future leaders. Confirmed that AAs needed to help themselves. Created UNIA which continued.
HINDERANCE: got deported no law change.
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: started winning SC cases and mass support
HELP: overturned Arkansas rulings. Outlasted Garvey. Stuck to constitutional style.
HINDERANCE: slow and lacked working-class support. Did not focus on social conditions
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first communist help.
HELP: Scottsboro boys/7000 members
HINDERANCE: no mass solidarity/short impact/broke with pact
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: first communist supported group.
HELP: ensured AAs ND rights/boycotted discriminating shops/well-supported
HINDERANCE: boycott failed/support ended/short term
CIVILIAN GROUP HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: first use of media to influence public.
HELP: short lived revival/spurred on CR campaigners.
HINDERANCE: killed AAs/kept segregation high.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: educated whites supporting AAs
HELP: not very influential – play race card for votes
HINDARANCE: kept segregation high with split schools and underfunding.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE: would not intervene.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT:
HELP: promised to help AAs
HINDERANCE: didn’t
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: lost AA support for Republicans forever
HELP: was stupid so NAACP could undermine him
HINDERANCE: tried to increase segregation.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first President in ages to want to help AAs
HELP: got fairer legislation and pushed through what he could/wanted to help
HINDERANCE: could do much – AAs not included in ND so as it could pass Congress
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: AAs recognised in sports and entertainment
HELP: mass AA support/gained support for CR movement
HINDERANCE: no legal changes.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: SC ruled in AAs favour
HELP: set precedent for NAACP future P VS. F
HINDERANCE: slow
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE:
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: went to England and we were nice to them/realised irony
HELP: started CORE/more white support
HINDERANCE: no mass impact/CORE short/rose tensions
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT:
HELP: rose profile of AA fight
HINDERANCE: fought against CR groups in order to stop communism.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: changed climate in favour of AAs. Didn’t care about South
HELP: changed climate/set path for legislation/included AAs in ‘Fair Deal’
HINDERANCE: did not change legislation
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: started making progress
HELP: fought for AA CR continually with little bad press. Good lawyers. Focused on all areas of AA lives.
HINDERANCE: by Communism so took little focus away from AAs. Slow
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: helped in Little Rock/Appointed liberal SC judges
HELP: Little Rock
HINDERANCE: didn’t enforce B vs. B immediately.
COURT CASE HELP:
TURNING POINT: overruled P vs. F/set legal precedent/got SC on side/set tide for MLK era
HELP: overruled P vs. F/created way for de facto equality in south/could force segregation out of south
HINDERANCE: not implemented straight after – 1957 only 12% integrated.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: mass media support for AA murder
HELP: showed southern injustice/changing attitudes/decrease in atrocities.
HINDERANCE: white juries would still not convict.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: president got directly involved to enforce ruling
HELP: showed northern determination to end segregation de facto
HINDERANCE: only time Eisenhower intervened.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: gained mass working-class AA support/first AA campaign without whites/tried to take de facto action – not legal
HELP: showed unity of AAs/a campaign all could get involved in.
HINDERANCE: no change in the law directly/Parks harassed
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: united all AAs – showed AA fight – great leader
HELP: campaigns arguable cause of legislation in 60s
HINDERANCE: died and approach did not have direct legal consequences.
CIVILIAN GROUP LEGISLATION HELP:
TURNING POINT: used medium of TV/students to impose message
HELP: confrontation – forced response in win-win for AAs
HINDERANCE: response was violent/SCNN split by BP in 70s.
CIVILIAN GROUP LEGLISTAION HELP:
TURNING POINT: whites/AAs working together
HELP: rose awareness/presidential support
HINDERANCE: no actual law changes directly and short-lived.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: enforced SC rulings
HELP: acted on behalf of AAs/brother pushed positive legalisation through and enforced it.
HINDERANCE: not involved until FR
CIVILIAN EVENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: successful march
HELP: presidential interest/TV created mass world-wide support
HINDERANCE: high-schoolers hurt/businesses conceded to raise profits
CIVILIAN EVENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: united all CR campaigners/AA/whites
HELP: powerful/speech memorable/showed contrast
HINDERANCE: undercurrent of divisions within CR groups
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: used southern ties to actually help AAs as no fear of them opposing him
HELP: pushed through 64 CRA and 65 VRA
HINDERANCE: not consistent
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION HELP:
TURNING POINT: made de jure segregation illegal after 100 years/first coalition and unbiased Congress
HELP: broke south/made campaign hopes widen
HINDERANCE: not de facto
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION HELP:
TURNING POINT: AAs finally got de facto voting
HELP: made illegal all voting conditions from early 19th DS
HINDERANCE: had to be forcible enforced
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP:
HINDERANCE:
FEDERAL PROBLEMS HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: showed how ineffective legal changes were
HELP: brought communities together
HINDERANCE: not de facto changes – even worse
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: first campaigner focussing on social northern problems in mildly violent way
HELP: influenced next 50 of CR campaigns. Helped Northern AAs social problems
HINDERANCE: died/extreme/classed with MLK so broke unity.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: used southern ties to actually help AAs as no fear of them opposing him
HELP: pushed through 64 CRA and 65 VRA
HINDERANCE: not consistent/Vietnam
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: realised campaign was not working and tried to change
HELP: helped northern AAs de facto/spoke out against Vietnam
HINDERANCE: lost federal support/blocked by racist white northerners/died and that encouraged violence.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: first war to disadvantage AAs
HELP: rose commitment to fight/opened MLK’s eyes to problem
HINDERANCE: took away support/money from CRs
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: formed a violent, attacking CR group for de facto change
HELP: would no longer stand for inequality
HINDERANCE: views were extreme and tactics dangerous to losing public support
CIVILIAN GROUP HELP:
TURNING POINT: Made AAs proud of heritage. Supported economic/social problems/militant
HELP: gained huge support/showed AA power
HINDERANCE: lost white support/ruined after shot-outs
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: first time all 3 worked together
HELP: enforced de facto change after 60s legal changes
HINDERANCE: only to kill TUs and help stopped after promising start and was already in place, just allowed it to continue
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT: SC ruled in AAs favour for desegregated education
HELP: stopped de jure segregation and allowed bussing/HE
HINDERANCE: lost interest on bussing and slow
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: first AA Transport Secretary.
HELP: moderate AA CR passed. Appointed Coleman
HINDERANCE: 90% voted against and supported anti-bussing legislation.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP: still supported AAs
HINDERANCE: lacked knowledge/support to create major change.
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: first president in ages to be a dick
HELP: Congress just opposed him and did whatever
HINDERANCE: appointed conservative judges and no AAs into his administration
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT:
HELP: liberal at start
HINDERANCE: vetoed ‘unfit’ bills
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION HELP:
TURNING POINT:
HELP: allowed AAs to vote and get more public office seats
HINDERANCE: didn’t vote so lost power.
CIVILIAN CAMPAIGNER HELP:
TURNING POINT: first AA to come 2nd.
HELP: white support. First leader since MLK. United all minorities
HINDERANCE: old-fashioned
FEDERAL LEGLISLATION HINDERANCE:
TURNING POINT: broke shared suffering
HELP:
HINDERANCE: took away poor leaders/help