Human Differences Between Humans And Humans

Human Differences Between Humans And Humans
research into the minds of dogs and humans has brought to light the similarities between the human
and canine brains. Examples include having a theory of mind, sentience, the possession of mirror
neurons, and the ability to generate emotions and respond emotionally. The origin of these
similarities have yet to be explained. One theory states that the similarities could have developed in
both humans and dogs, and then strengthened when dogs were domesticated and perfected their
social functions in order to adapt to a human dominated environment. Another theory is that pack
behaviour in dogs is similar enough to human social behaviour that dogs developed independently
from humans, then became domesticated because their behavior already aligned with that of with
early humans. Some evidence of that is the fact that humans and canines have occupied the same
geographical regions for hundreds of thousands of years. Our best estimate of dogs became
domesticated is somewhere between 14,700 and 36,000 years ago (Liane, Interdisciplinary
investigations of the late glacial double burial from Bonn–Oberkassel). This paper will explore why
humans and dogs started to live together, whether humans and dogs developed their social cognitive
abilities in together or separately, and when dogs became cognitively distinct from wolves. For the
vast majority of our existence humans have lived in small hunter–gatherer groups. Similarly, wolves
live in small social groups or pairs. They also
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Happiness Hypothesis
In the book, Happiness Hypothesis, Jonathan Hadit, professor of psychology at the University of
Virginia, claims that the mind has two parts, the limbic system and neocortex. He explains the
neocortex to be the "rational part of the brain" (Hadit 4) while the limbic system is the need for basic
instincts such as "food, sleep, and sex" (Hadit 4). He develops this claim by first comparing these
two aspect to an "elephant and its rider" (Hadit 5), the elephant is the limbic system which is
uncontrollable and driven by instinct and the rider is the neocortex driven by rational behavior. He
then explains how as the rider, you must "train the elephant" (Hadit 6) Hadit's purpose is to inform
readers about true happiness in order to show readers on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Some people have certain viewpoints, interests, or preferences and will react accordingly in the
story, Hadit explains that the "elephant will automatically react emotionally to certain situations"
(Hadit 30). By explaining this, these situations will help guide people in their daily lives. It is
important to understand that predictability and happiness are like fire and ice: they are not
interchangeable. It is important to understand that unpredictability can lead to happiness and
unpredictability can lead to unhappiness; very rarely does predictability lead to true happiness since
if you are predicting anything, even good news, you are expecting and you develop a standard that
must be met. Most of the time, that standard isn't met and people become

MRI: A Medical Imaging Technique
MRI is a medical imaging technique used to visualize detailed internal structures of the body and
makes use of the property of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to image nuclei of atoms inside the
body. MRI is used over other medical imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or
X–rays, since it provides contrast between the soft tissues of the body, making it especially useful in
imaging the brain. Additionally,
CT is considered to be unhelpful in cases of intractable epilepsy [29].
Conventional MRI, however, is inadequate for patients with refractory epilepsy, since
FCD are often subtle and dicult to detect. The ILAE guidelines for neuroimaging in patients with
epilepsy recommends a dedicated epilepsy protocol MRI for all patients ... Show more content on
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This procedure is considered to be minimally invasive and is typically used for patients with clear
evidence of mesial temporal lobe seizure foci without lateral temporal neocortex
Chapter 1. Introduction 11 indications. During this procedure the patient is positioned similarly to
the ATL but a smaller linear or curvilinear incision is used [34]. Typically, the mesial resction of this
procedure is performed using an ultrasonic aspirator for much of the tissue, which does not allow for
later pathologic examination, however, en bloc removal of the hippocampal structure is possible
[34].
Surgical Risks and Outcomes
//This sections needs more
Surgical complications from temporal lobe resective procedures are relatively uncom– mon [34].
One–third of patients continue to have seizures following temporal lobe surgery (Engel,
1996; Foldvary et al., 2000; McIntosh et al., 2001; Spencer Huh, 2008). There are several
possible explanations including incomplete resection of the epileptogenic region or extratemporal
neocortical areas becoming independently epileptogenic (Lin et al.,
2007; Bertram, 2009; Keller et al.,

