The Scientific Study Of Epistemology

The Scientific Study Of Epistemology
Science is a systematic and active process encompassing observation, investigation, and the development and testing of hypotheses and theories.
Science provides evidence to several questions in different aspects, generating knowledge and understanding. For people like me, science is a fact; but
"how did it get in that way?" And, "how do we know that we know?" These fundamental questions are part of the scientific study of epistemology.
Epistemology describes the nature and scope of science, it is known as "theory of knowledge", and it is fundamental to any learning. In this assay I will
focused on scientific epistemology, and how several authors have tried to answer the questions: "What is knowledge?" And "How do we know?"
Philosophy and science get into a deep interaction when people try to provide answer to fundamental questions. Socrates, Plato and Aristoteles were
the first struggling to answer questions like "What is knowledge?" For Socrates, it was important to know what knowledge is per se, and he rejected
definitions based on the knowledge acquired by specific activities. I will go through several proposed answers, and the problems of each of them,
trying to make my own idea about which one could be the best possible definition of knowledge.
Knowledge could be understood as opinion based on evidence. However knowledge cannot be based just in an opinion, it needs a fact, an event to be
considered real, even though the evidence to that event to occur is adequate.
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Epistemology: Video Analysis
In simple terms, epistemology is anything having to do with the subject of knowledge. According to David Entwistle (2015), more specifically,
epistemology is in relevance to the nature, possibilities and limitations of knowledge. Epistemology is Within the discussion of epistemology, that are
3 types of people, their type describes how they view reality. For example, someone who believes that we can know reality perfectly and that there is
direct and exact relationship between perception and reality is called a naГЇve realist. An anti–realist takes the opposite view of a naГЇve realist,
believing that there is absolutely no correspondence of perception and reality. Someone who is in the "no–man's–land" of these to models is known as
a critical realist. Critical realists believe that we can know reality, but only know it imperfectly (2015). I hold the middle ground as a critical realist. As
Dr. Magnuson said in this week's video presentation, the different ways of obtaining knowledge tend to complement each other. This indicates that
there cannot ever be just one way of knowing. No matter how hard someone tries ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Logic and empiricism on their own rely only on physical truth, but will deny the use of testimony as valid evidence. On the other hand, revelation and
hermeneutics are more constricted in that they are mostly relevant to religious groups in terms of obtaining knowledge. In other words, on their own,
each of these methods have short comings, but when used together they can be especially helpful. McMinn (2011) describes the sometimes–unnoticed
relationship of revelation and hermeneutics by pointing out that revelation is from God, but interpreted (hermeneutics) by imperfect humans. This
stresses again the importance of using as many ways of obtaining knowledge as possible to be sure that what we are learning is in fact true, and not
just a poor

Epistemology And Personal Identity
Epistemology is defined as an investigation of what distinguishes justified belief and opinion, while identity is described as the fact of being who
or what a person, or thing is. Throughout our lifetime, our identity becomes shaped by the things we believe. As we grow and mature we are taught
key life lessons and values, and believe that following these will make us good people, which we all aspire to be. Epistemological views and
personal identity connect in the sense that the things we choose to believe make up the person we show to the world, wether this be online or in
person. Our justified beliefs and opinions that are created from either an influencer or from experience and knowledge, help shape us into the people
we become. These beliefs... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It works the same way with a force of positive energy. As children we have been taught that doing something bad will cause something bad to
happen to us, wether it be big or small. This belief of karma helps shape people into doing good deeds in their society and limit their amount of
dishonesty, and criminal behaviour. The idea of karma is to prove that good or bad thing someone does, a good or bad thing will come back to them
in return. This epistemological belief shapes a persons identity, because the idea of good karma or bad karma, helps to shape that person into doing
good things instead of bad things, shaping them into a well functioning and contributing member to

Naturalized Epistemology Essays
Epistemology can be divided into two parts: one being traditional epistemology and the other being naturalized epistemology. The difference between
the two is that traditionalists simply accept what they think they know whereas naturalists put what they think they know to empirical tests. When I
say empirical, I mean methodologies of the natural science. In other words meaning putting things we think we know to practical tests to find out if it
is true, scientifically. Or to even better understand what I mean by empirical, it is essentially another way of saying naturalized epistemology. In this
essay I will establish the reasons why naturalized epistemology is a better choice over traditional epistemology. Firstly I will establish how ... Show
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The problem with this is that theoretical paradigms have no common basis; hence, paradigm–shifts cannot work out. Special Relativity and Newtonian
Mechanics may seem to have the same theoretical term meaning but they don't because the terms of 'mass', 'force', and 'duration' all have a different
meaning to different scientists. Science in Kuhn's opinion and from what we gather on theoretical paradigms does not provide a concrete empirical
assumption on epistemology. It does not work best empirically because matters dealing with science must happen with theoretical paradigms, whose
effectiveness is an issue. As I have mentioned, epistemology done empirically is better known as naturalized epistemology. However, traditional
epistemology, otherwise seen as normative, can help us understand philosophy. When I say normative, I mean the matters of rationality and
justification. Jaegwon Kim describes this form of normative epistemology in his essay, What is 'Naturalized Epistemology'? where he comments, "that
justification is a central concept of our epistemological tradition, that justification, as it is understood in this tradition, is a normative normative
concept, and in consequence that epistemology itself is a normative inquiry whose principal aim is a systematic study of the conditions of justified
belief." (Kim 539)
Epistemology can be seen as a normative discipline as we see with rationality and the concept of Davidson's claim on

Epistemology : Knowledge And Validity
Epistemology: Knowledge and Validity
Brenda Kelly
Philosophy/ Christian Thought (PHL–283–01A)
December 5th, 2016
Webster defines epistemology as "the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity".
Epistemology from Greek signifying "information", and signifying "consistent talk" is the branch of logic worried with the hypothesis of knowledge.
Epistemology concentrates the way of information, the reasonability of conviction, and support. A great part of the verbal confrontation in
epistemology fixates on four regions: the philosophical examination of the way of learning and how it identifies with so much ideas as truth,
conviction, and justification, different issues of distrust, the sources and extent of information and defended conviction, and the criteria for
information and defense. The expression "Epistemology" was initially utilized by Scottish thinker James Frederick Ferrier in 1854. However, as
indicated by Brett Warren, King James VI of Scotland had already represented this philosophical idea as the character Epistemon in 1591. Whether
somebody 's conviction is genuine is not an essential for (its) conviction. Then again, if something is really known, then it completely can 't be false.
For instance, if a man trusts that an extension is sufficiently sheltered to bolster him, and endeavors to cross it, yet the scaffold then crumples under

