Muscle Atrophy In Space

Muscle Atrophy In Space
What is muscle atrophy? Muscle atrophy is the "decrease in size or wasting away of a body parts,
tissue, or muscle." Why is muscle atrophy important? For example if you break your ulna bone and
have it in a caste for a few months, than your muscles on the bone that you broke would be
considerably diminished to the muscle on your other arm. This raises the questions of "What
happens to astronauts muscles in space? And how are we handling muscle atrophy in space?"
In space, astronauts are required to work out for at least two and a half hours a day to maintain their
muscles and overall health, along with completing all of their other responsibilities. The
responsibility of astronauts, according to NASA, is "to perform world–class science and
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

History Of Sarcopenia ( Sarx ) Was First Used For Muscle...
Sarcopenia (sarx for muscle and penia for loss) (Cruz–Jentof et al.) Was first used
By Rosenberg in 1989. It can be defined as progressive loss muscle mass and
Decreased function with or without decrease in body weight linked to aging with
An adverse outcomes such as disability and poor quality of life (Palmio et al.
Delmonico) This complex process is caused by a combination of both
Physiological and pathological mechanism which lead to degradation of skeletal
Muscle as patients become older
. Skeletal muscle make up 50% of total body protein, a compelling loss of skeletal muscle mass
deteriorates metabolism, immunocompetence and strength. (Muller et al.) Muscle mass is age
dependent, after the age of 50 it is expected that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Studies in the UK has reported the prevalence of sarcopenia in older people aging 65 and above to
be 4.6% for men and 7.9% for women. In hospitalized patients it is estimated to be up to 10%
(Gariballa et al.)
Pathophysiology:
The pathophysiology of Sarcopenia is explained by mechanisms that are neural– and muscle–
dependent that are enhanced by many factors (Cruz–Jentoft et al., 2010). There is an ongoing
chronic muscle denervation, which is associated with an age–related decrease in the motor neurons.
This leads to the loss of muscle fibers and eventually to a decrease in the total muscle mass. Other
factors have been implicated in this process such as decreased physical activity, a change in the
hormonal status such as a change in anabolic hormones, altered protein synthesis, and changes
carried by inflammatory mediators (Doherty, 2003; Ryall et al., 2008).
The spinal motor neurons undergo an aging–related gradual loss due to the interaction of multiple
factors; the neurons undergo a programmed cell death along with a decrease in signaling by growth
factors and protein uptake. This process leads to the denervation of muscle fibers. The surviving
motor axons or motor end plates can send some collaterals to innervate the denervated muscle fibers
which explains the formation of enlarged motors end

Hippotherapy In Physical Therapy
According to the American Physical Therapy Association, the scope of physical therapy includes the
prevention or minimization of problems caused by conditions of the musculoskeletal,
neuromuscular, cardiovascular, pulmonary, or integumentary systems (APTA, 2016). One of the less
conventional physical therapy treatment options is hippotherapy, also called equine–assisted
therapy. Hippotherapy, as defined by the Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship
International, is the use of the motion of a horse as a treatment strategy by occupational therapists,
physical therapists, and speech language pathologists to address problems in patients with neuro–
motor and sensory dysfunctions (PATHI, 2016). Although not a commonly known therapy, ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This leads to a certain weakness in its ability to support hippotherapy as a treatment because the
scientific community generally needs to know how a treatment helps. However, a study performed
in Poland in 2016 (Lakomy–Gawryszweska et al. In press) helped show this mechanism by
observing the increased tension in the rectus abdominis muscle. By directly measuring the electrical
activity in this muscle by using electrode pads both before and after hippotherapy, this study
provides more information on the mechanism of the improvement. By strengthening the rectus
abdominis, one of the primary core muscles, hippotherapy was shown to improve trunk

The Effects Of Nutritional Supplementation On Improving...
The clinical study done by J. Bauer MD, PhD, S. Verlaan Msc, I. Bautmans, and others was done to
address the loss of muscle strength, mass, and physical performance correlated with age. The
researchers wanted to test the effects of nutritional supplementation on improving mobility and
muscular confinement by reducing the effects of sarcopenia. Sarcopenia is described as the loss of
muscular strength, mobility, and tissue due to aging.(Mostly found in elderly people) When aging
people experience sarcopenia, they will start to lose the ability to do tasks that require endurance
and strength, which leads to the need for assisted care. Also when elderly/aging people start to lose
muscle mass and strength they will be prone to an increased risk of injury. Ingesting supplements
such as essential vitamins and amino acids are fundamentally important in reducing the severity of
sarcopenia. If the proper amount of nutrients are not taken it may lead to an increase in the onset of
sarcopenia which increases risk factors for overall health when aging. The researchers hypothesize
that providing a targeted nutritional supplement containing whey protein enriched with leucine
(~1.2g/kg BW/day) and vitamin D in a timely amount would result in the muscular and physical
improvements independent of physical exercise. (Bauer et al. 741)
The trial for this experiment would last approximately 13 weeks and would be controlled,
randomized, and double–blinded. The participants were

Spinal Muscular Atrophy : An Incurable Autosomal Recessive...
Spinal Muscular Atrophy, also referred to as SMA, is an incurable autosomal recessive disease
caused by the mutation or deletion of the survival motor neuron 1(SMN1) gene located on
chromosome five. This illness is the number one cause of infant death from a genetic disease. The
disease is researched and studied heavily in the hopes to find an approved treatment and cure for the
disease. With that being said, any discoveries on the disease are very important. In ones research of
SMA, key features of the disease must be discussed in great detail. The cause of SMA, the
symptoms, the diagnosis, the progression of the disease, impacts of being the victim of SMA , any
possible treatments (if there are any), and the support that is provided for families of the patient (if
support is provided or not) are all important aspects of the research. Prior research on the topic must
also be considered when discussing the disease in order to understand SMA.
Moving into the explanation of the cause of SMA, it is important to understand the gene that has
been deleted (95%–98% of cases) or mutated (2%–5% of cases) and what all it affects. As
mentioned in the first paragraph, SMA is a mutation of the SMN1 gene that is responsible for
producing SMN (spinal motor neuron) proteins for healthy individuals. However, in those affected
by SMA, the SMN proteins aren't produced which disables the proper functioning of the nerves that
control muscles (motor neurons). This inability to properly

The Function Of James And Musculoskeletal System
Case Introduction
James Walsh, a 55–year–old–male presented symptoms including weakness inferiorly in his right
lower limb and difficulty performing simple tasks such as walking or tying his shoelace. He also
had some difficulties swallowing and often experiences unpredictable movements due to lack of
control. As a result, he primarily uses a wheelchair and requires careful assistance when performing
everyday activities.
The function of James' musculoskeletal system is primarily to facilitate movement as the contraction
of his muscles pull on bone to carry out an action. It also contributes to heat production for enzymes
to function, stability by resisting unwanted movement and maintains his posture (Saladin, K S.,
2007). This is important ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, James' case of spastic cerebral palsy alters the interaction between the musculoskeletal
and nervous system in some areas which are affected.
Case Examination
James' condition of spastic cerebral palsy impacts the regulation of muscle tone due to the effect of
spinal reflexes when muscles are slightly contracted (Ballard, F., 2016). Muscle tone is dependent
on the release of alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord (Albright, A.L., 1995). This is regulated
when there is a balance between excitatory impulses and inhibitory impulses. James' condition of
cerebral palsy indicates that there is an imbalance between excitatory impulses and inhibitory
impulses. The imbalance between these impulses causes a lack in regulation of muscle tone due to
the insufficient release of alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord (Albright, A.L., 1995). James'
excess production of excitatory impulses originates in the golgi tendons of organs and muscle
spindle, a specialised sensory receptor in the muscle (Albright, A.L., 1995). The impulse then passes
through afferent nerves into the spinal cord and releases excitatory neurotransmitters. In contrast,
the lack of ability to generate inhibitory impulses suggest that the regions of the brain responsible
for the generation of inhibitory impulses including the basal ganglia, brain stem and cerebellum may
be damaged (Albright, A.L., 1995). Consequently, the excess of excitatory impulses may result in

