Linkage between Small-Scale Aquaculture and Rural Households’ Socio-Economic Effects: A Cameroonian Case Study

Linkage between Small-Scale Aquaculture and Rural Households’ Socio-Economic Effects: A Cameroonian Case Study
IJAEE
Linkage between Small-Scale Aquaculture and Rural Households’
Socio-Economic Effects: A Cameroonian Case Study
*1Eric Mang’unyi, 2Bernard L. Ngota
1
School of Business, The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, PO Box 62157, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
2
Faculty of Business & Economics, Nelson Mandela University, University Way, Summerstrand, Port Elizabeth,
6019, South Africa
The contribution of aquaculture, an emerging sector of agriculture in Cameroon aiming at poverty
alleviation and food security has hardly been evaluated. Therefore, to measure the effect of
aquaculture (small scale fish pond farming); a survey was conducted on 150 fish farmers between
December 2016 to February 2017 in rural towns of three provinces (Littoral, Central and Western)
in Cameroon. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used at community and
household levels to explore potential of small scale fresh water fish farming on households’ food
and nutrition security, poverty alleviation and economic development. The results showed that
aquaculture contributes to reduction of unemployment and fish rearing has substantially positive
impact on food security in rural households of the three provinces. Association between socio-
economic characteristics and participation in fish farming was varied, there was statistically
significant relationship between gender, age, employment status, education level, marital status
and withdrawal from fish farming. Numerous challenges exist that has impact on small-scale fish
farming in the regions surveyed. Since most rural poor households rely on small-scale fish
farming for income, more concerted and coherent efforts from government agencies, individual
farmers and relevant institutions are vital to increase food security and lower rural poverty.
Key words: Fishpond farming; Food security; Poverty; Rural households; Small-holder Cameroon.
INTRODUCTION
Small-scale fish farming has emerged with prominence in
recent decade with its role in rural development being
widely acknowledged and documented in literature. Many
researchers (Farm Africa, 2016; Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) 2015; Kamaruddin and Baharuddin,
2015; Lehane, 2013; Ogello and Munguti, 2016) reported
that small-scale fish farming is the future cornerstone for
viable and sustainable economic growth among
communities. Falling within the aegis of agriculture,
aquaculture (small-scale fish farming) is seen to play a key
role towards poverty alleviation especially in rural
communities of developing countries where majority of the
population falls below poverty line (Akinrotimi, Abu &
Aranyo, 2011; Boto, 2013; Halwart, Funge-Smith & Moehl,
2003). Fish production is considered as one of the most
effective tool to address poverty alleviation, food and
nutritional insecurity as well as empowering rural
communities economically, in developing countries like
Cameroon (Halwart et al., 2003). Therefore, fish farmers
or households can be food secure through direct access to
fish proteins in addition to that fish sale will lead to income
generation. Paradoxically, the emerging vista of the impact
of small-scale fish farming (fish-pond farming) on socio-
economic status and food insecurity among rural
households’ remains little studied. In order to address the
aforementioned, this paper presents results of an empirical
study to evaluate small-scale fish farming in the rural areas
namely, Littoral, Central and Western provinces of
Cameroon which has never been explored previously and
its impact on food security and economic development of
individuals’ and households.
*Corresponding author: Eric Mang’unyi (PhD), School of
Business, The Catholic University of Eastern Africa, PO
Box 62157, Nairobi 00200, Kenya. Email:
mangunyie@gmail.com; Tel: +(254)724-253733/4 Co-
author E-mail: s219238774@mandela.ac.za Tel:
+27787968104
International Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension
Vol. 4(1), pp. 140-150, July, 2018. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 2167-0432
Research Article

Aquaculture is cultivation and production of fish and other
aquatic organisms in managed or controlled water
environment. (Boto, 2013; Lehane, 2013; Farm Africa,
2016). A highly diverse and fragmented venture,
aquaculture has significantly been rapidly growing (Joffre,
Klerkx, Dickson & Verdegem, 2017; Toufique & Belton,
2014) recognised to contribute over 50% to the world’s
total fish consumed globally (FAO, 2015; FAO, 2013), and
is believed that it may surpass other animal production
since there is a growing gap between demand and supply
amid relaxation of previously imposed constraints on
aquaculture development in Africa (Beveridge & Philips,
2010).