Chicana Epistemology
A general definition of Epistemology is the theory of knowledge; it's methods, validity, and scope. From a Chicana Feminism standpoint, I believe it is
how we analyze knowledge from the culture that influences our daily lives. Chicanas strive and grow through the teachings and stories of past activists
which tells us the changes that have been made and the changes that are still to come. They are important because it gives us different perspectives and
understandings of Chicana history. Not every story it the same, but there is a connection. Through this theory, we all gain the opportunity to see
through a Chicana feminist scope into each other's stories.
Elba Rosario Sanchez wrote a piece from A Critical Reader: Chicana Feminisms titled "Cartrohistography: One Voice's Continent" in which she explains
how she became her own territory. "I began to think about that continent in my dream, that self, and about how ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Cantu wrote an interesting novel titled Canicula: Snapshots of a Girlhood en la Frontera which she categorizes it as a "self–reflection". She has found
inspiration in written work by women who have published similar works: Gloria Anzaldua, Sandra Cisneros, and Cherrie Moraga are all women who
published pieces that challenged traditional genres. Their creative non–fiction stories widen the feminist standpoint and create knowledge on their
individual struggles. "Unbeknownst to me, this new genre, creative non–fiction, was coming into being just as I was planning and writing Canicula in
the spring and summer of 1993," (98). As the genre was on the rise, Cantu was discovering a new side to her writing. Chicana Feminist Epistemology
relates to this because women of color writers encouraged Cantu to embrace her own heritage in her writing. "Canicula is a critical work of fiction and
an ethnography," (104). Her novel intersects both her skills and is an example of Chicana Feminist work that contains other histories of influential
women non–creative

A Review Of Protagoras ' Epistemology
Phillips !1
Miki Phillips
PHIL1050
November 19th, 2016
A Review of Protagoras' Epistemology in the Theaetetus
Plato's Theaetetus is the transcription of a dialogue between Socrates and a philosophical prodigy: the 15 year old Theaetetus. Socrates, on the eve of
his trial and eventual execution, talks with Theaetetus after being told of their resemblance by mathematician Theodorus of Cyrene.
Socrates' purpose in the dialogue becomes a discussion of epistemology, or the theory of knowledge and how it is obtained. Socrates begs an answer
for the question: "what is knowledge?" Theaetetus is understandably reluctant to give an answer, yet eventually responds as follows:
At any rate, Socrates, after such an exhortation I should be ashamed of not trying to do my best. Now he who knows perceives what he knows, and,
as far as I can see at present, knowledge is perception.1
Socrates applauds the young Theaetetus for his bravery in positing a solution. He also makes a connection between Theaetetus' answer and the answer
of an earlier Sophist:
Well, you have delivered yourself of a very important doctrine about knowledge; it is indeed the opinion of Protagoras, who has another way of
expressing it. Man, he says, is the measure of all things, of the existence of things that are, and of the non–existence of things that are not.2
1 Plato, Theaetetus, 151d.
2 Plato, Theaetetus,, 151d.
Phillips !2
Socrates, never a fan of the Sophists, sought to address the intrinsic flaws underlying the

Episthropology, And Epistemology
Research Philosophies
There are two main subdivisions of research philosophies; ontological and epistemological research philosophies. Ontology involves using a nature
perspective to establish how things work. On the other hand, epistemology involves assessing the interaction between the knowledge of the inquirer
and the research (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). The nature of reality can thus be determined by reviewing the four primary research
philosophies that are based on epistemology and ontology.
The four primary research philosophies include pragmatism, realism, positivism, and interpretivism. An ontology based on positivism assumes that
social factors have no impact on the nature and objectives of reality. According to the ontology... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this case, researchers use information that is already available and accessible to the public. Such information is retrieved from governmental
institutions, companies, and other researchers (Kumar, 2010). As such, there are various benefits that researchers gain for using this approach. One of
such is that it is cheaper than primary research. Secondly, secondary researches and their findings are readily available in various sources. As such, they
take a shorter time to conduct and complete than primary research studies. Thirdly, they are a source of information that is used in clarification of
various issues in the study. This leads to proper development of information in the study. Finally, the initial sourced analyze the various types of
research methodologies. Thus, the researcher using secondary research does not dig into such details. However, the approach has various
disadvantages. For instance, sometimes the research questions and the data lack coherence. This is contrary to the primary research that establishes
data that is tailored to respond to particular questions (Boyle & Schmierbach, 2015). It also has a high degree or error propagation. Errors that were
incurred in the initial research are translated into the current research. Another weakness is that some data may be outdated and thus unsuitable for use
in current studies. Consumer behaviors and attitudes change from time to time, on a frequent

Reformed Epistemology Definition
Response to Bergmann============================= Bergman's Reformed Epistemology holds a distinction between rational and
non–rational beliefs, as well as basic and non–basic beliefs; considering the rationality of religious beliefs to be something independent of their use as
the basis of argument. ============================= Bergmann considers rational beliefs to be better and more valuable than irrational
beliefs. But Bergmann also distinguishes another axis between basic and non–basic beliefs; that is, beliefs which are sort of autonomously generated
(i.e. basic beliefs) and beliefs which we need to learn to infer (i.e. not basic). And because our reasoning, and rational beliefs, require us to link our
beliefs about the world to still... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But this is different from declaring my faith in God––declaring my deliberate acceptance of God; which is something with which I can struggle. One's
beliefs can be held immune from question in a way that their active, deliberative faith cannot be. ============================= But can
one choose their beliefs? Another concept Pojman presents is the one of volitionalism, that is, the act of deliberatly choosing beliefs, which
Pojman acknowledges as a possibility. But Pojman's arguments against volitionalism are that beliefs are socialized into us from our society,
imposed on our minds as for how to see/think about the world from a young age. Furthermore, our beliefs can be so automatic that, whether or not
we will not to believe in them, we still have them independent of choice. So Pojman seems to abandon this idea that beliefs can be chosen,
deliberatively, or even willingly. ============================= Hope is probably what Pojman considers to be the middle ground between
belief and acceptance; for one can hope for something to come true that they otherwise know to be impossible. They can hope against all odds;
implicitly believing that that impossible thing may happen. And here belief is somewhat more deliberative, which brings it more under our control
than pure belief would allow (though belief and hope can seem equally as

Epistemology And The Pursuit Of Knowledge Essay
Epistemology has been the spearhead of every academia battle. It is undeniable that theories of knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge have infinite
and unknown complexities. Therefore, there must be a common ground that permits separation of these complexities into useful and beneficial terms,
theories, and notions. More specifically, this can be accomplished by examining the social character of knowledge and how an individual 's reality is
shaped via testimony.
Testimony, a declaration or proposition which an individual claims to be true and fact, is key to socialepistemology. With certainty, some individuals '
claims, beliefs, and opinions are converging, whereas others ' are diverging. There are differences between subjective reality, influenced by the
aforementioned factors of influence from objective truths that exist and can be known independent from the social contexts. However, these two
extremes are intimately associated. Reality is a combination of both subjective and objective beliefs, and is ultimately relative and formed by the
perceptions of the individual . On the other hand, social epistemology, is focused on the social influences of individual and collective knowledge.
Relativism, in this context, relates to thought or ideas created by individuals. The differences between people 's beliefs and ideas are simply relating
subject to subject 's reality. The knowledge from this reality is known and determined by the individual or group 's experience . If

