This chapter discusses genetics and breeding concepts important for laboratory animal research. It covers basic genetic principles like heredity, genes, genotypes and phenotypes. It also discusses inheritance patterns and how traits are passed from parents to offspring. The chapter describes the estrous cycle and breeding systems for different species. Proper housing, monitoring of animals and fostering are discussed to optimize breeding outcomes.

1. Genetics and BreedingGenetics and Breeding
LAT Chapter 4LAT Chapter 4

2. Chapter 4
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3. Chapter 4
GeneticsGenetics
• To breed laboratory animals successfully,
basic knowledge of genetics and reproduction
is required.
• The breeding system selected must meet the
requirements of the research program for
which the animals are being bred and must
correlate with the behavioral characteristics of
the species.
• This chapter focuses on basic genetic
concepts as they relate to breeding colony
management.

4. Chapter 4
HeredityHeredity
• Genetics is the science of heredity.
• Hereditary characteristics are determined by
units called genes, carried on chromosomes.
• Genes are transmitted from one generation to
the next, through asexual reproduction, or by
sexual reproduction.
• Genes are found in cell nuclei and are
composed of DNA.
• Every characteristic of an organism, from hair
color to heart size, is determined by the genes it
received from its parents.

5. Chapter 4
Dominant and Recessive AllelesDominant and Recessive Alleles
• 2 sets of chromosomes, 1 from each parent.
• Each gene on 1 chromosome has a partner at
the same locus, on the matching chromosome
of the set.
• All genes at the same locus are called alleles.
• A dominant allele excludes the expression of a
recessive allele.
• A recessive allele express itself when 2
recessive alleles are present.
• More than 2 alleles common for the same trait.

6. Chapter 4
Gene SymbolsGene Symbols
• To facilitate prediction of what the offspring from
the mating of two animals will look like, letters
are used to represent different genes and their
alleles.
• Capital = dominant / lower case = recessive.
• Be exact and accurate when recording gene
symbols.
• Gene symbols are in italics, except for the
symbol “+” = normal (nonmutant or wild-type).

7. Chapter 4
Genotype and PhenotypeGenotype and Phenotype
• Genotype = genetic constitution
• Phenotype = observable characteristics
• Brown genotype is b/b
• Black mice = B/B or B/b since it only takes one
dominant black gene
• Partial, or incomplete, dominance often
produces functional anomalies such as birth
defects.
• Mutations that result in genotype and phenotype
changes are rare events.

8. Chapter 4
Homozygous and HeterozygousHomozygous and Heterozygous
• Homozygote = when both genes of a pair are
the same for that gene (homozygous)
• Heterozygote = genes at the same locus on a
are different for that gene (heterozygous)

9. Chapter 4
One Gene: Many FlavorsOne Gene: Many Flavors
• Ploidy - the number of copies of each
chromosome in a cell
 Diploid: two copies (animals consist largely of diploid cells)
 Haploid: one copy (sperm and eggs are haploid)
 Plants often have three, four, or even more copies
• Locus - the specific location of a gene on a
chromosome
• Alleles - different forms of the same gene at a
given locus
 Within a species, there may be dozens of alleles for a given
gene. Thus, an animal often has two different forms (alleles) of
the same gene, one inherited from each parent.

10. Chapter 4
DNA –DNA – deoxyribonucleic aciddeoxyribonucleic acid
• A chemical structure containing the ‘blueprint’ for the
organism
•Shaped like a twisted ladder, called a double helix
•Contained within the nucleus of the cell
• Passed to the next generation in sperm and ova (the
gametes)
• Subject to changes known as mutations, produced
naturally or experimentally

11. Chapter 4
• Single genes may affect more than one trait.
• Conversely, many genes may influence the
expression of a single trait such as hair growth
(or lack of; note the nude mouse) and color.
Gene ExpressionGene Expression

12. Chapter 4
Gene InheritanceGene Inheritance
B/b B/b
b/b b/b
b b
B
b
parental mating: Bb X bb
In the Punnett square at right, a
mating is represented by the male
genotype (Bb) on the left, crossed with
the female genotype (bb) on the top.
The alleles each parent can have in its
gametes are listed, so the male has B
and b, while the female has only b.
The possible offspring genotypes (Bb
and bb) are in the square.
For simplicity, genes are usually treated as if they
come in only two forms, or alleles, designated by a
capital letter (dominant allele), and a lower-case letter
(recessive allele). To show all possible ways that
offspring can inherit an allele from each parent, a
diagram, called a Punnett square, is used.