Globally, many countries witnessed rise of aquaculture in
the past two decades (FAO, 2015; Munguti, Mugiranea &
Ogello, 2014; Troell et al., 2014), attributed to numerous
factors such as changing social, economic and
environmental conditions (Oben, Molua & Oben, 2015).
This in essence indicates that fish farming is an emergent
and future driver of many economies (Boto, 2013).
However, in most of the African countries it is managed
and owned by small scale fish farmers who produces few
kilograms, equivalent to two percent of fish production
(Béné & Heck, 2005) in a year. Depending on the size of
farm, there could be one or few fish ponds with varying
sizes between 50 m2 and 350 m2. The aforementioned
authors further argue that fish supply in Africa is in crisis
and, its consumption is also declining due to production
shortage.
Practiced by low-income farmers mostly in rural areas to
upgrade their household incomes, aquaculture enhances
food security, contributes to dietary safety and income
steadiness in developing countries (Boto, 2013; FAO,
2015; Halwart et al., 2003; Ogello & Munguti, 2016). These
activities have been recognised as options for poverty
reduction for rural populations as well as to improve their
living standards (Akinrotimi, Abu & Aranyo, 2011;
Kamaruddin & Baharuddin, 2015). According to Ogello
and Munguti (2016), aquaculture is perceived as one of the
key areas for economic growth in the rural areas thus,
remains an attractive entry point to improve livelihoods of
rural populations through income generation while helping
the majority developing countries come out of poverty.
It has been reported that there are many benefits accruing
from aquaculture (Akinrotimi, Abu & Aranyo, 2011;
Andrada, 2015; Farm Africa, 2016; FAO, 2015; Ogello &
Munguti, 2016; Ozigbo, Anyadike, Adegbite & Kolawole,
2014). According to Boto (2013), fisheries sector in Africa
employed seven percent of total population of employees
in the sector globally. Of these seven percent, those who
were engaged actively in fish farming was about 1 percent
which is comparatively very low in terms of their share of
aquaculture production in both value and quantity (Boto,
2013).
Notwithstanding the benefits, however, there are
challenges associated with development and
management of aquaculture in sub-Saharan Africa. For
example, sustainability is one among them which is due to
deficiency in access to information, knowledge and
experience among practicing farmers (Roslina, 2009).
Other challenges include, lack of technical assistance, lack
of knowledge of fish diseases, political and economic
dynamics, constraints in finances to buy highly priced
inputs like fish feed food to feed the fish, lack of good and
healthy fingerlings which have to be bought across the
border in Nigeria (Bigwa, 2013). Some researchers assert
issues like governance, weak management of fisheries,
conflicts over natural resources, poor fishery practices,
gender discrimination, issues of child labour and climate
change (Akinrotimi, Abu & Aranyo, 2011; Boto, 2013;
Ogello & Munguti, 2016).
According to Ndah, Knierim and Ndambi (2011),
Cameroon has recorded remarkable growth in this
subsector due to increased demand for fish hence the
growth of freshwater aquaculture systems (Pouomogne,
Brummett & Gatchouko M, 2010). Generally, the country
has a favourable climate for fish rearing which requires
minimum land area and labour to manage fish pond/s.
Furthermore, performance of fish production of
commercial significance supply and trade activities among
small-scale traders are increasingly emerging but at a very
slow pace (Ndah et al., 2011). However, impact of such
commercial development activities on food security,
nutritional value, income generation and job creation have
seldom been conducted. With continued shrinking of
arable land and competition for water resources caused by
increasing population, implies that demand for food
resources will continue to increase thus a big challenge
(Muendo, 2006).
This research posits that aquaculture presents numerous
economic opportunities for small-scale fish farmers.
Furthermore, it is practiced mostly in many low income
African countries seemingly deficient in food production.
Hence, to what extent does the production of fish benefit
the income and well-being of small scale households?
Does small-scale fish farming has potential to empower
rural households economically and make households food
secure? In view of this, there is need for more pooled
efforts both from the public and private sectors to support
these initiatives in order to increase production capacity.
By doing so, the small-scale farmers will obviously benefit
from the ripple effects that emanate from this agricultural
sub-sector consequently contributing significantly to
reducing levels of poverty.