Musculoskeletal Physiology
It is know that the musculoskeletal physiology is different for men and women, with women
generally having less muscle mass and bone mass. It is also know that when astronauts come back
to Earth after a mission they experience change in the neuromuscular and musculoskeletal system
due to the unloading of microgravity. One article I found talks about the effect of gender and sex on
adaption to space. It is noted that beyond 2 weeks of unloading, women experience greater loss in
whole muscle volume and fiber area, mainly type II fiber. At the same time, type I fiber loss is
shown with preferential atrophy in both men and women (Ploutz–Snyder et al., 2014). Decreased
muscle mass or atrophy results from protein degradation induced by unloading. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is know that while being on bed rest, immobilized, and non–weight bearing for a prolong period
of time, not only do our muscles atrophy but our cartilages become unhealthy and weak. Muscles
act to stabilize and dispute forces across joints, with prolong unloading the loss of muscles mass and
strength can contribute to joint injury and early degenerative joint changes (Ploutz–Snyder et al.,
2014). OA of the knee is common in women because of the loss of estrogen's anabolic effect on
cartilage after menopause. Articular cartilage health is impacted by the quality of the underlying
subchondral bone and evidence suggest that osteopenia of the bone contributes to cartilage
degeneration (Ploutz–Snyder et al., 2014). Since the cartilage is damage it releases inflammatory
components, which in turn leads to bone loss. We know that calcium and vitamin D play a role in
calcium balance and bone metabolism. During flight astronauts receive very little sunlight and
therefore have low calcium intake and vitamin D deficiency. Supplementations can be taken but this
can increase the risk of osteoporosis because it does not counteract the increase in bone resorption
and decrease in bone formation (Iwamoto, Takeda, & Sato, 2005). An intervention to prevent bone
loss and joint injury would be a progressive strengthening and weight–bearing exercises. This will
not only help the surrounding muscles get stronger

Kennedy 's Disease : An Incurable Neuromuscular Disorder
Kennedy's Disease is an Incurable Neuromuscular Disorder.
What is Kennedy's Disease? Kennedy's disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder that
affects both the spinal and bulbar neurons. KD is a lower motor neuron disorder because it interrupts
the transmission of nerve cell signals in the brain and spinal cord. This interruption affects the spinal
and bulbar neurons causing the major symptoms muscle atrophy, weakness, contraction
fasciulations, and bulbar weakness. KD is the first of the neurodegenerative disease for which the
molecular basis was discovered to be the expansion of a trinucleotide CAG repeat in the causative
gene (Banno, 2012, p.313). The disease is inherited from an impaired x gene. Since KD is a
recessive X– linked gene it primarily affects males. Females are rarely affected because they have
two X chromosomes and are usually just carriers of the defective gene. The carriers of the gene are
usually asymptotic but occasionally can develop mid symptoms. (Cell and Tissue Research, 2012, p.
13)
KD is a very rare disorder, the prevalence thought to be 2 per 100,000 people according to the Cell
and Tissue Research article. It is thought that KD is often misdiagnosis as amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS). The first case ever recorded of KD came from a patient who was previously
diagnosis with ALS and wanted a seconded opinion. The onset for KD is usually midlife, the range
being from 30–60 years of age. The onset is often preceded by non–specific

Spinal Muscular Atrophy: A Case Study
Spinal Muscular Atrophy
Spinal Muscular Atrophy is classify as an interneuron abnormality and loss of the anterior horn cells
in the spinal column. SMA is categorized into three subtypes with the classification embedded on
the motor milestone achieved. Spinal type I (Werdnig–Hoffman disease) child is to weak that they
never learn to sit, type II child learn to sit but never learn to walk without assistive device, and type
III (Kugelberg–Welander disease) child can walk independently (Tecklin, 2015).
Spinal muscular atrophy may present itself in various forms, affecting every stage of life.
Consequently, this stretches from the affected fetus exhibiting joint contractures, to a young child
who cannot independently sit (type I) and to a young ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the clinical presentations observe with type I, is that the infant will present with head lag on
pull to sit and they cannot rotate their head from side to side on prone. SMA type I can also interfere
with oral weakness making feeding difficult. Respiratory problems is also associate with this
condition causing death to more than half of children less than 2 years of age without mechanical
ventilators (Tecklin, 2015). Spinal muscular atrophy type II is less severe than type I. Clinical
presentation its seen during the first year of age where the child is no progressing to stant on their
own due to proximal muscle weakness and wasting of the extremities and trunk (Tecklin, 2015).
Children diagnose with SMA type II will remain independent sitters between the ages of 7–14.
These children will not be able to ambulate independently without bracing or assistive device and
even with assistance ambulation is difficult, however is encourage to promote joint mobility, and
bone growth. Spinal muscular atrophy type III (Kugelberg–Welander disease) is characterized by
progressive weakness, no reflexes, and fasciculation. Age presentation may vary from toddler into
adulthood. If symptoms is present after 2 years of age patient may continue to ambulate until 44
year of age, on the contrary patient who's symptoms began prior to 2 years of age may ambulate
until 12 years of age. Physical therapy treatment is to maintain function and

The Space Mission
In addition to considering the main goals of the base, one must also consider the costs. Due to the
high cost and limited space within a spacecraft, everything aboard must serve a purpose. After the
spacecraft lands, the internal structure in which the astronauts had been living will serve as the main
building due to its capacity to sustain human life in the more extreme conditions of space. The first
spacecraft which arrived on Mars, unmanned, contained rovers to collect information about the base
site as well as assist in the construction of the laboratory and greenhouses contained within the
spacecraft. To function correctly as a laboratory and a greenhouse however the inclusion of a life
support system including water recycling, oxygen ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The lack of proper nutrients and vitamins can lead to increased bone atrophy, muscle atrophy, and
decreased energy, while creating a susceptibility to other diseases or infections which can spread to
the other crew members. The contamination of an environment leads to the psychological effect of a
ruined area or the loss of security which can affect the whole group (Enrico, C. 2013). The nature of
this risk will last in–transit as well as upon the surface of Mars. In addition, if malnutrition occurs to
one crew member, then likely the problem lies with the food stores which would be a disaster for the
mission. Therefore, a good alternative to the prevention for food contamination would be to grow
crops in space as a reserve. It would serve two purposes; it could be used to do research upon the
growth of plants in a microgravity environment, and it will serve as a preventative security measure.
A pre–flight instruction session of the symptoms of malnutrition will allow for the recognition and
increase the amount of time in which the astronauts have to address the problem. However, the
constraints in these sessions might occur when regarding the operations of the mission, and the
capability of growing food would be greatly reduced by the limited space onboard,