Early Intervention Research Paper
Early Intervention:
According to Niemann (1966), children learn through two different types of memory systems. First,
the habit or procedural system, and second, the representational or associative system. The habit
or procedural memory is the first to develop, developing within the first few months of life, and
assists in the learning of new skills. Again, according to Niemann (1966), skills are acquired by
repeated representation of the same stimulus until the task is correctly stored and accessed in
memory and then learnt. Niemann (1966) states that the striatum and neocortex control this kind of
memory, and in autistic children, another kind of developmental disorder, without the diagnosis of
mental retardation, these would be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In essence, early intervention would allow a child suffering from autism/or any developmental
disorder, to completely develop procedural learning capabilities, and then proceed to associative
learning. Additionally, since the ability to transfer skills from the procedural to the associative stage
is dependent on the relationship of brain maturation and stimulation, early intervention is therefore
vital so that the relationship will be developed. Furthermore, following the concepts of
neuroplasticity, lasting changes may take years to form because neural networks develop and mature
slowly over time. Early intervention is said to aid in the initial requirement of procedural skills,
which, in time, will progress to higher–order associative skills, and soon enough, the adaptive
behaviours necessary for independent functioning. Since these skills are more adaptive at a young
age, early intervention is the most efficient way to develop the neural connections to conduct vital
skills needed in the lives of all human

The Theory Of Mind, And The Law Of Accelerating Returns
In his book, How To Create A Mind, Ray Kurzweil expresses his belief that the way the human
mind works is not as different from today's advanced computers as others, including some in
artificial intelligence, may think. Kurzweil attempts to break down thinking, the physical brain, and
other elements of the mind. He compares these to technologies that are currently in existence, and
explains how the merging of the two is right around the corner thanks to one of the main ideas of his
book, the Pattern Recognition Theory of Mind, and the Law of Accelerating Returns. The following
paragraphs allow for more understanding of the main themes and ideas Kurzweil wrote about, my
opinion on social impacts the book may have, as well what I liked and disliked about the book.
Kurzweil starts the discussion of how the human mind works by first mentioning some thought
experiments from famous scientists of the past to show how their thinking led to important
discoveries. He then encourages the reader to conduct their own experiments, including reciting the
alphabet both forwards and backwards, or remembering details about someone you have seen once
or twice vs someone you see on a regular basis. The point of these thought experiments is to show
the reader that our thinking in the brain works by hierarchical patterns. Following the section
covering the process of thinking, Kurzweil writes in detail about the neocortex, the outside layer of
the brain that is responsible for sensory

Neocortex Cell Types
The density of the cell types of the neocortex is varied from layer to layer. The main types of cells in
the cerebral cortex are the pyramidal, granular and fusiform neurons. Martinotti and horizontal type
cells are fewer than others.
Molecular layer I is, also called plexiform layer, located closest to the pial surface of the brain. This
layer has few neuron bodies. It contains many nuclei which belong to glia cells, myelinated fibers
and few neurons of granular and horizontal neurons of Cajal.It consists almost all axonal and
dendritic branching.
External granular layer II is known as an outer granular layer, contains small granular(Golgi type II
cells) and pyramidal neurons. Granular type neurons divided into two distinct types. One is Golgi
type II. It has short axons that reach close to neuron body. The Golgi type I has long axons that
reach far from the body. Its axons go up to the cortical surface where it can make various axonal and
dendritic connections. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Also, there are some Martinotti(triangular or polygonal shaped multipolar neurons) and granular
neurons. Afferent fibers projecting from the thalamus, corticocortical connections come to here and
IV layer. These synapses both efferent cortical neurons and intercortical( granular, Martinotti and
horizontal types)neurons.
Internal granular layer IV mainly consists of Golgi type II and some small pyramidal neurons. It is
an input layer with the layer II and receives inputs from the thalamus and other regions of

Explain The Three Parts Of The Coping Brain
What are the three parts of the coping brain?
The three parts of the coping brain are thinking, emotional, and reptilian. The thinking part of the
coping brain, also known as neocortex, is the part that has the ability to use language and learn. The
thinking brain makes it possible for organize and planning. The thinking brain also decides the way
we behave. It is also in charge of our emotional experiences, which means it figures out why we are
hurt or sad. The emotional experiences are called feelings. The reptilian part of the coping brain is
the oldest part of the brain. It is shared by all reptiles and mammals including humans. Since it is the
most powerful and oldest part of our brain, without it, we would not be alive. The third part of the
coping brain is the emotional part. It is also known ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Loss is the most common fear that reptilian and emotional coping brains detect. The greatest sense
of emotional pain we experience is our fear and sadness after losing those who we have loved the
most in our life. From birth we are programmed to fear being abandoned and left alone to die.
Rejection is when the brain notices someone we want to be friends with rejects us. Rejection
triggers both reptilian and emotional coping responses. Rejection is one of the most common
everyday reasons for becoming upset. Betrayal is when the bond we have with someone we trust
breaks. One other form of betrayal is when someone promises us something and fails to keep that
promise. Whenever a good relationship gets ruined by betrayal it takes time to heal the wounds of
the relationship. As far as people know humans are the only ones that can be humiliated, animals
can– not be humiliated. To a human, humiliation is deep because it messes with a human's self–
respect. Whenever you are in front of a big group[ of people and they laugh at you, you sense an
even greater