The main purpose of this research was to evaluate the
impact of aquaculture on socio-economic status and food
insecurity among rural households’ in Cameroon. The
study endeavored to recognize aquaculture and how it is
transforming socio-economic well-being of rural farming
households. The following research objectives guided the
study:

1. To identify the socio-economic characteristics of
households participating in aquaculture/fish farming in
the rural parts of Littoral, Central and Western
provinces of Cameroon.
2. To determine the effect of small-scale farmers’
participation in fish rearing on food security of rural
households in the rural parts of Littoral, Central and
Western provinces of Cameroon.
3. To identify the factors seeming to hinder small scale
fish farming in the selected provinces.
In relation to the above-mentioned research aims, the
following hypotheses were posited.
H1: There is no significant influence of the farmers’ socio-
economic characteristics and participation in fish
farming on household income.
H2: There is no positive and significant relationship
between the farmers’ socio-economic characteristics
and plans to withdraw from fish-farming.
Thus, this paper discusses results of a study among
aquaculture farmers; analyze the influence and
importance of aquaculture on improving farmers’
household income, food and nutritional security. The
article attempts to contribute to a less researched area of
aquaculture in a developing country context. The
aforementioned objectives and hypotheses are answered
and tested respectively in a Cameroonian aquaculture
environment. The following section presents literature on
the subject.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Still there are much more to learn about how aquaculture
impacts on food and nutrition security, poverty reduction
and economic development, particularly with regards to
rural farming households in an emerging competitive
African economy. This section briefly examines relevant
literature in relation to the study subject.
Aquaculture development in Cameroon in a nut shell
According to Ndah et al. (2011), aquaculture in Cameroon
started in the 1940s, however, it has hardly expanded
producing modest output compared to other forms of
practiced agriculture. It is practiced in earthen fresh water
ponds approximately 350 m2 mostly in rural areas (Bigwa,
2013; Sadeu, Mikolasek, Barlet, Chia, Pouomogne &
Eyango, 2008) and has developed in terms of culture
techniques adoption and the variety of fish species
cultivated (FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department,
n.d.; Pouomogne & Pemsl, 2008). These fishes are fed on
grass, weeds and kitchen waste. According to Bigwa
(2013), this type of fish farming is still too marginal,
however, has potential to become commercial.
Notwithstanding increased demand and population rise,
annual production of fish has remained low at 870 tonnes
despite evidences of government involvement and
investment and support, expanded areas for fish farming.
This is because fish farming has remained at subsistence
level hence contributing to this low yields (Bigwa, 2013).
Aquaculture, food and nutrition security
Considering food insecurity as a key visible aspect of
poverty, lack of access (Hishamunda & Ridler, 2006) has
closely been linked to livelihood strategies of households
(Matshe, 2009). Andrada (2015) contend that food security
is currently crucial towards achieving adequate yield and
output. Food security involves several aspects and is
simply defined as availability, economic and physical
accessibility, adequacy and acceptability in terms of
nutritional and cultural requirements, and sustainability
(Béné & Heck, 2005:8 Maggio, Criekinge, Malingreau,
2015:551). Therefore, food security can be achieved when
people at all times have access to adequate, not
dangerous and healthful food to meet their dietetic needs
and food likings for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2015).
However, the major challenge to achieving food and
nutrition security in developing countries has been the
increasing population which pushes the demand up
(CCARDESA, 2016).
Researchers (Béné and Heck, 2005; Halwart et al., 2003)
state that aquaculture contributes food with high nutritional
value enabling alleviation of food insecurity, malnutrition
and poverty. Lehane (2013:1) further posits that there is a
nexus between fish consumption nutritional benefits and
decreased food insecurity and decreased poverty rates in
developing nations. In Africa it is estimated that more than
200 million people consume fish regularly (Béné and Heck,
2005:8), which therefore can mean that there more people
are becoming food secure. For example, with regards to
nutrition which is always at lower prices affordable to rural
population, households are able to get high quality
proteins and essential nutrients, which benefits vulnerable
groups such as infants and pregnant women (Béné &
Heck, 2005; Kawarazuka & Béné, 2010). Therefore,
increased availability of fish and its products can imply
better health and a more diverse diet. Despite the fact that
aquaculture has been developing at a snail pace in
Cameroon, its recent emergence and more embracing
received by farmers from rural area and across different
cultures (Bigwa, 2013; Sadeu et al., 2008) can imply that
consumption of fish is increasing and as such peoples’
food and nutritional values are improving.