13. Chapter 4
• The probability that offspring will be homozygous or heterozygous
for a given gene depends on the genotype of their parents. If both
parents are homozygous at a given locus, all offspring will be
identical at that locus, as shown in the following Punnett squares.
Gene InheritanceGene Inheritance:: a matter of chancea matter of chance
B B
b b/B b/B
b b/B b/B
B B
B B/B B/B
B B/B B/B

14. Chapter 4
• The probability that offspring will be homozygous or heterozygous
for a given gene depends on the genotype of their parents. If both
parents are homozygous at a given locus, all offspring will be
identical at that locus, as shown in the following Punnett squares.
Gene InheritanceGene Inheritance:: a matter of chancea matter of chance
B B
b b/B b/B
b b/B b/B
• If either parent is heterozygous, the probability that offspring will inherit
different genotypes will vary, although any two individual offspring may still be
identical. For example, in the left-hand Punnett square below, on average, half
the offspring will be B/B.
B b
B B/B B/b
B B/B B/b
B b
b b/B b/b
b b/B b/b
B b
B B/B B/b
b b/B b/b
B B
B B/B B/B
B B/B B/B

15. Chapter 4
Homozygous recessive albino (AABBcc)
Dominant agouti (AaBBCc)
Homozygous recessive brown (aabbCc)
Dominant black (aaBBCc)
Putting it all togetherPutting it all together
The phenotype of coat color is determined by three
genes, each having two alleles - A and a, B and b,
and C and c. Different combinations of alleles
result in different coat colors.

16. Chapter 4
• Genes on the same chromosome are physically
linked to each other and are usually inherited
together.
 Consider the athymic and nude mouse.
• Genes on the same chromosome are
sometimes inherited separately, due to
“crossing over” between pairs of chromosomes.
 Crossing over involves chromosome breakage and rejoining.
• Genes located on different chromosomes are
not linked, and are usually inherited separately.
Gene LinkageGene Linkage

17. Chapter 4
Strain and Stock NomenclatureStrain and Stock Nomenclature
•Inbred strains are usually designated by capital letters or a
combination of capital letters and numbers.
•Substrain = line number and/or name of the person or the
laboratory developing the substrain.
The substrain symbol is separated from it by a diagonal.
A/J indicates the A strain of mouse bred by Jackson Lab.
BALB/c exception; c in this name = gene symbol for albino.
•Inbred = brother x sister (or parent x offspring) for >20.
•Outbred stocks designated by capital letters +/or numbers.
•The breeder of an outbred stock precedes the stock name
and is separated from it by a :

18. Chapter 4
• The female’s reproductive system goes through
an estrous cycle; each cycle has four stages.
Reproduction and BreedingReproduction and Breeding
 Proestrus
 Estrus
 Metestrus
 Diestrus
• Anestrus – the long period of time between
breeding seasons
• Ovulation – when eggs or ova (singular is ovum) are released from ovaries
at left, proestrus:
note the vagina of a
mouse being open,
red, and swollen
at right, not in
estrous
(Images courtesy of Angela Trupo and Dr. Kevin Barton)

19. Chapter 4
• Sex hormones are produced
naturally in both males and
females as they mature and
influence many ‘reproductive’
traits including some anatomical
features.
 descent of testes
 development of mammary glands
 mating behavior
• Sex hormones, known as
gonadotropins, can be injected
into females.
 mimic or interrupt or synchronize
natural production
 cause superovulation
SuperovulationSuperovulation

20. Chapter 4
Superovulation (cont.)Superovulation (cont.)
• Induction of ovulation can be
accomplished by IP injection of
reproductive hormones.
 FSH or follicle stimulating hormone
prepares the reproductive tract for
pregnancy.
 LH or leutinizing hormone causes the
release of eggs from the ovaries.
 Treatment regimen varies with species.
 In mice, LH is given 46 to 48 hours
after FSH.
• Hormone treatment often results
in superovulation, an enhanced
release of ova from the ovaries.
 Technique used to collect many eggs
from the same female.