Realism In Quine's Naturalism And Traditional Epistemology
Quine's naturalism stands in stark contrast to the prevailing epistemological climate of his day. Traditional epistemology prides itself on the distinctive
method of a priori reflection on our preexisting concepts. The goal of traditional epistemology is to formulate necessary and sufficient conditions for
justification. Traditional epistemologists often attempt to analyze justification by proposing criteria and testing said criteria with thought experiments.
Successful criteria for justification must include every case that we can intuitively consider to be an instance of knowledge and exclude every scenario
in which our intuitions tell us that knowledge is lacking. A famous example of this method of includes Gettier cases. He proposes thatEpistemology
conceived as a philosophical field independent of the natural sciences has proved unable to reach its aims and should be replaced by a conception of
epistemology which views it as a branch of empirical psychology. He bases his argument on the failure of other types of epistemology, focusing on two
dominant forms of Epistemology that are foundational in nature: Cartesian and Carnapian. Quine bases his replacement on the argument that the
Cartesian and Carnapian fail to achieve their respective goals. Quine acknowledges the existence of two sub–groups that fall under traditional
epistemology: a conceptual and a doctrinal side. The doctrinal epistemology is the attempt to stem our knowledge of the world from immediate

Fallibilism and Epistemology Essay
Fallibilism and Epistemology
The quest for certainty has gotten epistemology into a lot of hot water, and I propose we give it up as a mistake. We should freely admit we can't be
certain of anything, and move on. It is, of course, a reasonable question whether we can consistently get along without certainty, and even if it is
possible, whether there is some terrible price to be paid if we do. I will argue that it is indeed possible to do without any epistemologically useful notion
of certainty. I will also argue that, while there may be prices to be paid, they are by no means as high as the prices to paid by those who wish to keep
certainty as a viable epistemological concept.
But first, let me make good my claim that a lot of trouble ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Even his senses sometimes deceive him, when he experiences an illusion or hallucination. Because of this, he came to realize he is not at all sure
what he knows and what he doesn't, so he tried to sort out the true knowledge from everything else. The only way to do this, he thought, is to try to
doubt everything, to see if there is anything that cannot be doubted. In other words, he applied a very strong test of certainty; all knowledge is
certain, so if there is any real knowledge, it will have to be something that is absolutely immune to doubt. To check his beliefs to see if they were
certain, he devised his famous two tests: the Dream test and the Evil Genius test.
Everyone who has passed Beginning Philosophy knows how it goes from here. The only things that are absolutely immune to doubt are that I exist and
that the current contents of my consciousness are whatever they are. A strong requirement for certainty––namely indubitability––seems to leave us
trapped in our own heads, unable to acquire knowledge of an external world at all. Indeed the straits are so desperate that Descartes has to enlist God's
help in getting out, by way of one of the most dubious arguments for the existence of God ever offered in the history of philosophy.
But even empiricists are not immune to the charms of certainty. Like Descartes, Hume is interested in discovering the extent of human knowledge.
Unlike Descartes, Hume doesn't

Calvin's Epistemology Essay
"How is it possible to know anything at all?" John Calvin gives his answer to this timeless question in Chapters 1–3 of his Institutes. His theory of
epistemology is based on his belief that humans are naturally aware of God. He also asserts two fundamental knowledges– God and self– and he
elaborates upon the relationship between the two.
I.Biography of John Calvin
A.Birth and childhood
B.Schooling and further education
C.Early works and accomplishments
II.How is it possible to know anything?
III.John Calvin
A.brief introduction of the Institutes
B.Calvin's theory of epistemology
1.Humans have a natural awareness of God.
a.our minds
b.nature
2.knowledge of God
a.requires holiness
b.requires knowledge of self ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There, he sought more education, and opted to further his intellectual career. Years later in 1536, Institutes of the Christian Religion, was released by
Calvin himself in Basel, Switzerland.6 To this day, it remains one of the most important and influential literary works regardingtheology. This piece
also made Calvin known as a key follower of Protestantism. His theory of epistemology is based on his belief that humans are naturally aware of God.
He also asserts two fundamental knowledges– God and self– and he elaborates upon the relationship between the two.7
How is it possible to know anything at all? Theologians and philosophers across the ages have contemplated, debated, and wrote about this timeless
question. There have been many proposed theories, and many still exist while others have been modified, or totally abandoned. As Christians, we
like to use "God" as the answer for everything we do not understand, so one might respond, "God allows us to know things." Okay, yes, in a sense,
because He is absolutely sovereign, so anything at all that ever occurs happens with his permission.8 While this simplistic answer may be enough for the

Descartes' Epistemology
Epistemology
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Carefully explain Descartes' cogito and his attempt to build his knowledge structure from the ground up. (Be as succinct as possible.) Does Descartes
succeed or fail in that attempt? Justify your answer in full.
Descartes' Epistemology
This essay attempts to explain Descartes' epistemology of his knowledge, his "Cogito, Ergo Sum" concept (found in the Meditations), and why he used
it [the cogito concept] as a foundation when building his structure of knowledge. After explaining the concept I give a brief evaluation of his success in
introducing and using this cogito as a foundation. Finally, I provide reasons why I think Descartes succeeded in his epistemology.
The First ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The argument, as Descartes presented, does not give a valid reason for the existence of the body or anything else in the physical world, so we cannot
accept that bodies exist. Neither does the cogito account for the existence of other minds as that would entail knowledge of the physical world where
other things exist. The cogito concept does however; give a valid argument for the existence of the mind or a thinking thing that exists independently
of the body. In his novel Think, Blackburn explains the cogito concept as a means of justifying the core of one's existence as thinking, we accept
that thought exists not a 'self' (Blackburn, 2001:20). I agree with Blackburn because his [Descartes'] concept serves well to prove that we exist as
thinking things and even if we were to discard any a priori or a posteriori knowledge, we can still endorse the cogito. The cogito concept stands
regardless of empirical knowledge because it suggests the existence of thought without actually linking it to the body (which constitutes a sort of
empirical way of acquiring knowledge through the senses). In addition, it can be accepted without any a priori knowledge since Descartes only
introduced it after concluding that he knew nothing, and could only accept knowledge of his own existence as vindicated.
To assess Descartes choice of foundation I will raise some questions that implore an explanation regarding the

Epistemology Vs. Theory Of Knowledge
Epistemology, technically speaking, covers one third of all philosophical enquiry, and it is the branch most concerned with faith.
Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, is always asking questions like, how do you know that, how do you know anything, what is knowledge,
what signifies knowledge as fact as opposed to an opinion? How to you get to fact from opinion?
I use epistemological questions to level the playing field across all my work. Here are some examples:
In Broad Apologetic Theory
When entering a new classroom I often get the students to describe their worldview. I do this by giving everyone a blank sheet of paper and asking a
series of questions that determine what they know, what they think they know, what their priorities are, and what they truly care about deep down.
These questions range from 'who is the most important person in the world' to 'why are you here' and each question is followed by an epistemological
question such as 'how do you know that,' 'why do you think that,' or 'how can you be certain that 's true?'
The result of this exercise is a wide variety of worldviews (or dare I say religions) that hinge on a varying degree of faith. Even those who thought
that they had an incredibly naturalistic, empirical or scientific approach to life need to admit a large reliance of faith.
In Specific Apologetic Questions
When responding to specific questions about God 's existence such as, 'how can you believe in a God when evil exists', or 'hasn 't