Aquaculture and poverty alleviation
Béné et al. (2016) reported that the nexus between
aquaculture and poverty alleviation is complex and still
unclear, aquaculture is a main source of revenue and has
helped in poverty alleviation while empowering and
catering those involved in it particularly the rural poor
women (Allison, 2011:7; Andrada, 2015; Oyase &
Jemerigbe, 2016) which have contributed to its
development. However, (Nguyen, Jolly, Bui, Le, 2016)

cautions that whether it is in small-scale or commercial
aquaculture, still, it is not known whether it can be a driver
to the process of poverty reduction because the evidence
is not convincing in all cases. All in all, this may also
depend on the production systems which some have been
proven to greatly influence productivity and sustainability
of rural aquaculture development.
Aquaculture and individual/household income
creation
Many benefits relate to reduction of vulnerability to poverty
and increased farm efficiency and sustainability (Nguyen
et al., 2016). Agricultural by-products and other animal
residue serve as fertilizer and food for fish. Another benefit
often overlooked entails employment opportunity for
women via their direct involvement in production.
Researchers (Béné and Heck, 2005; Kawarazuka and
Béné, 2010) assert that women have demonstrable
influence on food security of the members of their families
more so children hence contributes to the household
nutrition value as well as incomes. Andrada (2015) posited
that in Asia, women have become more aware of the
benefits brought about aquaculture in the world over, not
only as an alternative source of income but as a main
revenue stream. Despite its inability to create sufficient
employment to alleviate poverty on a large scale,
aquaculture’s impact at local level is significant hence, its
expansion and sustainability is imperative as a food
security strategy on a larger scale in developing nations
such as Cameroon.
Perceived constraints to aquaculture development in
Cameroon
Despite having a fish eating tradition and considering that
aquaculture industry faces unstable sustainability amid its
‘rapid’ development in Cameroon, some of the socio-
economic aspects hindering growth of aquaculture
development are, increasing population density with
limited farmland. Small land sizes, scarcity and poor farm
inputs, unavailability of feed, sometimes it has to be
sourced across borders mainly Nigeria and scarcity of
fingerlings (Oyase & Jemerigbe, 2016). Since majority of
those practicing aquaculture are in the rural areas, where
major chunk of population is below poverty line, issues of
cash flow limits and their ability to purchase quality inputs
and fingerlings which are too expensive. Quality of
freshwater aquaculture have found to influence on fish
value and acceptance in some cultures and countries
(Badr, Salwa & Ahmed, 2015) hence, has always been
considered to have negative impact on freshwater fish.
There are also issues with inadequate infrastructure
development like unreliable electricity that would
encourage embracing of more rigorous systems
(Pouomogne & Pemsl, 2008; Sanusi & Danasabe, 2015).
Badr, Salwa and Ahmed (2015) reported that in rural
areas, structure of production, processing, distribution and
marketing are not well developed. Lack of government and
private sector involvement and investments in the
subsector is a major constraint to aquaculture growth. An
elaborate and existing regulatory policy to guide
aquaculture management also does not sufficiently exist.
Since fishponds are located within other agricultural
farmland, the use of pesticides on farms impacts
negatively on the ponds especially during rainy season
when agricultural runoff is common to ponds. Finally, there
are predators which feed on fishes hence reducing the fish
numbers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of the study areas
Littoral region
Littoral region is one of the provinces of Cameroon and
hosts the port and commercial city – Douala. It is home to
Cameroon's largest sea port and handles most of the
country's major exports. The region sits on an area of
about 20,248 km² and has an estimated population of 10
million inhabitants of which 5 million are city dwellers
(Central Bureau of Census and Population Studies, 2013).
The region features a tropical monsoon climate, with
relatively consistent temperatures of 27.0 °C (80.6 °F) and
an average humidity of 85% throughout the year.
However, in the months of July and August, the area
experiences somewhat cooler temperatures. There is a
high precipitation almost the entire year averaging 3,600
millimeters. The driest month is December where on
average the region receives 28 millimeters of precipitation
while the wettest month is in August with average rainfall
estimated at 700 millimeters. Since this region hosts the
port city, households purchase fish in large quantities
(FAO, 2004). Fish remains the main food for the majority
of the population, and Catfish and Tilapia remain the main
types of fish that provides key diet consumed in dishes as
‘ndole’ and plain pan fried fish. According to the Ministry of
Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries (2003),
demand for fish (including sea fish) is estimated to be
between 280,000 and 420,000 tonnes per year of which
50% of it is traded in and around Douala.