Muscle Functions Of Muscle Function
Muscle Function
Masseter helps chew food by raising the mandible up and down
Latissimus dorsi extension of the arm, the adduction of the arm, and the rotation of the arm towards
the center of the body
Triceps brachii extension of the arm and forearm
Deltoids rotation of the arm towards and away from the body, and the extension, flexion, and
abduction of the arm
Trapezius extension of the cranium, adduction and elevation, and depression of the scapula
Extensor carpi radialis abduction and extension of the hand
Extensor carpi ulnaris extension and adduction of the hand
Serratus ventralis abduction of the scapula and rotation in an upward direction
Rectus abdominus enables the vertebral column to be flexed and the compression of the abdomen
Pectoralis minor enables the 3rd, 4th, and 5th ribs to be raised for inhalation of air and allows the
abduction of the scapula and its inferior movement
Pectoralis major arm to rotate towards the body and the flexion and extension of the arm
Sternohyoid pushes the hyoid bone down
Biceps femoris flexion of the leg and extension of the thigh
Gluteus maximus extension of the thigh and the rotation of the thigh away from the body
Gluteus medius enables the thigh to be abducted and to be rotated towards the center of the body
External oblique flexion of the vertebral column with a forward movement of the abdomen and
chest, and allows for the lateral flexion of the vertebral column and trunk rotation
Senitendinous enables leg to be flexed and

Long Term Risk And Reward Missions
Long term exposure in space poses multiple threats to astronauts who are tasked to complete high
risk and reward missions. Some of the most prominent threats include loss of muscle mass, decrease
in bone density, and weakening of the immune system. Other dangerous potential effects are
alteration in circadian rhythms and exposure to radiation. Each effect either has current treatments,
or are currently being researched to discover more effective forms to combat the potential dangers
they pose. Since the beginning of time the human body has evolved to adapt to changes in
surrounding environment, altering the physical and mental parts of the body. Adapting to changing
environments is key to the survival of humans, because without these alterations the human body
would become obsolete and left behind. This process of bodily change has not only been
demonstrated throughout the history of mankind on Earth, but can also be seen from how the body
attempts to change when exposed to foreign environments, like space. Research and evidence from
previous space travel expeditions have shown that the human body is subject to change, mostly
negative, when exposed to long term space flight. There are multiple effects the body endures
during space flight such as muscle atrophy, adjustments in bone structure, decreases in the capability
of the immune system, and adjustments in circadian rhythm. For the majority of these adverse
effects, research has been conducted to help protect and

What Is Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation?
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation is a type of therapy that can be used to prevent
atrophy of a muscle or muscle group. It works when electrical impulses are applied to a muscle
or muscle group to stimulate their contraction. Electrical muscle stimulation has been used for
physical rehabilitation for centuries. It was first used in the mid–eighteenth century and in the
mid–twentieth century it was shown to help prevent muscle atrophy and loss of muscle mass.
Electrical stimulation was originally used in orthopedic and neurological rehabilitation in human
patients and was then developed to be used in equine, canine, and feline rehabilitation.
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation works on the patient through "leads and flexible, ... Show
Contraindications for neuromuscular electrical stimulation include "treatment over heart
or cardiac pacemakers, over areas of peripheral vascular disease or thrombophlebitis, over areas
of decreased pain and/or temperature sensation, over an infection, over neoplasms, and over the
carotid sinus" (Bassert, Thomas & McCurnin, 2014). Neuromuscular electrical stimulation
should not be used on animal patients that suffer from seizure diseases, animal patients that are
pregnant, and animal patients that may have malignant tumors. If neuromuscular electrical
stimulation is applied over heart or cardiac pacemakers, the electromagnetic field from the
stimulation can interfere with the pacemaker and may cause the pacemaker to fail.
Thrombophlebitis is the venous clotting and inflammation that may or may not be accompanied
by an infection. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation is contraindicated in thrombophlebitis

because the "strong muscle contractions induced by the stimulation device can dislodge a
thrombus, a blood clot that forms in a vessel and remains there, and possibly cause death"
(Johnson, 2014). Using neuromuscular electrical stimulation over neoplasms is

LGMD: A Genetic Analysis
There are more than twenty subtypes of LGMD, each is classified according to the genetic flaws
that appear to cause them. Fifteen genes that lead to the production of muscle proteins have been
identified as definite causes of LGMD when they are flawed. According to the Muscular Dystrophy
Association, "Type 1 LGMDs are dominantly inherited, requiring only one mutation for symptoms
to result. Type 2 LGMDs are recessively inherited, requiring two mutations – one from each parent
– for symptoms to appear. Sometimes, LGMDs are referred to by their names, not their numbers,
and some types have not been assigned numbers." When one of these genes is faulty and protein
problems arise, muscle cells and fibers do not function properly. The muscles then ... Show more
Onset of this disease occurs in adulthood. Symptoms associated with this disease include weakness
and atrophy in the hip, thigh, and calf muscles, with the symptoms often being asymmetrical. This
disease usually has a low progression rate and does not include cardiac or respiratory involvement
(Institute of Genetic Medicine, 2007).
LGMD2M is an autosomal recessive form of LGMD caused by mutations on the Fukutin protein.
Onset of this disease typically occurs in childhood. The symptoms presented include weakness and
wasting in the muscles of the hips, thighs, and shoulders. The cardiac and respiratory muscles may
be involved. There have been few cases of this type of LGMD described, but the gene involved is
also associated with a severe form of congenital muscular dystrophy (Institute of Genetic Medicine,

Denervated Muscle Observation Research
Denervated muscle undergoes changes that deteriorate the functional outcomes after reinnervation.
The main factors are progressive muscle atrophy, loss of functional motor endplates and changes of
intramuscular innervation. A denervation period of 6 months leads to a reduced number of muscle
fibers, which are smaller in size, and to decreased tetanic force. (Gutmann and Young 1944,
Gutmann 1948, Fu and Gordon 1995b) The number of functioning motor endplates after 6 months
of denervation is reduced to 75%, which is attributed to atrophy, fibrosis and slow motor endplate
regeneration and re–innervation. (Gutmann and Young 1944) Following denervation, intramuscular
nerve fibers undergo changes that lead to the outgrowth of axons along the surface of denervated
muscle. (Gutmann and Young 1944, Fu and Gordon 1995b) After 8 months of denervation, atrophy
results in increasingly poor functional outcomes, as progressive muscle fiber loss occurs. (Gutmann
1948, Irintchev, Draguhn et al. 1990) The loss of muscle satellite cells, which are ... Show more
found that motor unit twitch force remains constant or is even slightly increased following chronic
denervation, challenging the theory that denervated muscle cannot be re–innervated, as believed
since the findings of Gutmann. (Gutmann 1948, Fu and Gordon 1995a) Compensatory enlargement
through the incorporation of denervated muscle fibers into adjacent motor units, by collateral
sprouting, can make up for a loss of up to 80% of motoneurons of a muscle, as motor unit expand
their size 3 to 5 fold. (Gordon, Yang et al. 1993) After 6 months of denervation maximal motor unit
expansion through collateral sprouting was found, even though functional recovery was poor. (Fu
and Gordon 1995b) These findings demonstrate that both the reduced number of axons reaching
denervated motor endplates and atrophic muscle changes, respectively, influence poor functional
outcomes after nerve injury. (Fu and Gordon 1997, Furey, Midha et al.