Essay on A Study of Epistemology
A Study of Epistemology
In the sixth century B.C., Homer alludes to a separation of knowledge between the mortals and the gods. He speaks of both gods and human beings as
"knowing things"– creatures of knowledge. However, there is a "great difference in the quality and the scope of the knowledge available to the two
groups" (Everson, Pg.12). For the mortal human being the contrast between "divine and human knowledge", paired with possible deception by the
gods, has led him to question the idea of knowledge as it exists independently, reminding him that there are many things he cannot "know for certain"
(Everson, Pg. 13).
Epistemology, as it exists today, is a branch of philosophy that studies knowledge in an attempt... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1).
The development of empiricism has fashioned a present model that is widely used today: the reflection–correspondence theory. The premise behind this
ideology states knowledge results from a "mapping" of external objects that are related to the brain through sensory organs" (Heylighen, Pg. 2).
Reflection–correspondence understands man will never reach an absolute state of knowledge, but somehow this inability to distinguish reality from
illusion, illustrates thought as a "limit of ever more precise reflections of reality" (Heylighen, Pg. 2). Therefore thought, as a physical product of nature,
is in itself a limiting trait.
Another significant theory developed in this period is known as the Kantian synthesis of rationalism and empiricism. Kant pictured knowledge as
emerging from the human "organization of perceptual data on the basis of inborn cognitive structures" known as "categories" (Heylighen, Pg. 2). His
belief parallels, to some extent, that of evolutionary epistemology, which assumes knowledge is constructed by the subject, or social group as a means
of adapting to their environment.
This construction happens through "blind–variation", or what is understood as the correlation of different already existing pieces of knowledge. These
"pieces", or "categories" (according to Kant), are "selectively" retained in combinations that

The Civil Argument Of Epistemology
For decades, there has been an open deliberation over whether knowledge is intrinsic or if it springs itself from life experiences: the civil argument of
epistemology. Epistemology is the investigation of knowledge and its techniques and legitimacy. Individuals from philosophers to scientists to
psychologists have argued their perspectives, yet even today the contention is not yet settled. Personally, I believe that it bodes well for knowledge to
originate from experiences. Three philosophers that are solid proponents for the belief that knowledge is derived from experiences are Gaston
Bachelard, Immanuel Kant, and John Locke. One of the great epistemologists was Gaston Bachelard who was more commonly known as a
"philosopher of science." ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kant concurred with empiricists that "concepts without perceptions are empty" (lonestar). He acknowledged that concepts and ideas cannot
constitute knowledge alone and that innate ideas do not constitute knowledge at all. This brought about his conviction that there must be
experience(s) in life for there to be knowledge. His theory was that there are two sorts of reasoning to acquire knowledge: posteriori reasoning and
priori reasoning. The posteriori reasoning depends upon experience in the world that provides us with information. For example, if I said that
"Barack Obama was the president of the United States in 2010," I would only know that this is true through experience; I would not be able to
determine this through an analysis of the concepts of "president" or "Barack Obama." In contrast, a priori reasoning does not rely on experience to
inform it, but to create the knowledge. Kant believed that with priori reasoning, the dynamic mind relates and understands experiences in terms of
causes and effects where an event takes place and causes an experience to happen with the effect of knowledge being gained. Kant's crucial insight
here is to argue that experience of a world as we have it is only conceivable if the psyche provides an efficient organizing of its representations; the
mind makes deductions prior to experiences, but can only truly experience something in the event that it obtains knowledge from the

Epistemology In Fight Club
The movie that I chose was Fight Club. The movie fight club relates a lot to epistemology, the study of knowledge. Some of the leading
philosophers in epistemology are Descartes and Hume, which have some contrasting ideas on knowledge. Hume believed that we know things by
relations of ideas or matter of fact. Relation of ideas is something whose denial is inconceivable or contradictory, we cannot imagine a triangle with
more than 3 sides because a triangle has three sides by definition. So, in essence relation of ideas are truths that are necessary. Matters of fact on the
other hand, are facts that require observation, and are not inconceivable. We know that the sun will rise in the morning because we've observed that the
sun has rose every... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the questions presented indirectly in the movie is does a crazy person know they're crazy? There are cases all the time where people do
things because they heard voices or hallucinated things. For those people, their senses failed them. Or at least that's what we believe based on our
senses, for all that we know we're the crazy ones and they had it right all along. Everything that we know is based on our senses, so we don't truly
know anything. This is Descartes theory after realizing how unreliable our senses are, he came to the conclusion that we don't actually know anything.
Essentially the only thing we do know for sure is that because we can think, that means we exist. "I think, therefore I

What Is Greek Epistemology
Greek Epistemology comes from the Greek words, 'episteme' which is knowledge and "logos" which is reasoning. Together those Greek words make
Epistemology, the study of knowledge. There were three Greek philosophers, Aristotle, Plato and Socrates who all played a significant role in Greek
epistemology and sculpting epistemology into what it is today. Socrates famously said that, "...he knows he knows nothing truly valuable." All we know
about Socrates has been written about him, but it is generally assumed that Socrates was at the center of ancient Greek epistemology. Socrates didn't
lecture others for he acknowledged his ignorance of things. He walked around Athens asking fellow Athenians questions in the hopes of arriving at
political ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Plato developed the foundations of his metaphysics and epistemology by studying the doctrines of Cratylus, and the work of Pythagoras and
Parmenides." (The European Graduate School) It is a justified true belief that though Plato did study on his own, once he met Socrates, he became his
most influential teacher. Plato adopted his teachers philosophy. Plato focussed his studies on "the nature of unchanging objects and on how these objects
can be known through reason." (Encyclopedia Britannica) Plato's investigations started with the observation that each faculty of the mind comprehends
its own set of objects, for example: hearing understands sound and smell understands scents. Plato then went further to say, "Knowledge is also mental
faculty." (EB) Aristotle has a intellectual range which includes most sciences and many arts including biology, chemistry, history, ethics, rhetoric,
philosophy of the mind and science and psychology to name a few. He was also the founder of formal logic which is "the branch of logic concerned
exclusively with the principles of deductive reasoning and with the form rather than the content of the preposition." (Dictionary.com) Aristotle
modified a great deal of his teaching from Plato's doctrines, however Aristotle distanced himself from Plato's theory of Forms/Ideas (a thing is a dog if
it's in the