The West Region
The West Region is home to the enterprising ‘Bamileke’
(Bamiléké) tribes who are touted to have a strong
traditional culture among the province's other major ethnic
group – the ‘Bamum’. The region is an economic bright
spot and one of Cameroon's more developed regions. The
headquarter Bafousam has a population estimated at
1,865,394 inhabitants (Central Bureau of Census and
Population Studies, 2013) and covers a surface area of
14,000km2. The region sits at the geographical crossroads
of Cameroon and is characterized mostly by great

Figure 1: Map of study areas
Source: Google maps (2018)
soil variations – a blend of various raw minerals within
relatively small land areas. In particular, the province's
western half contains irregular mixture of raw minerals
such as granite and ferralitic patches of red dirt. On the
other hand, portions of the eastern’s half soil is ferrallitic.
The region’s soil is mostly red in color due to
high iron content thus, rich and most productive in the
entire Cameroon.
Because of its mountainous terrain elevations as high as
2,000 metres, valleys dip as low as 500 metres and active
tectonics, this create many fast-moving rivers with
attractive falls and isolated crater lakes. These rivers
experience a period of high waters during the wet season
and vice versa. The rivers all form part of the Atlantic basin.
The West region has ambient climate with temperatures
averaging 220C and a moderate rainfall of between
1,000mm to 2,000 mm per year on average. The rain
occurs in two major seasons where the year begins in a
long, dry period of little rain, which runs until May, then the
rains begin in May or June and last until October or
November. Pouomogne et al. (2010) state that potential
areas for fish farming (such as wetlands) account for 17%
of total land holdings.
The Central Region
The Central Region occupies 69,953 km² of the central
plains of the Republic of Cameroon and hosts the country’s
capital of Yaoundé. The population size is approximated at
3,919,828 (Central Bureau of Census and Population
Studies, 2013). It is host to numerous towns which are
significant industrial centres. A key economic factor is
agriculture especially with regard to the province's most
important cash crop, cocoa. Outside of the capital and the
plantation zones, most inhabitants are sustenance
farmers. Majority of the area’s soil is red ferrallitic soil, and
in some parts, there are deposits of metamorphic rocks.
The red soil is leached by silica and percolating water,
making it only marginally productive for agriculture. The
region has several lakes and rivers however, most
lakes are man-made created during the colonial period in
the pursuit of water sports and are located in the Yaoundé
area. The region experiences high humidity and
precipitation, with rainfall averaging 1,000-2,000 mm each
year while temperatures range from 230C to 240C.
METHODOLOGY
Survey design was employed using mixed methods
approach. Purposive sampling techniques were used to
select three divisions for each of the three provinces of the
Littoral, Western and Central was done. The area
(municipalities/locations) where aquaculture is dominantly
embraced and practiced was purposively selected.
Sample was drawn from a population of all households
practicing fish farming (i.e. owning fish ponds). Sample
population of fish farmers selected for study was invited to
survey meetings held at designated areas or farms. Those
who responded to the invitation were requested to
participate in the survey. In total, 200 fish farmers were
randomly sampled out, of which 150 fish farmers were
available for the survey within the wards of Douala, Edea,
Bamboutos, Mifi, Loughki and Nde. Primary data was then
collected between December 2016 and February 2017
from participants using group questionnaires, interviews
and focus group discussions. Complete data of 150
farmers was analysed descriptively, and inferential statistic
i.e. chi-square was employed to determine whether there
is any significant influence of the farmers’ socio-economic
characteristics on participation in fish farming on
household income. The effect of small-scale farmers’
participation in fish rearing on food security of rural
households was also explored via indicators of food
security with regard to the small-scale farmers’
participation in fish rearing. To test whether there were any
significant statistical associations between socio-

economic characteristics and participation in fish farming,
the study looked into the socio-economic characteristics;
gender, age, educational level, marital status, employment
status and number of members in the family. All the socio-
economic characteristics were categorical in nature with
two levels or more. Participation in fish farming was
inferred from the level of income generated from fish
farming activities. It was measured in four levels; low,
moderate, high and very high participation while
withdrawal from fish farming was measured in two levels;
‘yes’ and ‘no’. Furthermore, to identify the factors seeming
to hinder small scale aquaculture the study explored
whether the income from sales had improved/gone down.