Spinal Muscular Atrophy Research Papers
Spinal Muscular Atrophy, also known as SMA, is the number one genetic disease killer of children
under two years old. About one in every 6,000 babies are born with SMA and one in 40 people carry
the gene that causes SMA. Spinal Muscular Atrophy is a genetic disease that affects the part of the
nervous system that controls the muscle movement. Most of the nerve cells that control the muscles
are located in the spinal cords. SMA is when there is a loss of nerve cells and protein in the spinal
cord which is called motor neutrons. Motor neutron protein is necessary for muscles to function
properly. This diseases weakens the muscles that affects an individual's physical movement. Only
few individuals with SMA are able to walk. This disease ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The most severe form is type one and the least is type four. However all these type of diseases are a
result of mutations on chromosome 5, that affects the amount of the protein called survival of motor
neurons that can be produced. Type 1 SMA is called Werdnig– Hoffmann Disease and it is when
children under the age of two are diagnosed with SMA and symptoms include breathing, sucking,
and swallowing difficulties. Type 2 SMA begins usually after infancy and also individuals who are
able to sit without support after being placed in a sitting position can also be referred to type 2. In
type 2, the proximal muscles are usually affected the most. It is also common to have scoliosis a
spinal curvature due to the weakness if the muscles that normally support the spine. Individuals with
scoliosis will have trouble with mobility and breathing. The type 3 called Kugelberg–Welander
disease, which is a mild SMA. People with this type can be able to walk until their 30's or 40's.
People with type 3 have a longer life expectancy than type 1 and 2. Type 4 is usually when SMA
begins in adulthood. Overall, the major symptoms include problems in mobility and breathing

The Influence Of Sarcopenia On Body Mass
Introduction
Sarcopenia can be defined as the age–related loss of muscle mass, strength and function (Waters,
Baumgartner & Garry 2000; Vandervoort & Symons 2001). Although there is no specific level of
lean body mass or muscle mass at which one can say sarcopenia is present (Roubenoff 2001), any
loss of muscle mass is of importance because there is a strong relationship between muscle mass
and strength (Roth, Ferrell & Hurley 2000). Sarcopenia appears to begin in the fourth decade of life
and accelerates after the age of approximately 75 years (Waters, Baumgartner & Garry 2000). With
aging and inactivity, the most atrophy is seen in the fast twitch (FT) fibers which are recruited
during high–intensity, anaerobic movements. Although sarcopenia is mostly seen in physically
inactive individuals, it is also evident in individuals who remain physically active throughout their
lives. This finding suggests that physical inactivity is not the only contributing factor to sarcopenia.
Current research is finding that the development of sarcopenia is a multifactorial process. Many
factors, including physical inactivity, motor–unit remodeling, decreased hormone levels, and
decreased protein synthesis, may all contribute to sarcopenia. Fortunately, sarcopenia is partly
reversible with appropriate exercise interventions. This article will focus on the current perspectives
of sarcopenia and conclude with the importance of resistance training in preventing it.
Motor Unit Remodeling
Age

Uses of Hypnotherapy to Treat a Medical Condition
Uses of Hypnotherapy to treat a medical condition
Introduction
The purpose of this essay is to describe and explain the uses of hypnotherapy in the treatment of a
medical condition. For this essay I have chosen to look at a chronic life limiting illness called Motor
Neurone Disease. This is a disease that can affect many different aspects of a person's life and is
very aggressive in its symptoms. I have met quite a few people with this condition whilst working in
the Neurophysiology department at the QMC, where all the nerve and muscles studies and EMG's
are performed. It not only changes the person's life but also the lives of the people around them. I
found this research both upsetting and informative.
MND is a progressive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Progressive muscular atrophy is a much less common form of MND and tends to progress more
slowly than ALS. People with PMA do not experience muscle spasms and they can then go onto
develop ALS.
Progressive bulbar palsy is a form of MND that mainly affects the muscles in the throat, tongue and
face that causes difficulties with speech, swallowing, coughing and clearing the throat. PBP can also
affect the expression of emotions and people might laugh or cry for no apparent reason.
Primary lateral sclerosis is a very rare form of MND in which people experience spasticity but do
not experience muscle wasting or fasciculation's.
Unfortunately none of the above can be diagnosed with one specific hospital test and doctors will
usually recommend a series of tests and investigations which can take a long time and can cause the
person worry and upset thereby causing a knock on effect of depression and anxiety, these tests are
very important however to be able to get the correct diagnosis as all the symptoms described can
also be the pre cursor to many other illnesses and to be diagnosed with this terrible disease in error
would be awful. I think the saddest part of the disease is that although it will affect almost every part
of the person's everyday life and will stop them eventually performing the most simple of tasks such
as personal hygiene and eating it does not affect the mind or intelligence so

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a genetic neuromuscular disorder involving degeneration of
anterior horn cells in the spinal cord due to a deficiency of SMN protein produced by the SMN1
gene. While this is an extensive topic, the following paper attempts to provide an overview of
relevant aspects and treatment strategies of interest. The most obvious clinical sign of SMA is
generalized, symmetric weakness that affects proximal more than distal muscles and upper more
than lower extremities. Upper cranial nerves are spared in SMA, but bulbar muscle weakness can
cause a variety of symptoms such as a weak cry, secretion pooling, aspiration, difficulty with
feeding and dysphagia. The diffuse weakness affects many systems including respiratory ... Show
Due to their musculoskeletal limitations, some children with SMA are not able to be independent in
their environment and this puts them at risk for further developmental delays. Power mobility can
assist these children by increasing independence, developing perceptual–motor skills, enhancing
social interactions and communication. Research has suggested that children can quickly learn how
to use power mobility and it will allow them to gain independent experiences to enhance
development that they otherwise wouldn't have been able to accomplish. There are some
considerations of motor learning that need to be addressed when teaching a child to use a power
wheelchair and it is our job to design feedback and practice that will lead to transfer of training. It is
appropriate to utilize random practice in familiar environments with decreasing feedback, use
positive verbal encouragement but not specific directions, and allow the child time to learn the skills
on their own before

Bed Rest Immobilization
The recovery from illness or injury often requires otherwise healthy humans to undergo a period of
muscle disuse (e.g. bed rest or limb immobilization). A major consequence of disuse is skeletal
muscle atrophy. The ensuing impairments in muscle function, metabolic rate and insulin sensitivity,
and accrual of body fat mass following two or more weeks of muscle disuse have been well
documented. Studies investigating muscle disuse atrophy generally employ relatively long
experimental periods, ranging from two to as long as 17 weeks of bed rest or limb immobilization.
However, over the last decade, efforts have been made within healthcare systems to reduce the
duration of bed rest/immobilization that patients endure due to illness or injury. At