Epistemology In Business And Management
The literally meaning of Epistemology is the study of knowledge or the study of understanding that applied to identify the philosophical division
emphasized on the nature and scope of knowledge. Actually in a nutshell it implied to the examination of knowledge and justified believes. It evaluate
the inherent meaning of knowledge and means of obtaining knowledge, and the limitation or scope of acquiring knowledge for any given area, subject,
topic or issue. Moreover, it is very much associated with the interlinked ideas like truth, belief, and reasoning. Business or management research is a
formalized or organized examination that assist to resolve various management or business problems and helps improving management expertise. The
epistemological perspective has been created base on the study that inspects the likelihood, boundaries, source, construction, approaches and integrity of
knowledge and in what way knowledge can be attained, validated and used for practical application. This results or... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This is crucial as human behavior is usually directed by what an individual subjectively believes instead of what one knows as fact. This guides on
deciding on options on means of choosing a management research project, the methodologies required to be utilized in a manner that the management
research project manager and the whole team has to consider. The use of this viewpoint by the management research team results in the research team
to be more meticulous about the research methods with respect to data / information inputs, discarding personal / subjective beliefs aside and
concentrating on understanding the variables through sound research (Vaara and

Evidentialism: Procedure In Epistemology
Evidentialism is based on a particular theory of procedure in epistemology. According to this theory, there is an analogy between the legal sphere and
the religious sphere. In a legal system, the guilt of a defendant is considered to be false until it is proven to be true. The prosecution should prove that
someone is guilty of a crime by providing evidence. Similarly, in the religious sphere, the existence of God is considered to be false until it is proven
to be true. Religious believers should prove that the existence of God is true by providing evidence.6 An example of a philosopher who argued for
this version of Evidentialism was Anthony Flew.7 On this account, religious beliefs would be considered false until they are shown to be true based on
evidence. As a result, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For recent developments in this area, see the papers in Trent Dogherty (ed.), Evidentialism and its Discontents (New York: Oxford University Press,
2011). For a recent defence of religious belief against the challenge of Evidentialism based on the argument that knowledge of God is immediate, see:
Abbas Yazdani, Evidentialism and the Rationality of Religious Belief: Responding to the Evidentialist Challenge to the Rationality of Belief in God
(SaarbrГјcken: Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, 2010). For a defence of religious belief based on the rejection of Evidentialism, see: Kelly James
Clark, Return to Reason: A Critique of Enlightenment Evidentialism and a Defense of Reason and Belief in God (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing, 1990).
9 Peter Forrest, "The Epistemology of Religion", Edward N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, URL = http://plato.stanford.edu
/entries/religion–epistemology/,

Epistemology Paper
Epistemology Schools Paper
Arika Boyd
PHL/215
Dixie Hoyt
09/15/09
Epistemology or theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy related to the scope and nature of knowledge. The subject focuses on examining the
nature of knowledge, and how it relates to beliefs, justification, and truth. Epistemology contract with the means of production of knowledge, as well
as skepticism about different knowledge claims. The question is what does people Know? The core of this questions and area of study is Skepticism,
in which there have been many approaches involved in trying to disprove a particular form of this school. This paper will discuss the Epistemology
school of Skepticism, the contributors whom created the school; the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Plato and Aristotle strayed from Socrates path when they claimed to know the truth. Plato viewed knowledge as an awareness of absolute and existing
independent of any subject trying to apprehend to the philosophers. Though, Aristotle put more emphasis on logical and empirical methods for
gathering knowledge. Aristotle still accepts the view of such knowledge is an apprehension of necessary principles. Around the Renaissance period, the
two main epistemological positions dominated in philosophy are empiricism, in which sees knowledge as the product of sensory perception, and
rationalism sees epistemology as the product of rational reflection (Tempo). Another philosopher by the name of Arcesilaus, gave a renewed form of
skepticism, arguing against the opinions of all men. Arcesilaus also claimed that skeptics could make choices in accordance with reason in the absence
of truth. Carneades, also a master of arguing on both sides of the issue, refined into the standard of the credible.
One of the Schools of Skepticism is Pyrrhonism, whom was found by the Greek physician Sextus Empiricus (2nd century CE). Sextus was once
thought of as a compiler many recent studies have found within the philosophical originality. Sextus explained that Skepticism was not a philosophy
but rather a way of life in which one opposed all claims to truth with equal opposite claims. Sextus also attributed to the Greek philosopher Aenesidemus

Naturalized Epistemology
There are two types of epistemology: Theoretical and Normative. Theoretical epistemology is the study of what evidence we truly have for whatever
theories we actually hold. Normative epistemology is the study of how to adjust our theories in order most effectively to anticipate sensory stimulation.
Kim argues that the field of study of epistemology should be narrative and therefore must assign conditions for justification and knowledge and must
determine whether a belief is justified and whether a belief can be considered knowledge. Kim argues that Quine forces an incorrect choice between
traditional epistemology (or foundationalism) and Naturalized Epistemology and proposes that there are viable alternatives. Kim states that Quine's
program

Epistemology Is A Better Choice Over Traditional Epistemology
Epistemology can be split into two areas: one being traditional epistemology and the other being naturalized epistemology. The distinction between the
two forms of epistemology is that traditional epistemologists accept what they think they know whereas natural epistemologists put what they think
they know to empirical tests. The connotation of 'empirical' in this context refers to the methodologies of natural science; specifically, putting theories
that we believe to know to scientific experimentation to find out if the theory is true. In this essay, I will establish the reasons why naturalized
epistemology is a better choice over traditional epistemology.
First, I will establish why traditional epistemology can be a potentially viable ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A paradigm–shift is where a set of theoretical principles is replaced by another, for example: Special Relativity replaced Newtonian Mechanics. The
problem with this is that theoretical paradigms have no common basis; hence, paradigm–shifts cannot work. Special Relativity and Newtonian
Mechanics may seem to have the same theoretical meaning, but they do not because the terms of 'mass', 'force', and 'duration' all have a different
meaning to different scientists. Science, in Kuhn's opinion and from what is gathered on theoretical paradigms, does not provide concrete, epistemic,
nor empirical assumptions. It does not work best empirically because matters dealing with science must happen with theoretical paradigms, where
effectiveness is a problem. Epistemic thought executed in an empirical manner is better known as naturalized epistemology. Although, traditional
epistemology, or sometimes referred to as normative epistemology, can help us further our understanding of philosophy. Jaegwon Kim expounds on
this type of epistemology in his work, What is "Naturalized Epistemology"?, in which he states "that justification is a central concept of our
epistemological tradition, that justification, as it is understood in this tradition, is a normative concept, and in consequence that epistemology itself is a
normative inquiry whose principal aim is a systematic study of the conditions of justified belief" (Kim, 539). Epistemology can be