Ethical issues – All ethical requirements of a researcher
were put into use. Permission was sought from the
relevant institutional authorities’. Written informed consent
was obtained from all participants. Data collected were
stored securely and where verbatim quotes were used
from the interviews, no reference was made to
participants’ names instead codes/pseudo names were
used to maintain confidentiality (Leedy & Omrod,
2010:101-104). Ethics as pertains publishing are also
adhered to.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Profile of respondents
The study sought to explore the demographic information
of the respondents since it is considered an important
aspect in understanding the sample participation in fish
farming. In regards to the general profile of respondents,
Table 1 shows the majority of fish farmers (78.7%) in the
rural parts of Littoral, Central and Western provinces of
Cameroon were males, whereas 21.3% females. This fact
seems to be consistent to the generally held notion that
fish farming, being a labour intensive activity, is men
oriented.
It was found that 41.3% of fish farmers were more than 44
years of age followed by those aged between 34 to 38
years (29.3%). This implies that in Cameroon majority of
young people are not involved in this activity to a greater
extent leaving it to the older generation who will tend to do
their farming traditionally despite advancement in
technology (Kamaruddin & Baharuddin, 2015). It may also
imply that young people are mostly keen with white-collar-
jobs but not laborious one such as fish farming.
Table 1: Distribution of gender and age of the respondents
Gender Frequency Percentage Cumulative %
Male 118 78.7 78.7
Female 32 21.3 100.0
Total 150 100.0
Age (Years)
Below 34 9 6.0 6.0
34-38 35 23.3 29.3
39-43 44 29.3 58.6
Above 43 62 41.3 100.0
Total 150 100.0
Source: Survey data (2017)
Socio-economic characteristics of households
participating in aquaculture in the rural parts of
Littoral, Central and Western provinces of Cameroon
The first objective explored the socio-economic
characteristics of households practicing aquaculture/fish
farming in the rural parts of Littoral, Central and Western
provinces of Cameroon. The study investigated their
socio-cultural status viz. marital status, level of education,
employment status and number of people in their
households.
Table 2: Socio-economic profile
Characteristics Percent (%)
Status of employment other than aquaculture
Full-time
Part-time
Casual
Unemployed
80.0
8.7
2.0
8.0
Education achievement
No education
Primary school
High school
Tech. university
2.0
3.3
28.7
65.3
Marital status
Married
Unmarried
88.7
11.3
No. of people in the household
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
2.0
8.0
32.7
19.3
27.3
7.3
3.3
Source: Analysis of survey data, 2017
Result found that most of the fish farmers had full-time
(80%) employment implying that fish farming is a
secondary job rather primary or full-time job. This may be
because they wanted to improve and/or supplement their
household income or were doing it out of interest or hobby.
Unemployed represented 8.0% of the respondents. On the
other employments, apart from being involved in
aquaculture/fish farming, the respondents were also
engaged in other income generating activities as shown in
Table 3.
Table 3: Other employment status
Frequency Percent Cumulative
Percent
Farming 1 0.7 0.7
Business 40 26.7 27.4
Part time business &
farming
12 8.0 35.4
Not stated 68 45.3 80.7
Oil business 10 6.7 87.4
Owner of cocoa farm 1 0.7 88.1
Part time business 11 7.3 95.3
Real estate business 1 0.7 96.0
Self-employed 6 4.0 100.0
Total 150 100.0

Although a sizeable proportion (45.3%) of the respondents
did not reveal their other employments, many of them
indicated they were involved in businesses. About 26.7%
respondents said they were engaged in business as
additional source of income. 8% were involved in both
business and farming, less than 1% were owners of cocoa
farms. Part time business and farming was common and
the most common business was oil business. These
findings imply that despite the fact that people are engaged
in fish farming, they supplement their income from other
sources.