The Structure And Function Of The Nervous And Muscular System
This essay will describe the structure and function of the nervous and muscular systems and
examine Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA), discussing the affect the disease has on these systems.
Particular attention will be paid to Type I SMA. This will be done by analysing a range of sources in
order to gain a clear understanding of SMA and the nervous and muscular systems.
SMA belongs to a group of illnesses known as Muscular Dystrophies which are inherited genetic
diseases that cause progressive degeneration of groups of muscles (Waugh et al, 2014). There are
four main types of SMA which are categorised according to the age at which the symptoms develop.
Type I is the most severe and develops in babies less than six months old (muscular–dystrophy,
2014. Online), it is thought to be the most common form of the disease (NHS, 2013. Online). The
gene that causes SMA is passed from parents to children but can only affect a child if both parents
carry a defective gene (smasupport, ND. Online).
Type I SMA affects the link between the nerves and muscles resulting in all muscles becoming
extremely weak and is typically diagnosed in infants before the age of six months (Carter et al,
2005). It causes severe muscle weakness that results in problems moving, eating, breathing and
swallowing. Breathing problems can be caused by weakness in the infants' chest muscles and
difficulty swallowing can be made worse by weakness in the muscles of the tongue and throat. It is
caused by an abnormal

Muscle Atrophy Case Study
Click here to enter text.
The results in Figure 2. show that increasing the stimulus strength (V) from 0 to o.40V will result in
an increase of Active Muscle force generated by the gastrocnemius muscle in the Buffo Marinus,
confirming the hypothesis. The force generated plateaus when the stimulus is beyond o.40V.
2. Discuss the biological processes that explain why peak contractile force changes with different
stimulus strengths.
As the stimulus strengthens, action potentials are conducted at a greater speed, resulting in more
tension and thus more force produced by the muscle. Wave summation occurs when a multitude of
motor neuron signals are combined and increase to create greater muscle tension. As the stimulus
strengthens the peak contractile force increases because the preceding twitch hasn't ended and is
thus added to the new twitch – this building of tension increases the peak contractile force as
stimulus ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the case study, you are working on muscle atrophy. Discuss what happens in atrophy and how
muscle mass can increase upon recovery from atrophy, and how under these conditions, contractile
force generated for a given stimulus would be affected. Muscle atrophy is the loss of skeletal muscle
mass and function that occurs when there is a long period of inactivity of the muscles or defects in
motor neuron's (Reilly, Beau 2015). Defects in the motor neurons that stimulate the muscle cause
the muscle mass to decrease as proteins that initiate contractions of muscle dissipate. Stimulus is not
transferred to the weakened muscle fibers effectively, reducing the contractile force possible for
generation from the stimulus. Muscle mass increases upon recovery, as restimulation of the muscle
enlarges fiber size, thus a greater contractile force can be generated from the stimulus.
Kang, C., Goodman, C., Hornberger, T., & Ji, L. (2012). Pgc–1 alpha Enhances Skeletal Muscle
Recovery From Disuse Atrophy. Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise, 44,

Physical Therapist: A Case Study
On 5/4/17 I spoke with Dave Thibodeau physical therapist. This was a long call waiting then
speaking directly with the therapist. He reports that Mr. Sutter has been attending physical therapy
but making little progress at this point. Mr. Sutter has other health issues that have impacted his
progress. I spoke at length with Mr. Sutter. He is hard of hearing and you need to speak slowly. He
reports he is doing okay. Weather does affect his ankle. He continues to use the bone stimulator and
do home exercises.
On 5/19/17 I followed up with physical therapy and Mr. Sutter has been in the hospital. I attempted
to reach Mr. Sutter. I also called and had a long conversation with his friend and care giver Sally.
She reports he has been in the

Inclusion Body Myositis ,or IBM, is one of many muscle...
Inclusion Body Myositis ,or IBM, is one of many muscle diseases known as inflammatory
myopathies, which causes slowly progressing muscular atrophy and weakness(NINDS IBM
,2014,para 1). Let it be known that in this paper, I shall define IBM, give it's symptoms and signs, as
well as whether or not it is related to birth defects, trauma or age related pathology. A prognosis and
diagnosis , for said disease, will be given ; as well as , whether or not it is treatable. I will also
mention the research being conducted on IBM. Inclusion Body Myositis? Inclusion Body Myositis,
or IBM, is a rare inflammatory muscle disease which affects the proximal(near the trunk of the
body) and distal(far from the trunk of the body) muscles. It is most evident ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Some people complain of a loss of balance, this is probably because the muscles become unable to
compensate for an off–balance posture. Serious injury from tripping and falling down is a common
risk with Inclusion Body Myositis. In addition severe muscle pain is another commonly noted
symptom. The diagnosis for IBM, although difficult, simply because the symptoms may be caused
by other illnesses, is based on clinical signs and subsequent testing. Many tests can help diagnose
the disease , including a blood test that screens for creatine kinase or CK levels. The result of
muscle cell damage is the blood enzyme CK. High CK levels would then show strange muscle
damage. An electromyography, which is a technique for recording the electrical activity of muscles,
can be used to recognize characteristic abnormalities. The best way to diagnose Inclusion Body
Myositis , however, is a muscle biopsy, where a small sample of muscle is removed for laboratory
analysis (IBM illnessopedia,n.d.,para 3) . Muscle resonance imaging scans may also reveal changes
in the muscles. (Travers, P. ,2010, June 17)
Prognosis, Treatment and Research The prognosis or outlook for patients suffering from IBM is not
good. So far IBM is generally resistant to most therapies. Its rate of progression also seems to be
unaffected by available treatments(NINDS IBM ,2014,para 3). According to "Seminars in
Neurology " IBM

Muscle Atrophy: A Case Study
"Skeletal muscle is a protein reservoir that can be mobilised in times of need" – A Goldberg. Muscle
'atrophy is defined as a decrease in the size of a tissue or organ due to cellular shrinkage; the
decrease in cell size is caused by the loss of organelles, cytoplasm and proteins' (Sandri, M. and
Bonaldo, P. 2013). Muscle atrophy is the wasting away of muscles mainly due to inactivity or in this
patient's case, being bed ridden for 2 months. The principle of use it or lose it comes into play as the
muscle is not being used and the body decides to stop providing a nutrient supply for the muscle and
thus the atrophy of muscle occurs. Muscle mass increases following atrophy through a process of
hypertrophy; the enlargement of muscle fibres. 'Muscle

The Most Common And Well Known Variation Of Md Is Duchenne
The most common and well known variation of MD is Duchenne MD (DMD). The person in history
who gets the credit for first studying and publishing details on this type of MD is rather
complicated. The disease is actually named after Gulliaume Benjamin Amand Duchenne. Duchenne
first described his details of the disease in the late 1800s. Since the disease is named after him, it is
highly accepted that he was the first; however, there are many that simply do not agree on the
matter. It has now come to light that a doctor from the United Kingdom named Edward Meryon
actually wrote his own account on the disease a decade before Duchenne. This type accounts for
about half of all MD cases 2. Scott Giles stated that "the incidence of DMD is ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The enlarged calf muscle may be the next noticeable trait of a DMD patient. The patient's calf's look
like they have muscle, but this enlargement of the calves is actually fat. This is referred to as pseudo
hypertrophy, and patients with pseudo hypertrophy of the calves usually walk on their toes due to
the contracture. Another initial sign of DMD would be waddling gait 1. This form of walking looks
like a duck in a sense. It is where the alternating steps are overstated and the hips are elevated more
than normal.
Usually once atrophy of the hip musculature is noticed, shoulder weakness in noticed also. Those
inflicted with DMD will also have trouble with overhead activates, and keeping the shoulders flexed
for long periods of time. Scott M. Giles actually lists the following muscles affected by DMD:
"Shoulder girdle musculature, pectorals, deltoids, rectus abdominals, gluteals, hamstrings, and calf
muscles" 6. DMD patients continue to lose control and strength in their lower extremity musculature
and eventually have so much trouble walking they are confined to a wheelchair. There is not a set
age where this occurs, but the average is around twelve years old. The DMD muscles involved in
eating, drinking, and of the eye are not touched by the disease. They usually do not have any hearing
deficits or stroke disorders 1.
There are several additional complications with DMD. It