The Emotional Brain Overpowering The Thinking Brain
In the psychopathologies mentioned above, one thing is common – the emotional brain
overpowering the thinking brain. Therefore, in dealing with these psychopathologies, the main goal
is to somehow wake the thinking brain up so that it could fire the needed neurons to finally control
the emotional brain. It can be as simple as trying to talk some sense into the person. This is because
when a person is listening, it is the neocortex that is being used and will therefore fire up more
neurons. Just like the child who is throwing a random tantrum, instead of giving him or her at once
the thing that he or she wants, tell the child to calm down, tell him or her that he or she does not
need to cry or shout or to even hurt people in order to get what

Sample Literature Review On Antisocial Personality Disorder
In the article The antisocial person: an insight into biology, classification and current evidence on
treatment authors Rodrigo, Rajapakse, and Jayananda (2010) explored PubMed looking for
published English articles between 1999 to 2009 with the search words, antisocial personality
disorder, dissocial personality disorder, and psychopathy. The purpose of the literature search was to
look for advances in understanding the neurobiology of violence and empathy, effective treatment
modalities, and ethical implications in defining 'at–risk' individuals for preventive interventions.
Data sources for this review included clinical journals, cohort studies, interventional studies, case
control studies, cross sectional analysis and epidemiological studies. The search revealed a number
of interesting findings, such as the different terminology used, treatment related issues, and the
importance of early identification and prevention of antisocial behavior. Empathy was also a
targeted area. The search examined the neurobiology of empathy and noted that the limbic system
and the insula and the anterior cingulate cortex had roles in assessing emotions of self and others.
Although the search uncloaked new information surrounding the topic, future research needs to be
directed in the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Authors found several articles, although most of the articles concerning anxiety disorders were
related to adults and not children. Therefore, they had a total of 22 studies that met three
requirements: at least someone of whom had panic disorder, having anxiety symptoms without
formal diagnosis, and having diagnoses of childhood– specific anxiety disorders which overlap
diagnostically with adult panic disorder and/or social

Neanderthals Hypothesis
The next major step in human development is the Neanderthal. In Comparison to the other primates
discussed this far, Neanderthals existed very recently and existed alongside Homo Sapiens during
their time until they became extinct 40,000 years ago. Humans and Neanderthals share DNA that is
99.7% identical as compared to the next closest genetic relative the Chimpanzee(98.8%). Physically
Neanderthals had short legs and long bodies (compared to humans). Neanderthals had a cranial
capacity of 1,427 cubic centimeters on average,this is very close to the H. sapiens cranial capacity..
Neanderthals contributed directly to the genome modern humans around 60,000 years ago, which
was revealed in 2010 by the Neanderthal Genome project. Neanderthals and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The Social Brain Hypothesis is a result of Robin Dunbar; a British Anthropologist, attempting to
explain the evolution of humans socially and its effect on the brain. Professor Dunbar says due to
the high energy usage of the brain, he finds it difficult to justify that humans need larger brains to
perform the same job. Dunbar stated Because the cost of maintaining a large brain is so great, it is
intrinsically unlikely that large brains will evolve merely because they can. Large brains will evolve
only when the selection factor in their favor is sufficient to overcome the steep cost gradient.
(Dunbar). Dunbar said while the change to more energy rich diets are definitely a reason brains
increased in size, it does not explain why the human brain is so much larger than normal. Dunbar
says that the complexity of social environments has an effect on the brain and its evolution, and the
part of the brain that enables these processes is the neocortex, which is the biggest reason for the
expansion of the primate brain. Dunbar believes that changes in certain portions of the brain have a
larger effect on size then just the brain getting bigger by itself This is especially true of the
neocortex, for its volume accounts for 50% to 80% of total brain volume in primates. Thus, changes
in the volume of the neocortex inevitably have a large direct effect on apparent change in brain
volume that may be quite unrelated to changes in other brain components.(Dunbar), Dunbar means
that the brain isn't getting bigger just to get bigger, but as certain environmental or in this case;
social factors affect certain parts of the brain which in turn cause it to get bigger. Dunbar says The
neocortex is generally regarded as being the seat of those cognitive processes that we associate with
reasoning and consciousness, and therefore may be expected to be under the most intense selection
from the need to