21. Chapter 4
• Gestation period
 Time from fertilization to birth or parturition
 Known also as pregnancy
 Gestation period is specific to each species
 Can vary between strains
• Pseudopregnancy
 Female mates with a sterile male (possibly vasectomized);
fertilization does not occur.
 Act of copulation stimulates female to release hormones in
preparation to become pregnant.
 Females show signs of pregnancy, including release of ova, but no
embryos result since there are no sperm and thus no offspring can
be produced.
 The pseudopregnancy is brief since the unfertilized ova don’t
implant in the uterus (in mice up to 14 days of typical 21 days).
GestationGestation

22. Chapter 4
• Collection of sperm or eggs/embryos
• Necessary for production of some genetically
engineered mice
• Important for rederivation to eliminate certain
diseases from a colony
• Technique requires precise timing based on
knowledge of reproductive cycles
Artificial Insemination and In Vitro FertilizationArtificial Insemination and In Vitro Fertilization

23. Chapter 4
• Removal of early stage embryos up to a few days old
from the reproductive tract yields embryos for DNA
injection or freezing (cryo-preservation).
• Taking later stage embryos, as pictured, enables study
of development and when it goes awry.
• Performed surgically (for survival) and non-surgically
(mice are euthanized).
 Survival (large animals)
 Non-survival (rodents)
• Oocytes can also be collected from females that have
not been mated (from the ovary or oviduct).
Egg and Embryo CollectionEgg and Embryo Collection

24. Chapter 4
• Can identify stages of the estrous cycle by examining
cells taken from the vaginal wall.
• Samples are collected through scraping or washing.
• The stages of the estrous cycle are characterized by the
presence of cell type and condition.
• Based upon the stage, timed-pregnant matings can be
established.
Vaginal CytologyVaginal Cytology

25. Chapter 4
• Several factors influence which breeding system
should be used, whether…
 general production of offspring is wanted (stock)
 needing to know who the parents are (e.g., sire and dam)
 conducting test matings for sterility or stud performance
• Monogamous and polygamous mating types are
both commonly used.
 Monogamous - One female breeds with one male, thus it is a
breeding pair.
 Polygamous - Two or more females breed with one male. If
1:2, then it’s a breeding trio. Poly means many; three or more
females is often called harem mating.
Mating SystemsMating Systems

26. Chapter 4
• Intensive breeding method requires the male
and female(s) to remain together continuously.
Intensive and Nonintensive BreedingIntensive and Nonintensive Breeding
• Continuous pair or trio mating systems help
avoid fighting in some mice strains.
• Whitten Effect
 Presence of only females - no males in the colony;
may depress the estrous cycle.
 Addition of male (his pheromones) initiates estrus
in about three days.

27. Chapter 4
• Foster mothers are provided to young animals if
the natural mother has died, can’t nurse or
mother well, or is weakened during parturition
(dystocia).
• Success is improved when offspring are close in
age to that of the foster mother’s own babies.
• Some species are impossible to foster (e.g.
hamsters).
• Anticipate the need for a foster mother, so set
up a coincidental mating from the ‘foster’ colony.
Foster CareFoster Care

28. Chapter 4
Foster Care (cont.)Foster Care (cont.)
• Healthy newborn pups
such as these will not
require fostering.
 nice pink skin color
 presence of milk spot
 signs that mothering is
caring for them, licking
and carrying
 good nest has been built

29. Chapter 4
• Inbred strain breeding can produce animals with
unique characteristics not normally observed.
 Normally recessive genes can be expressed.
 Useful in research to learn the function of genes.
 Sometimes embryonically lethal genes are expressed.
 Having genetically identical animals is useful.
• In tissue transplant studies, differing genes could result in rejection.
• To minimize experimental variation.
Breeding SchemesBreeding Schemes
• Foundation colony
 Colony of original animals is created
or obtained
 Bred to expand the colony
 Resulting offspring in the production
colony are used in research projects

30. Chapter 4
• Selective system; parents are of different inbred strains.
• Offspring are thus a combination or hybrid of the genes
given by the parents.
• Hybrid strain name is a shorthand abbreviation derived
from the two parental strains.
Hybrid BreedingHybrid Breeding
EXAMPLE:
The hybrid C3D2F1 is a first generation
(F1) cross between a C3H/He (C3)
female and a DBA/2 male (D2)
• F1 offspring are identical (heterozygous for the same two
alleles at every locus), but F2 offspring, from an F1 x F1
cross, are not.