Muscular Dystrophy: Roots, Cause, and Current Research Essay
Muscular Dystrophy: Roots, Cause, and Current Research
Muscular dystrophy is an inherited disease that was discovered in 1861, by Guillaume B.A.
Duchenne. Muscular dystrophy is a group of heredity disorders characterized by rapidly–worsening
muscle weakness. The trait for muscular dystrophy may be transmitted as an autosomal dominant
which means a disorder that has two copies of an abnormal gene that must be present in order for
the disease or trait to develop. In this case, if some original carrier of the disease had children, the
children would have a fifty–fifty chance of inheriting the disease. It is also carried as an autosomal
recessive trait, in which case the offspring of the original carrier would have a very small chance of
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Occurrence of muscle dystrophy is estimated to be one in 3–4,000 male births. There are also about
15,000 muscular dystrophy patients in the United States today with this disease. Those who have
muscular dystrophy are missing the protein called dystrophin. Before scientists ever discovered the
missing protein, the tested carriers for the disease had a high presence of elevated serum levels of
creatine and phosphokinase. The disease can now be found for a prenatal diagnosis.
Individuals who inherit this disease will have a rapid progression of symptoms. Walking becomes
difficult and skeletal contractures and muscle atrophy follows. They also usually need wheelchairs
by adolescence. Half of the receivers of the disease unfortunately develop some form of mental
retardation and most never make it past their teenage years. Currently, options for a treatment of
muscular dystrophy are limited. Physical therapy may slow down the progression of deformities.
Such devices as wheel chairs, crutches, or secondary orthopedic limbs may permit mobility. There
are also a few medications that can help relieve pain and stiffness in the muscles. The Muscular
Dystrophy Association, the Parent Project Muscular Dystrophy Research and the Children's
Hospital of Pittsburgh helped fund a research project for the disease. The research, carried out by
Johnny Huard, Ph.D., is looking fairly successful. Scientists are isolating special

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis – Muscular Atrophy: An Annotated Bibliography
Abramovitz, Melissa. "Lou Gehrig's Disease" p17–61. Treatment for ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease
has found that Vitamin E and the drug known as Riluzole can help the progression of the disease.
When taking the medication Riluzole it has shown to prolong survival in patients by two to three
months and it has also delayed the use for breathing support. There is a few side effects to taking
Riluzole, such as headache, dizziness, fatigue, and it has also shown that it can do damage to your
liver and kidney's. There is no cure for ALS, but researchers are trying to find out what actually
causes this disease and how they can cure it.
Aebisher, Patrick. "Playing ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CNN Online.3Dec2004.
This article discusses that there are two ways you can get this disease it is either by Inherited ALS or
Sporadic ALS. In all the articles that were read about this disease very few mentioned how this
disease is contracted. Researchers say that 10 percent of cases of ALS appear to be inherited due to
some form of gene mutation. Sporadic ALS , more than 90 percent of cases of ALS appear to occur
randomly, with no identifiable risk factors. Majority of the articles say they don't know how this
disease comes about and why people get it.
Encyclopedia Britannica 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 13 2007. Muscle disease: Muscle
weakness, Classification of muscle weakness, and lower motor neuron
disease>http://www.brittannica.com/eb/article–58886.
This article seeks to define that diseases of the peripheral nerves can also produce symptoms similar
to the motor neuron disease such as ALS. "Sensory disturbance due to involvement of the nerve
fibres carrying sensory impulses is usually involve." Affected individuals are between ages 50 to 70
years of age and have upper and lower motor neuron weakness. Paralysis progresses rapidly, and
death often occurs with three years of diagnosis.
Encyclopedia Britannica 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 13 2007."Amyotrophic Lateral
Sclerosis"http://www.britannica.com/eb/article–9007301

Safe And Comprehensive Flexibility Training Program:...
A safe and comprehensive flexibility training program could not only improve your performance in
the gym and day–to–day activities, but it can also decrease your risk of muscle imbalance injury
caused by muscle atrophy.
A flexible body increases physical performance by promoting muscular relaxation, which in turn
minimizes your chances of injuring your body.
Stretching allows you to increase muscle flexibility and joint range of motion. When your muscles
are loosened and relaxed, your body can engage in movement easily without resistance and pain.
Properly stretching and lengthening tight sedentary muscles can also help you realign the body and
ensure all joints and muscles are working in complete harmony.
Utilizing the right set of flexibility exercises, your body will become more adaptive to the
conditions you put it through and accumulate less wear and tear throughout the day, especially if
you are customed to living a sedentary lifestyle. Having flexible muscles safely prepares the body
for the increased demands of our busy lifestyles and helps to ensure it can uphold against repetitive
movements. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When you enroll in a dynamic flexibility and pain–reduction program like Premiere Fitness
Systems', you will receive a personal consultation and learn the causes of aches and pain particular
to your body and personal lifestyle.
The company's certified trainers will help you understand the particular alignment of your body,
detect problem areas and pinpoint the root causes of your particular pain, aches and

The Pros And Cons Of Human Space Flight
Introduction
During long term space flight the human body must fight through some very tough situations.
Humans have evolved and were built to live in the environment we live in now and that means
humans are built to live with earth's gravitational pull. Along with this, earth's atmosphere is a layer
of protection that humans evolved with. During human space flight, both of these factors are taken
out of the equation and humans begin to be faced with zero gravity and are forced to be without the
protection of the earth's atmosphere. The effects that astronauts endure include bone density loss,
muscle loss, sensory motor issues, cardiovascular issues, radiation issues, and even psychological
issues (Roberts, 2013).
Problem – The effects on the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Exercise is one of the most important things that astronauts must take part in daily because if they
don't, the consequences will result in the inability to do any work. Inside of the space station there
are three main exercise machines for astronauts to use (Dunbar, 2004). The first is a bicycle machine
(Cycle Ergometer), the next is a treadmill, and the third is a resistance machine (Resistance Exercise
Device) (Dunbar,2004). All three of these machines are essential in combating bone density loss and
muscle atrophy. The Cycle Ergometer is used mainly as a testing of fitness while in space to get an
approximate sense of the astronaut's health status (Dunbar, 2004). The treadmill is used because
walking and running are essentially the best ways to keep muscles healthy although this treadmill
uses harnesses to harness the astronaut down to the machine due to zero–gravity (Dunbar, 2004).
The resistance machine is used in order to keep the strength of bones/muscles by using bands to get
a full body workout (Dunbar, 2004). [add picture here for reference of what machines look like] It is
important to note though, even with these three exercise options in space, bone density loss and
muscle atrophy is still taking place. Other experiments are being completed in order in order to
better understand this issue with the hopeful result of finding a solution but no scientific
breakthroughs have occurred yet. [possibly look into experimental