The findings of the study (Table 2) established that 94% of
the fish farmers in the rural parts of Littoral, Central and
Western provinces of Cameroon had a minimum of high
school education. High school qualification and technical
university degree were 428.7% and 65.3% of the sampled
fish farmers respectively. 88.7% of fish farmers were
married. This is not surprising because most of the
respondents were above 35 years of age, which is an
indication of being appropriate to marry. This finding may
also imply that fish farming is done by people who want to
generate direct additional income to enable them provide
for their families. The size of family, which was considered
a central aspect of socio-economic status of the fishermen
household showed that the majority of the households
(32.7%) comprised with average four members. It is
evident that most of the households had medium sized
families presumably due to the fear of economic burden of
maintaining large families.
Effect of small-scale farmers’ participation in fish
rearing on income and food security of rural
households
In this objective, the study sought to examine the effect of
small-scale farmers’ participation in fish rearing on food
security of rural households. It was investigated by
exploring the indicators of food security with regard to the
small-scale farmers’ participation in fish rearing. Findings
clearly showed that fish rearing has positive impact on food
security in households of rural parts of Littoral, Central and
Western provinces of Cameroon. Majority (96.0%) of
small-scale fish farmers were engaged in the activities
related to both for money and food which means food
security at the household level is secured. The families
consuming fish catch directly as food and only selling
surplus catch for money. This grant supply of proteins
throughout the year.
Species cultured
Figure 2 shows that different fish species (Mudfish, Tilapia
and Cat fish) reared in similar ponds, the predominant
species cultured was the catfish (78.7%). This could be
due to the fact that Catfish resistance to many diseases,
easy management, high nutritional value and fetching
good demand in local market.
Figure 2: Types of fish reared
Income obtained from fish selling per annum
The annual income of fish farmers also varied where the
majority (56.7%) had an annual income ranging between
Central African CFA franc 500,001 to CFA franc
1,000,000, while a few (34.7%) of fish farmers having an
annual income of more than CFA franc 1,000,001.
Table 4: Percentage of farmers’ income obtained from fish
selling in a year
Income Frequency Percent
CFA franc 500,000 and less 52 34.7
Between CFA franc 500,001 and
CFA franc 1,000,000
85 56.7
CFA franc 1,000,001 and above 13 8.7
Total 150 100.0
Source: Analysis of survey data, 2017
The aforementioned income (Table 4) which is generated
annually by sales of fish in markets within (village markets)
and outside markets (93.3%). Selling fish in markets
outside the source/production sites is an important aspect
and assures constant income due to competition and
saturated local markets. it is also found out that relatively
large proportion (44.0%) of the fish is sold out to other
farmers in the form of fingerlings, as confirmed by more
than two thirds,69.3% of the fish farmers.
Reduction of Poverty
Findings of the study showed that aquaculture contributes
to employment generation as held by the majority of the
respondents. Two thirds, (66.7%), of the respondents
(Table 5) believed that fish farming create direct
employment to the farmers and people involved. Similarly,
it results to improve income and food availability for
household. This implies that poverty in most of the
households is significantly reduced due to fish farming.
The aforementioned findings are consistent with previous
literature (Andrada, 2015; Boto, 2013; Lehane, 2013;
Oyase & Jemerigbe, 2016).

Table 5: How small-scale fish farming help to reduce
poverty
FrequencyPercentCumulative
Percent
Income 45 30.0 30.0
Employment 100 66.7 96.7
Increase food availability
for household
5 3.3 100.0
Total 150 100.0
Hypothesis Testing - Chi-square test results
Furthermore, to accomplish the objectives of this study,
the hypotheses developed for the study were tested using
Chi-square test. In this study, the p-value was set at 0.05.
The findings of the study established that the association
between socio-economic characteristics and participation
in fish farming was varied. Results show that there was
statistically significant relationship between gender and
the participation in fish farming, χ2 (3, N = 150) = 33.511,
p <0.05. Other socio-economic characteristics that were
established to have had statistical significant association
with participation in fish farming were age, employment
status and level of education. Thus, hypothesis H1 was
confirmed through this study. Results are shown in Table
6. It is also found that there was no statistical relation
between marital status [χ2 (3, N = 150) = 5.01, p =0.171]
and size of the family [χ2 (3, N = 150) = 3.56, p =0.731],
and the farmers’ participation in aquaculture. We infer from
these findings that irrespective of the characteristics of
individuals involved in fish farming it is evident that there
living standards improve (Kamaruddin & Baharuddin,
2015; FAO, 2015).