Difference Between Kant And Epistemology
Merriam–Webster dictionary defines epistemology as the study of the nature and grounds of knowledge with reference to its limits and validity. It is
the study of existence and non–existing ideals that can be derived with human reason. Immanuel Kant and Plato, the brilliant minds of ancient and
modern times, have created epistemology theories which have been a significant historic achievement of human being. However, theories from Kant
and Plato are criticized as much as they are studied. Therefore, Kant and Plato's theory possess logical loopholes.
Despite there are existences that are beyond what humans can reach, Kant's belief was that humans are obligated to ask questions through the infinite
world. He pursued human to be the active forms in the universe, the form that could make improvements in the world through its ideal. It is true that
Immanuel Kant himself believed in ideal, and he believed it could be and should be the output of human reason. The word ideal was another form of
the word reason, and the pursuit of ideal was the moral or the state of freedom. According to Kant, even if a person is banned from committing
crime, he can be free, only if his coercion is based on his voluntariness. On the other hand, if a person is banned by others, his state is not free and do
not possess moral values. Even if he has commit murder or theft as he had wanted to do it, he is not free as his action is conducted under the basic
human ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nonetheless, their theories are still valid in the education of philosophy. Their theories give people motivation to pursue ideal and keep on rational
thinking about life, death, existences in between, and non–existing substances in between. Despite of criticism, the reason why they are worshiped is
because their works teach us how to understand the world and its beyond. After all, the Immanuel Kant himself said "We learn not philosophy, we learn
to

Examples Of Postmodern Epistemology
Justification
If the seed of knowledge is belief, what turns belief into knowledge? This is where justification comes in (some philosophers use the term "warrant"
to refer to this element). A person knows something if they're justified in believing it to be true (and, of course, it actually is true). There are dozens of
competing theories of justification and there is little consensus about which is the right one. It's sometimes easier to describe when a belief isn't
justified than when it is. In general, philosophers agree that a person isn't justified if their belief is:
a product of wishful thinking (e.g. I really wish you would love me so I believe you love me)
a product of fear or guilt (e.g. you're terrified of death and so form ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They drive cars, fly in airplanes, make computer programs, and even write books! But how is this possible if they take such a fluid view of truth?
Postmodernists don't eschew truth in general. They reject the idea that any one person's beliefs about it can be certain. Rather, they claim that truth
emerges through community agreement. Suppose scientists are attempting to determine whether the planet is warming and that humans are the cause.
This is a complex question and a postmodernist might say that if the majority of scientists agree that the earth is warming and that humans are the
cause, then that's true. Notice that the criteria for "truth" is that scientists agree. To use the taxonomy above, this would be the "justification condition."
So we might say that postmodernists accept the first and third conditions of the tripartite view but reject the second condition: the idea that there is a
truth that is "out there." Rather, truth is a product of people in a given community meeting the third condition and it is not something separate from

A Virtue Epistemology By Ernest Sosa
Ernest Sosa was born in Cuba in 1940. He received his MA and BA at the University of Miami and his PhD at the University of Pittsburg. While at
Brown University, he would visit Rutgers regularly until he began working there full–time in 2007. He became known as one of the leading
epistemologists while working at Rutgers. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief.1
In 1991 he wrote the book Knowledge in Perspective and in 2007 he wrote A Virtue Epistemology. In both books he differentiates between animal
knowledge and reflective knowledge. It defends virtue epistemology called "virtue perspectivism". This is also known as the doctrine of reality. It is
an individual's perspective of reality at any given time.
In his book, A Virtue Epistemology, he provides the first comprehensive account of his views on epistemic normal way of doing things on two levels.
On the first level of normativity, success manifests the performer 's competence. On the second level normativity reflects good judgment required for
proper risk assessment. Sosa develops this bi–level account in multiple ways: epistemic agency, how knowledge is normatively related to action, the
knowledge norm of assertion, and how knowledge exceeds merely true belief.
As a leader in epistemology, Sosa 's reputation in this field could not rise any higher. In 2010 he received the Nicholas Rescher Prize for his
contributions to systematic philosophy.
He made an effort to justify a consistent preference

Epistemology Knowledge Is Power
Epistemology "Knowledge is power". Since we were little, the importance of knowledge has been engraved into our minds. We were taught that
knowledge is one of the most important values in life and that we must work hard in order to attain such extensive and thorough knowledge. Society
has taught us that knowledge is the key to success for it is the thing that advances us to a better life. But have you ever think of knowledge beyond of
what the authorities had presented us. "How does our mind works?" "How do we acquire knowledge?" "Is there one way of developing knowledge or
are there many depending on the type of knowledge in question?" These are some of the questions that are often asked in epistemology. Now,
epistemology is a branch of philosophy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The founder and father of pragmatism is Charles Sanders Pierce. As defined by the encyclopedia of philosophy, "pragmatism is a philosophical
movement that says a proposition is true if it works satisfactorily and that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of
accepting it." In simpler words, it is a more practical way of assessing an issue and rejects the unpractical ideas. Though pragmatism is closely
associated with empiricist attitude, it intends to be a more radical and less obnoxious in form. It means the open air and possibilities of nature, as
against dogma, artificiality, and the pretence of finality in truth. Pragmatism is focus on change and that we should understand things in terms of
changing processes. We are all aware of the gap between the rationalists and empiricists. Both rejected the belief of one another and both oppose one
another. Hence, this is intended to mediate between the two traditions and combine to what is significant of them. Like the empiricist the pragmatists
thought that we have no conception of the whole of reality and like the rationalist and idealist they saw morality, religion and human purpose as
constituting a significant aspect of our

Epistemology And Its Impact On Human Relations
Existence in this sophisticated world as the habitat of human life has been faced with numerous challenges exhibited in policies that govern
relationships. Human variations in perception of various life concepts are navigated by understanding, knowledge and the meaning attached to issues.
Poverty, racism, global warming, terrorism, disease, political and religious affiliations are among the issues that impinge human relations today. These
problems are influenced with people's knowledge about existence and what they consider to be valid. Thus, philosophy has manifested great
contribution in helping people achieve harmonious existence by relying on reason in arguments via successful communication and decision making
processes. Epistemology, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epistemological, ontological and axiological contribution in elaborating who I am and my stand I am a person who is committed to contributing to
epistemology ontology and axiology in understanding the society for my benefit and other people. I believe in education, technology dynamics, and
change in general but the role played by philosophy in the understanding of the world and its variations. Philosophy has enabled me to understand that
epistemology and ontology are important elements knowledge acquisition and proof. Epistemology is distinct from ontology in the sense that
epistemology focuses on the knowledge of things, the way we know things while ontology investigates what things are in nature and origin which helps
me to know who I am. Epistemology is concerned with belief rationality, nature, origin, methods, knowledge validity and limits of human knowledge,
(Genest, 2004). Following this observation am committed to understanding how the truth about what I know influences my personal beliefs and
ideologies. Eventually, my ultimate concern is to justify and verify the little knowledge I possess. According to the school of evidentialism, the
evidence is relevant in the justification of belief, (Clark & VanArragon, 2011). Secondly, ontology is concerned with the entities in the universe, and I
must understand it to understand the world. Questions ranging