Muscle Size Research Paper
determines muscle size? With the exception of the 2nd life cycle group it has been found that cell
size and nuclear number are correlated and the reasoning for this exception being that the ability to
transcribe may not be limiting and that the general need for transcription may be lessened which
allows for increased protein synthesis potential without having to add more nuclei; although there is
speculation that activity level may affect this exception by creating more need for more nuclei and
determining cell size . However in life cycles 1 and 3 a strong correlation exists as more loci are
active on a transcription level which then increases the number of nuclei which then may become
critical if the nuclei quality is hindered. As they are dependent on a high synthesis capacity and have
heightened protein degradation the nuclear number may ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a cell becomes damaged and undergoes apoptosis the muscle cells may not be able to
regenerate at a proper rate to avoid a deficiency in the amount of the nuclei needed to maintain
proper muscle mass. Support for this need and the suggestion that nuclei number may be size
limiting and therefore a causation for atrophy was found in the study by the observation of damaged
myonuclei were found in stage 3 mice but absent in stage 1, myonuclei reduction in the two muscle
samples, nuclear domain size in regards to surface area was either maintained or increased, and the
reappearance of a correlation between nuclei number and fiber size in stage 3 muscles. Particularly
EDL IIb fibers may be most susceptible to sarcoma due to a generally lower nuclei number and that
distribution of these fibers is impaired in the elderly which would not reduce capacity for synthesis
but could increase transport distances causing decreased functionality. The nuclear shape also
changed which has an unknown impact on functionality and may have been the cause of the nuclear
fragmentation possibly leading to

Muscle Atrophy Research Paper
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Muscle Atrophy
The Ubiquitin–Proteasome System The ubiquitin–proteasome system is needed to rid muscles of
sarcomeric proteins when there are muscle changes. "A decrease in muscle mass is associated with:
(1) An increased conjugation of ubiquitin to muscle proteins; (2) an increased proteasomal ATP–
dependent activity; (3) increased protein breakdown that can be efficiently blocked by proteasome
inhibitors; and (4) upregulation of transcripts encoding ubiquitin, some ubiquitin–conjugating
enzymes (E2), a few ubiquitin– protein ligases (E3) and several proteasome subunits" (Lecker et al.,
2006, p. 25). Muscle atrophy is best defined as an active process that is controlled by a specific set
of signaling pathways ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A., Bedard, N., Baracos, V., Attaix, D. and Wing, S. S.
(2005). USP19 is a ubiquitin–specific protease regulated in rat skeletal muscle during catabolic
states. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 288, E693–E700.
Judge, A. R., Koncarevic, A., Hunter, R. B., Liou, H. C., Jackman, R. W. and
Kandarian, S. C. (2007). Role for IkappaBalpha, but not c–Rel, in skeletal muscle atrophy.
American Journal of Physiology: Cell Physiology. 292, C372–C382.
Lecker, S. H., Goldberg, A. L. and Mitch, W. E. (2006). Protein degradation by the ubiquitin–
proteasome pathway in normal and disease states. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology.
17,1807–1819.
Mittal, A., Bhatnagar, S., Kumar, A., Lach–Trifilieff, E., Wauters, S., Li, H.,
Makonchuk, D. Y., Glass, D. J. and Kumar, A. (2010). The TWEAK–Fn14 system is a critical
regulator of denervation–induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice. The Journal of Cell Biology. 188,
833–849.
Mizushima, N., Levine, B., Cuervo, A. M. and Klionsky, D. J. (2008). Autophagy fights disease
through cellular self–digestion. Nature. 451, 1069–1075.
Narendra, D. P. and Youle, R. J. (2011). Targeting mitochondrial dysfunction: role for
PINK1 and Parkin in mitochondrial quality control. Antioxidants and Redox Signaling. 14,

The Association Between Muscle Mass Measured Using...
The association between muscle mass measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis, grip
strength, and COAST in older adults
Background:
Aging processing leads to physiological changes in the body composition (Yu et al., 2014).
Specifically, there is a decline in the muscle mass. This loss of muscle mass has been illustrated to
be the main factor of strength reduction in aging (Goodpaster et al., 2006). From the age of 50 to 70
years, the reduction of muscle mass is about 8% per decade. After that, the muscle mass loss is
approximately increased to be about 15% per decade (Yu et al., 2014). The loss of muscle mass and
strength throughout aging is called sarcopenia (Yu et al., 2014). Sarcopenia is often linked to frailty
and bone ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, it is not obtainable everywhere and expensive (Mueller & Gandjour 2009).
Handgrip strength, a simple, easy, rapid, reliable, valid, and cheap approach, has been commonly
used to measure muscle strength (Lauretani et al., 2003). Handgrip strength is intensely associated
with lower muscle power, knee extension and calf cross–sectional muscle area (Cruz–Jentoft et al.,
2010). Handgrip strength is also a predictor of disability of activities of daily living (ADL) among
older adults (Al Snih et al., 2004). Handgrip strength is an element of the comprehensive older adult
screening tool (COAST).
COAST is a tool was created by my advisor and me to screen malnutrition in older adults. It
consists of five questions about weight loss, food intake, and overall health status. In addition, it
includes two tests; handgrip strength and five times sit to stand test.
Significance:
It is critical to know the association between muscle mass measured using BIA and the COAST
scores, and handgrip strength since this will reveal the better predictor of malnutrition. As a result,
the early exploration of malnutrition can help to apply an appropriate nutrition intervention
especially after nutritional assessment to decrease the consequences of malnutrition among older
adults and so reduce the cost of health care.
However, there is limited

Extrinsic Muscles
Feet can take a beating if you participate in sports. And just like any other structure in the body,
dysfunction in our feet can lead to serious issues, including knee pain or lower back aches.
Your feet need training and conditioning just like the rest of your body.
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Muscles of the Feet
Any imbalances in musculature in your feet will limit full range of motion and alter your running
and walking gait, which in the long term can cause problems and overuse injuries.
More: Foot Anatomy for Injury Prevention
There are two kinds of musculature in your feet, extrinsic and intrinsic:
1) Extrinsic foot muscles have one attachment in the foot and the other one up in the leg. These
muscles move your foot relative to the lower

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA)
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a genetic disorder that affects the part of the nervous system that
controls voluntary muscle movement. SMA is an autosomal recessive disease where each parent
usually carries the mutated gene and both mutated genes are inherited to acquire the disease. "Two
carriers have a twenty–five percent chance of having an unaffected child with two normal genes, a
fifty percent chance of having an unaffected child who also is a carrier, and a twenty–five percent
chance of having an affected child with two recessive genes ("Autosomal Recessive")." Not many
people are aware of SMA but,1 in 50 people are carriers of SMA and about 1 in 10,000 babies are
affected ("Cure SMA"). People can get DNA testing done to see if they ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Children with this type can sit up on their own, but will need assistance getting there. They will
never be able to walk or stand on their own. The progression of symptoms can vary greatly with
Type II. and because of this, many patients can either live into adulthood and live a normal life or
die in an early childhood due to respiratory failure. About seventy percent of patients with Type II
are alive at age twenty–five ( The muscles will gradually weaken over time, the thighs before the
feet and the legs before the arms. Their hands may weaken but patients will still be able to type and
do other basic functions (Ferro 4). The biggest threat with Type II is scoliosis which is a curvature
of the spine. Scoliosis can cause an interference in mobility and can cause a change in shape to the
chest cavity (Spiegel). "Many physicians believe that severe spinal curvatures also compromise
respiratory function, since the curved spine often compresses a lung. In severe SMA, it's hard to say
how much respiratory decline would have occurred even without the curvature, so its contribution is
uncertain. (Ferro)." Spine straightening surgery is usually recommended but is risky due to the use
of anesthesia and the possible dangerous outcomes such as, postanesthetic respiratory