31. Chapter 4
• Recombinant inbred strains occur
 when crossing two different inbred
strains, followed by brother/sister
matings, or
 when inbreeding the F1 and
subsequent generations of offspring.
• Helpful in genetic assessments
 Determining the inheritance of traits
 Interaction (linkage) between genes
Recombinant Inbred StrainsRecombinant Inbred Strains

32. Chapter 4
• Co-isogenicCo-isogenic animals are ideal for studying
effects of one single manipulated gene while all
other genes remain identical.
• CongenicCongenic strains are used to determine how
the genetic make-up of an individual influences
the expression of a single gene.
Co-isogenic and Congenic BreedingCo-isogenic and Congenic Breeding

33. Chapter 4
Several factors can influence breeding:
• Animal health
 Of primary importance
• Environmental conditions
 Light, temperature, humidity, etc.
• Cannibalism and desertion
 Caused by inexperienced females,
overcrowding, poor environmental conditions,
stress and disturbance
Other Breeding AspectsOther Breeding Aspects

34. Chapter 4
• Caging and housing arrangements
 Stud male colony
 Pheromones
 Male and female hierarchies
• Methods to verify breeding
 Copulatory plug in rodents
 Is not confirmation of pregnancy,only that mating has
occurred
• Determine optimal breeding periods
 Vaginal cytology
• Proestrus, estrus, or metestrus stage
 Physical and behavioral signs
• Lordosis
Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)

35. Chapter 4
• Litter size based on several factors:
 age of parents; older females may suffer dystocia
 nutritional status
 whether an outbred or inbred strain
 genetic make-up; some genes are embryonically
lethal in the homozygous state, so those embryos die
in utero
• Some animals (e.g., mice, rats, and guinea
pigs) have a post-partum estrus that occurs
within 24 hours after giving birth, so re-mating
can occur almost immediately.
Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)

36. Chapter 4
Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)Other Breeding Aspects (cont.)
• DystociaDystocia is difficulty with birthing.
 Occasionally observed in many laboratory
animal species.
 A breach is an example of dystocia.
 Occurs in older female guinea pigs which
have not yet had a litter because the birth
canal is smaller from fused pubis bones.
 May be facilitated with oxytocin, a drug
injected to stimulate labor.

37. Chapter 4
• Is the science of manipulating genes (DNA),
and is used to artificially alter the genetic make-
up of living organisms to study gene function.
 Mice are most often used in genetic engineering
studies; sea urchins, rats, rabbits, and sheep, too.
Genetic EngineeringGenetic Engineering
at left – green fluorescent protein
(GFP) transferred from jellyfish
DNA, as seen in mouse brain
tissue
at right – a technician uses a
mouth pipette to sort mouse
embryos in preparation to
inject modified DNA

38. Chapter 4
Genetic AlterationsGenetic Alterations
• Transgenic mice
 DNA from other sources (other animals,
bacteria, chemically synthesized, plants) is
inserted into the genome, at random.
• Knockout mice
 Blockage of function or actual removal of
specific genes on the chromosome; it is a
targeted mutation of the DNA.

39. Chapter 4
• Three primary methods are used
to insert DNA into fertilized eggs:
 Pronuclear InjectionPronuclear Injection
• DNA is injected directly into the fertilized
egg.
 Retroviral InsertionRetroviral Insertion
• DNA is attached to a virus, which
carries the DNA into the egg.
 Embryonic Stem Cell InsertionEmbryonic Stem Cell Insertion
• DNA is purified, then inserted into
special cells via a tissue culture process
called electroporation; these cells are
then transferred into the embryos, which
are then implanted into a recipient
female.
Genetic Engineering (cont.)Genetic Engineering (cont.)
Above, a chimeric
mouse, resulting from
an embryo of one
strain injected with
stem cells from
another strain; note
variations in hair color

40. Chapter 4
• Most cells reproduce by mitosis: an identical
copy of the genome is produced, and the cell
splits into two identical “daughter” cells or
clones.
• The term “clone” is also used to denote an
offspring that is genetically identical to its
parent, usually created by removing the nucleus
from an egg and inserting the nucleus from one
of the parent’s cells.
Genetic Engineering (cont.)Genetic Engineering (cont.)

41. Chapter 4
• Learn as much as you can about the genetically
engineered animals under your care.
• The cost (and often luck) to produce genetically
engineered animals is enormous.
• Loss of animals resulting from disease or poor
husbandry, or inaccuracies resulting from
incorrect records or improper breeding, can be
disastrous to the investigator.
Genetic Engineering (cont.)Genetic Engineering (cont.)