Epistemology and Knowledge Essay
Final Paper
Roni Daniel
December 10, 2012
Dr. Kathy Downey
University of Phoenix
PHL/716
Epistemology, or the study of knowledge, requires the scholar analyze the what, how, and why's of their own knowledge. Asking these questions of
themselves is essentially applying that which they have learned. There are different origins of knowledge as conceptualized by philosophers, educators,
and scientists. Early philosophers defined knowledge as "justified true belief" (Cooper, pg. 23). In order for an individual to know something it must be
true, he or she must believe it, and the belief in it must be justified or rationally reasonable. Later, early modern philosophers required knowledge to be
proven and absolute. The scientific ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They are also under the assumption that scores derived from a series of multiple choice tests given on a set of skills will reveal if a student has
acquired the desired knowledge. Basing grades on these tests is also appropriate. I do not believe that this tells the full story of my student's
knowledge. These tests may demonstrate the ability to regurgitate this knowledge within a certain context, but out of this context this may not be
true. I do, however, use this data to help inform many of my decisions, however, I do not make decisions based exclusively on this data. There must
be a balance of reasoning, using my 16 years of experiences and training, as well as raw data tells a more complete story of my student's knowledge and
abilities.
I have worked for Porterville Unified School District (PUSD), in Porterville, California, my entire career. PUSD's vision and mission statements
read as follows: "PUSD students will have the skills and knowledge to be prepared for college and career and to make a positive impact in a
dynamic global society. The mission of PUSD is to provide students a dynamic, engaging and effective educational experience that prepares them with
the skills to be productive citizens in a global society." As a result, it is perceived that all students will develop and demonstrate "critical thinking and
problem solving skills; cultural awareness and the ability of collaborate with diverse groups; effective

Epistemology In The Crucible
The four main branches of philosophy are epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and logic. I will explore epistemology, the study of knowledge. The
study of epistemology tries to define knowledge; identify the source of knowledge; the process of acquiring knowledge, and measures the limits of
knowledge. Epistemology has intrigued philosophers since the Pre–Socratic era. In the 17th century, a fresh revolutionary outlook known as the Age of
Enlightenment many new theories of epistemology began to emerge. John Locke was a British philosopher, and empiricist theorized that we acquired
knowledge through the senses. Immanuel Kant's theory, on the other hand, claimed that knowledge came from within. Other great philosophers such as
David Hume, and Rene ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A story about a young girl Abigail Williams portrayed on the town of Salem, Massachusetts during the witch trials of 1692. A love affair with John
Proctor a married man leaves a trail of lies and deceit in a town turned to chaos that ultimately claims the lives of thirteen innocent people.
Proctor, a sensible man but driven from God by sin and knowledge of corruption within the church, now lead a quiet life near the edge of town.
Suddenly, he finds his family's livelihood threatened after Abigail Williams accuses his wife of witchery. Forced to prove his wife's innocence, he too
finds himself charged with siding with the devil. Because of his developed mistrust of authority, Proctor's judgment on Reverend Hale true intention is
affected, which ultimately led him to his death.
The Supreme Court appointed Judge Danforth a well– known and respected to trial the Salem case. Although Judge Danforth came to Salem with plans
of impartial hearings caring only about the facts in order to wipe away all evil spirits. Upon his arrival, the town leaders quickly saturate him with
corrupt truths causing Judge Danforth to lose clarity of the actual truth. Armed with the law, he later questions everyone's innocence that dared
challenge his authority. Responsible for the wrongful hanging of thirteen people, ultimately led to Judge Danforth's downfall.

What Is Personal Epistemology
Personal Epistemology and Ethics:
Epistemology basically means the theory of knowledge and how we understand the
things that revolves around us. Human beings have their set of thinking and ethics and it varies
from each respective person. To me, my life decisions are the things that drives my morality
and my ethics in everyday life. To me, my understanding of the things that exist is the work
of God. He created this world for us human beings to thrive and flourish and in return to pray to
him to thank him.
For a philosopher such as Plato, he believed that we are imprisoning our souls in our
bodies and for our souls to return to the Realm of Forms, we have to accept the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is their own ethics and we
follow our own ethics. Even for the field of study that I am currently based in Mass
Communication, although we ourselves have our own set of ethics. However, due to mass
communications being part of the society now, we have to follow its guidelines in order to not
create problems in the social enterprise and the media market.

This is to ensure that people would not follow your own ethics and to some, it could
cause friction within society and also it may be going against others point of view or daily
ethics. The media world ensures its own use of its ethics, the world would be in total
eudemonia. There would not be problems and conflict. Aristotle's way of reaching the highest
goal was to identify its highest function. And that function is by understanding the media's
respective ethics.
That is the reason why people have to study the ways of the rational theory of mass
communications so that mistakes can be avoided in the future and if mistakes do happen, it will
not be repeated again. Both practical and theoretical theory have to wok hand in hand to

Descartes Position Of Epistemology
Epistemology examines the power of knowledge in a variety of subjects, such nature and human behaviour. Epistemological solipsism is the theory of
this knowledge, which brings forth the idea that the only mind any person can only be certain of, is his or her own mind. Descartes spent a great deal
of focus on the mind, and is probably most famous for his conclusion of "I think, therefore I exist". But what does he mean when he says "I think",
and how does it relate to this theory that the only mind an individual can be certain of is their own? This paper will divulge into the basis of
Descartes' statement, as well as discuss the proposition of Descartes' position of epistemological solipsism, to explain Descartes' position of the
multiple methods of knowledge and truths. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
He begins by with the premise of the testimony of others, and outlines numerous ways in which accepting the testimony of others can be
detrimental. He also makes an analogy to beeswax as a human body in order to add to his explanation of the physical and sensory worlds. Descartes
uses his perceptions of the sensory world, and the ability to doubt the existence and thought of everything around him. Through this doubt, he is able
to deduce that there is the ability to be certain of one thing: that the only mind he can be certain of is his own. These proofs work for the position
Descartes has with regards to epistemological solipsism, while demonstrating that his proposition can be proven to be sound through the level of
thought he had put into developing this proposition. It is because Descartes holds a high value to knowledge, as well as understanding the source of
this knowledge, that he can be seen as an epistemological solipsist. By allowing himself to question the ideas that he had not previously doubted, he
was able to expand his mind, and arrive to the conclusions outlines in both Meditations One and

Research Philosophy: Epistemology
3.1Introduction
This chapter outlines in detail how the research will be conducted, starting from the research philosophy, research design, data collection and analysis
methods.
3.2Research Philosophy
The term research philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and assumptions about the development of knowledge. These assumptions concern human
knowledge, what constitutes acceptable, valid and legitimate knowledge (Epistemological assumptions), the nature of reality (Ontological
assumptions) and the role of values and ethics within the research process that is the extent influence shapes personal values (Axiological assumptions)
and ultimately influence the understanding of the research questions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). A well thought out and consistent set of
assumptions will constitute a credible research philosophy, which will underpin the methodological choice, research strategy and data collection
techniques and analysis procedures (Saunders, Lewis, & ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epistemologically, it adopts the scientific method and focuses on discovering observable and measurable facts and regularities, and only phenomenon
that is observable and measureable would lead to the production of credible and meaningful data (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2016). Positivism is
therefore an epistemological position that advocates the use of methods of natural science in the study of social reality and beyond (Bryman & Bell,
2011; Walliman, 2016). It looks for causal relationships in data to create law like generalisations like those produced by scientists (Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill, 2016). Positivism infers use of existing theory to develop hypotheses, which would be tested and confirmed, in whole or part, or refuted
leading to further development of theory, which may then be tested by further research (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill,