Spinal Muscle Atrophy Research Paper
Spinal muscle atrophy
Spinal muscle atrophy, also known as SMA, is a genetic disease that takes the physical strength of
people. It affects the motor nerve cells in the spinal cord, leaving the people who are affected unable
to walk, eat, and sometimes even breath on their own (Izenberg, 2016). Most of the nerve cells that
control muscles are located in the spinal cord, this is why it is spinal. It is muscular because it
affects the muscles. Atrophy is the medical term for getting smaller and that is what happens when
they are not used (The Muscular Dystrophy Association, 2016). When an individual has SMA they
are not using their muscles as much or at all. That is how Spinal Muscle Atrophy got its name. There
are 5 different types of SMA. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is most often done with a small blood sample which is used to prepare DNA. If the person does
not have the disease, the DNA they got from the blood test can be used to determine if the person
carries the mutation for the genetic disorder.Considering the high carrier frequency, carrier testing is
requested by siblings of patients or of parents of SMA children and are aimed at gaining information
that may help with reproductive planning (D'Amico,2011). It is also recommended to have carrier
testing done if a family that has a child with SMA is planning on having another child. DNA or
genetic testing can also be used to determine if your unborn baby has inherited a genetic disorder,
this called prenatal genetic testing. Having a genetic test done will be able to tell if the parents, the
child or other children have or carry the mutation for SMA.Unfortunately, there is no cure for SMA.
Treatment depends on age and how bad the symptoms are. The goal of treatment is to relieve
specific symptoms, maintain function and enhance a child's mobility for as long as possible, and
maximize the child's independence and quality of life (Izenberg, 2016).Children with SMA have
care all of their lives from many different types of doctors. Counseling and support groups help the
children and parents understand and deal with what has happened. Many children need some type of
breath support as well. Though there is no cure at the moment, there is so much research going on to
figure out how to stop this horrible

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Research Papers
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis is commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease or ALS. ALS is a
progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects the nerve cells in the spinal cord and in the brain.
ALS was first ALS was first discovered in 1869 by Jean–Martin Charcot, a French neurologist.
However, it wasn't until 1939 that Lou Gehrig brought nation and international recognition to the
disease, ending his career.
A–myo–trophic derives from the Greek language. "A" means no. "Myo" refers to muscle. "Trophic"
means nourishment. All together it means "no muscle nourishment. When a muscle doesn't get any
nourishment, it wastes away, or atrophies. The word lateral pinpoints in the areas of the spinal cord
where portions of nerve cells that control and signal muscles are located. As this area begins to
deteriorate, it leads to scarring, sclerosis, in the area.
But what exactly is ALS? In the human body, the brain and spinal cord contains small particles
called motor neurons. These neurons reach from the brain to the spinal cord and from the spinal
cord to every muscle in the body. When the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Though one person may have a hard time trying to grasp a coffee cup or a pencil, another may
experience voice change of pitch while speaking. ALS is a disease that typically involves a gradual
worsening. The progress of this disease is usually varied depending on the person, also. The average
time of survival with ALS is around three to five years, though many people live five, and up to ten
or more years. The symptoms of ALS normally begin in the muscles that control swallowing and
speech, or in the hands, legs, arms, or feet. Symptoms can begin in the muscles that control speech
and swallowing or in the hands, arms, legs or feet. However, not everyone with ALS experiences the
exact same symptoms, or the same progressive patterns of the disease, but, progressive muscle
weakness and paralysis are universally

Behavioral Interventions And Its Effects On Health Prospects
Behavior patterns represent the single most prominent domain of influence over health prospects in
the United States (McGinnis, Williams–Russo, & Knickman, 2002). Acceptance and commitment to
change, person's values, and patient education are among the positive behaviors that could
ultimately lead towards a long–term success of patient/client towards health and wellness. While it
is true that there are aspects of healthcare delivery system which include access, reimbursement and
third party payer's policy regarding maintenance and wellness programs, the lack of consensus on
frequency and scope of such activities that poses a challenge towards changing behavior, we the
physical therapists are the front liners in facilitating and assisting ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
One of the Models of Behavior Change that can be utilized by physical therapists is the
Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of Behavior Change. This framework seeks to help understand
readiness to begin change and physical activity. A strength of the TTM is that it treats behavior
change as dynamic rather than an "all or nothing" phenomenon (Marshall, & Biddle, 2001).
According to Crist et al. (2013), authors proposed that behavior change progresses through five
stages: (1) pre–contemplation, (2) contemplation, (3) planning or preparation, (4) action, and (5)
maintenance. Allow me to discuss how this model applied to this scenario in the acute setting. I was
called for a physical therapy evaluation for this 54–year–old male, motivated gentleman, status post
total hip replacement. This is a straightforward, simple, orthopedic case however, it is interesting to
see that despite the muscle bulk this patient has shown in his upper extremity, trunk and lower
extremity, it was noticeable to me that his left gluteus maximus/medius, quadriceps femoris, and
gastrocsoleus have significantly atrophied

Neuropathy Essay
peripheral neuropathies (14).
On current 1.5T scanners (GE machine), 2D (dimensional) imaging can be performed with near–
similar resolution as on
3T scanners; however, 3D imaging is often limited, especially if smaller voxels are used or fat
suppression is applied. On the other hand, if there is metal in the field–of–view, in order to mitigate
susceptibility artifacts and for superior nerve visualization,
1.5T imaging is often favored. 2D pulse sequences include high resolution (base resolution 256 or
higher, in plane resolution 0.3–0.4 mm) T1–weighted and fat suppressed T2w images (16).
Suprascapular neuropathy is difficult and challenging diagnosis for clinicians because of symptoms
overlapping with a number of other regional conditions. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The abnormal nerve may also show one or more of the following findings: abnormally increased SI,
heterogeneous
SI, focal or diffuse nerve enlargement, enlargement and effacement due to different degrees of
edema, and fascicular disruption with intraneural and/or perineural fibrosis (22,23).
Denervation changes of muscle can have several MRI appearances. In the subacute phase the
affected muscle demonstrates increased T2–signal resulting from muscle edema. In the chronic
stages, fatty infiltration usually accompanied by muscle atrophy represents irreversible muscle
injury (24).
Our study includes 30 patients complaining of shoulder pain and 10 healthy volunteers as control
group, and the cause of nerve injury in our series includes the direct trauma and repetitive activities
which led to overuse of the upper limb in the athletic ones.
In the current study 12 cases showed decreased bulk and fatty infiltration of the supra and infra
spinatus muscles and the supraspinatus was more affected than the infraspinatus.
Unlike the study of Po¨ yhia¨ et al. in 2005 (25) that diffuse atrophy of the supra & infra spinatus
muscles with more affection of the infraspinatus muscle (62% and 70%) respectively, since the
infraspinatus muscle is innervated by a higher nerve branch of the brachial plexus since denervation
generally causes severe atrophy of the infraspinatus muscle and not the supras
Nearly the same results as ours

Muscle Atrophy In Space

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