Table 6: Socio-economic characteristics and participation
in fish farming summary Chi-square tests
Computed
χ2 value
df p-
value
Participation in aquaculture *
Gender
33.511a 3 0.000
Age
47.333a 9 0.000
Employment status
52.906a 9 0.000
Level of education
66.826a 9 0.000
Marital status
5.010a 3 0.171
Size of the family
3.596a 6 0.731
Results show that there was statistically significant
relationship between all socio-economic characteristics
(gender, age, employment status, education level, marital
status) and plans not to withdrawal from fish farming,
except family size as shown in Table 7. For instance, there
was statistically significant relationship between age and
withdrawing from fish farming, χ2 (3, N = 150) = 7.52, p
=0.047. This was also true in the other socio-economic
characteristics, except for family size which had no
statistically significant association with withdrawal from
fish farming, χ2 (2, N = 150) = 1.273, p =0.529.
Table 7: Influence of the farmers’ socio-economic
characteristics and plans to withdraw from fish-farming
Computed
χ2 value
df p-
value
Plans to withdraw from fish-
farming * Gender
47.327a 1 0.000
farming * Age
7.522a 3 0.047
farming * Employment
22.166a 3 0.000
farming * Level of education
28.494a 3 0.000
farming * Marital status
1.309a 1 0.018
farming * Family size
1.273a 2 0.529
Factors seeming to hinder small scale fish farming in
the selected provinces
Findings showed that although 41.3% of fish farmers
agreed that there was hike in sales compared to previous
years whereas majority of them indicated that their sales
had either gone down or remained the same. While
majority of the respondents did not state the reason to
withdraw from fish farming, 16.7% of them mentioned
financial hardships they face in the industry. Other farmers
pointed out lack of support from the government, low
prices for fish and their products and loss of interest in the
trade. However, the study established that there are
several challenges facing fish farmers in in the rural parts
of Littoral, Central and Western provinces of Cameroon
(Figure 3).
From the findings of the study it was evident there were
several challenges facing the small-scale fish farmers. For
example, high cost of fish feeds was found to be one of the
serious problems faced by the 22.7% of farmers. High cost
of feeds was coupled by the fact that about 18.7% of
farmers lack adequate funds to purchase the relevant
farming equipment and to meet overhead expenses such
as fish feed cost. On the same note, the study established
that lack of fingerlings and matured brooders (7.3%) along
with mortality due to diseases, depleted certain fish
species. The aforementioned findings are consistent with
previous studies (Oyase & Jemerigbe, 2016). These
diseases hinder growth and reproduction of fish. It also
emerged that 2.7% farmers attributed these mortalty due
to lack of antibiotics. Other challenges small-scale fish
farmers experience include poor infrastructure (roads) for
transportations of fish and its products, lack of industry to
manufacture fish food, lack of land or space to expand fish
ponds.

Figure 3: Challenges facing small-scale fish farmers Key Legend: Blue = frequency; Red = %
CONCLUSION
The findings reveal that aquaculture contributed most
towards reducing poverty, income and created
employment among rural populace. The present study
found that socio-economic characteristics were important
and significant in influencing participation in fish farming.
The findings of this study have highlighted the importance
of aquaculture in rural parts of Cameroon and that it can
be a central food strategy in the provinces and/or
nationally. Therefore, it is important to encourage and
increase this type of fish-farming to increase food and
nutritional security, create employment and thus reduce
poverty.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the study findings and conclusion made, the
following recommendations are made:
More research could be conducted to ascertain precisely
the linkages of the observed variables. More appropriate
and viable market-oriented approaches may be looked into
by all stakeholders to improve trading and market systems
since rural farmers may lack adequate knowledge and
skills. The need for training, agricultural extension and
advisory services to the farmers is crucial and as such
should be extended.
COMPETING INTERESTS
The authors declare that there are no financial or personal
relationship/s that may have inappropriately influenced
writing of this article.
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Accepted 8 March 2018
Citation: Mang’unyi E, Ngota BL (2018). Linkage between
Small-Scale Aquaculture and Rural Households’ Socio-
Economic Effects: A Cameroonian Case Study.
International Journal of Agricultural Education and
Extension, 4(1): 140-150.
Copyright: © 2018 Mang’unyi and Ngota. This is an open-
access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.

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