Discuss Epistemology And Its Relevance
Discuss epistemology and its relevance to intelligence analysis. Select at least two principal "ways of knowing," and describe their respective
characteristics/attributes, strengths, weaknesses, and potential for improving the quality of intelligence analysis.
Merriam–Webster defines epistemology as "the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge." As applied to intelligence, the application
of epistemology becomes highly important when analysts are making judgements while assessing information that is not fully factual. Analysts work
with information that can be ambiguous, deceptive, conflicting, and even absent; yet, they are required to produce intelligence products that are
reliable enough for policymakers to act upon and make decisions. In these situations, the analyst must make good use of epistemology to ensure that the
intelligence judgements are reliable. Regarding intelligence analysis, there are four epistemologies, or "ways of knowing", that are used: authority, habit
of thought, rationalism, and empiricism. Science is a fifth epistemology that combines attributes of rationalism and empiricism. An analyst must know
which epistemology he or she used to understand the errors that may be made and the self–correcting mechanisms needed to improve reliability.
Authoritative epistemology occurs when an analyst relies on another person's authority to make a judgement. Their "basis of knowledge resides in a
reference to something more

On Epistemology and Skepticism Essay
Epistemology is purposed with discovering and studying what knowledge is and how we can classify what we know, how we know it, and provide
some type of framework for how we arrived at this conclusion. In the journey to identify what knowledge is the certainty principle was one of the first
concepts that I learned that explained how we, as humans, consider ourselves to know something. The certainty concept suggests that knowledge
requires evidence that is sufficient to rule out the possibility of error. This concept is exemplified in cases like The Gettier problem in the instance that
we suppose (S) someone to know (P) a particular proposition. As Gettier established the Justified True Belief as a conceptual formula for knowledge,
certainty... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Skepticism in general says that we do not know many propositions about the external world that we naturally take ourselves to know. Descartes
affirms skepticism by analyzing beliefs as knowledge. Meditations seeks to find a solution to the notion of if one doubts a belief, can it be considered
knowledge?
Descartes first submits that it is not necessary to show all beliefs are false to satisfy the knowledge condition. He adds that if in each belief there is
doubt that we can conclude that all things that we believe can be considered false knowledge. He seeks to prove this by setting a precondition that
we cannot critique all beliefs, just the ones that govern our life or that serve as a broad component of belief. Descartes then provides context to
where beliefs come from and states that beliefs are created from senses or through senses. He then states that senses are false because they are
deceptive and shouldn't be trusted which is the first cause of being able to doubt a belief. This idea in my opinion is the argument of Reality vs.
Virtually, which is what we encounter through our experiences vs. what we dream about. The question posed is that we doubt our beliefs because we
do not know if what we perceive from our senses is true. The example provided in the Meditations text dealt with imagination and the Dream world
concept. If I perceive something in the

Feminist Epistemology Summary
I decided to write my paper on Lorraine Code's article about feminist epistemology. Code talks about how in philosophy there are many different
ideas that exist relating to knowledge. Code talks about how in the world of philosophy there are many different "knowers" or people who have
obtained knowledge and given out their ideas to be followed by society. The problem was that during the time period when western philosophy was so
prominent, men were looked at as being above females and that the knowledge of a man was more accurate than the knowledge of a woman. Code
talks about how it is important to look at the character of the person and their interest in the issue they gave knowledge on. She believes that the sex of
the knower is significant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are things that women experience and go through that a man would never be able to comprehend. There is knowledge that women obtain and
process that men cannot understand. Women naturally have qualities such as gentleness, goodness, nurturance and sensitivity while men have a more
masculine essence. In the article many different women discuss feminist philosophy. For example Sara Ruddick talks about the experience of raising a
child, "grows out of the practice of caring for and establishing an intimate connection with another being–a growing child. That practice is marked by a
unity of reflection, judgment, and emotion." She says that the experience of raising a baby isn't specific to one piece of knowledge alone. It gives the
opportunity to expand knowledge on many different levels that are relevant to basic knowledge and understanding. There are emotions that women
were given that men were not, as the same for emotions that men were given that women were not. There is no way for a man to be able to understand
how women think and feel and women are incapable of understanding how men think which is why I don't think that one set of emotions should be
more reliable than the other, both sides should be examined and

Knowledge And Epistemology And The Philosophy Of Knowledge
According to the oxford dictionary belief can be defined as "an acceptance that something exists or is true, especially one without proof". Beliefs are
the best factor that influence in the decision making process. In other words, the beliefs students hold have a great effect on the perceptions and the
judgments they make about the world. In education and especially in social sciences beliefs are studied through epistemology. Epistemology is the
philosophy of knowledge and how it is acquired(Bryman, 2016). Beliefs are mostly developed through social interaction and direct messages that we
receive from our surrounding. This belief may develops in a long period of time or may be it takes only a minute if the message received or social
interaction is so powerful(Tillema, 1998). Beliefs may ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Positivism is based on the principle that knowledge is acquired when tested through senses and is based on facts. As it is more scientific phenomena
then it is based on the objectivity or fixity of knowledge(Bryman, 2016). Whereas, constructivism states that knowledge is constructed through social
agents and it is in the constant state of revision. Hence it promotes variability of knowledge(Bryman, 2016).
As Pakistani society is based on the concept of fundamentalism, which promotes the fixity of knowledge, hence the students who are produced through
this education system of Pakistan have more or less positivist beliefs which concerned to the fixity of knowledge(Skov, 2007). So beliefs shape
behavior which can be seen in the actions of the students. To understand the beliefs of Student–teachers we just look at the ways they respond to the
fixity of knowledge. So if I see the bigger picture, the understanding of the beliefs of teachers are essential to bring change in teacher education
programs(Tillema, 1998).
Fundamentalism and Education in

Personal Epistemology
Epistemology is generally the study of knowledge and knowing (Braten, 2010). Although, personal epistemology refers to the belief about one's
knowledge and the process of knowing (Braten, 2010). To help develop the personal epistemology belief, questions will be addressed with supportive
sources to give a better understanding of knowledge and learning.
What can we know?
We can know what we learn. While sitting in a classroom setting, it can be determined what an individual know by their response and participation in
class. One have to learn in order to known. Every individuals has their own way of learning to benefit their working memory to recall the information
later, when needed (Brownlee et. al., 2002). The information we learn becomes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As one continue to learn new things and store the information in their memory is the form of knowledge. After justifying the belief, more information
can be added to the memory that enhances one's knowledge on that subject (Hofer, 2002). For example, as children start grade school, they are
introduced and taught how to work out simple math. By the time they reach high school, they are able to recall the steps they learned from the simple
math to solve advanced math problems. Without the knowledge, one couldn't have remembered the simple math steps to understand how to solve the
advance math problem. Often times we hear people say " I know" meaning that there are some things that one has more knowledge about than other
things. The way one admit to their knowledge and recall the important that they learn makes knowledge possible (Schommer–Aikins,

The Scientific Study Of Epistemology

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