The Body Language
The term kinesics was coined by anthropologist Ray Birdwhistell in 1952 and refers to the
interpretation of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures. Understanding the grammar of
kinesics can be difficult because it requires careful longitudinal observations and are situationally
dependent. To add to the issues not everyone has the same body language, however, some nonverbal
behaviors are believed to originate from the limbic brain and are universal.
Much of the interpretation of kinesics seems to be in some cases speculative offering a range of
possibilities and other interpretations are obvious. For example nail biting is obviously nervous
behavior that I think all people recognize. However, Joe Navarro claims that bouncing ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It records memories of behaviors and is responsible for what we call emotions. The hippocampus,
amygdala, and hypothalamus are the main components of the limbic brain. The limbic brain is
where make value judgments that influence on our behavior. It is thought that this part of the brain
reacts reflexively and is difficult to disguise or eliminate.
The neocortex first appeared in primates and is most developed in humans. These developed
hemispheres are thought to be responsible for the development of language, abstract thought, and
consciousness. The neocortex has almost limitless learning abilities. However, the reptilian, limbic,
and neocortex do not operate independently. They have many connections with one another.
Terms for these parts of the brain originated in the 1940s, and some neuroscientists have suggested
that the concept should be abandoned. However, while the limbic system remains the predominate
explanation (both in neuroscience and popular culture) of how the brain makes emotion, it is a
flawed and inadequate theory of the emotional brain (LeDoux 2003). The limbic system theory has
trouble explaining why damage to limbic areas like the hippocampus can result in deficits with
cognition and memory. When the limbic system is activated in a purely cognitive task it is assumed
that there must have been some emotional component to the task. Many researchers seem to think
this explanation is based in tradition rather than facts.

Fat In The Brain Research Paper
Fats in the Brain May Help Explain How Human Intelligence Evolved
Scientific American
Ashwanthi Bala AP Biology Davis 9/09/15
Andrea Alfano. Fats in the Brain May Help Explain How Human Intelligence Evolved. Scientific
American, August 2015. The neocortex is the part of the brain that is responsible for advanced
functions like language. A variety of different fat molecules are found here. It is known that the
neocortex evolved extremely fast during the human–ape split.
Lipids are responsible for many critical functions in cells which includes their role of being the
primary component of the cell membrane. Lipids cause electric signal

Pros And Cons Of Memory Formation
FIVE ARTICLES
Reference:
Hunter, P. (2008). Ancient rules of memory. The molecules and mechanisms of memory evolved
long before their 'modern' use in the brain. EMBO Reports, 9(2), 124–126.
doi.org.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/10.1038/sj.embor.2008.5
Summary:
The primary purpose of this article is to expound on how memory is formed and maintained in the
human brain. The author follows the argument of scientific researchers on the assumption that
memory formation in the brains of lower forms of organisms can be compared to that of humans and
the basic biological mechanism is the same for both species. However, despite this similarity, the
author notes that the memories formed are very different because of the vast number of neurons and
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A short background on the initial search for types of memory is provided to elucidate the distinction
between the kinds of memory. Clinical studies on memory are used to describe, compare and
differentiate the three kinds of memory from a psychological point of view. Short–term memory is
described as having a short duration of occurrence and with a restricted capacity that can readily be
accessed. Working memory is argued to be more than the short–term memory because it involves
other processes including long–term memory, however, there are those who opine it is the same as
short–term memory. With regards to long–term memory, the author describes it as a large storage of
knowledge with an unlimited capacity. The author concludes that short–term and long–term memory
differ primarily in terms of capacity and retention time, but, the factor of retention time is still
controversial. With regards to short–term and working memory, their difference or similarity
depends on how one defines them.
Critique:
This article is well written and has reliable sources of information that are well cited and span a long
period of time. The author uses multiple points of view based on his references to arrive at a
conclusion. However, the comparison between short–term and long–term memory is wanting and
deserves

Writing On The Wall: Social Media-The First 2, 000 Years
As human beings we live in a world where technology develops faster than our brain's can function.
Over the years society has been convinced that everything can be found on the Internet. It is proven
when people do such things as update statuses, post pictures, and post videos of personal relations or
topics. In the novel Writing On The Wall: Social Media–The First 2,000 Years by Tom Standage the
author explores the way humans have been communicating since before time. The author not only
tells his point of view on today's source of communication, but he allows Robin Dunbar, a British
anthropologist to give specific examples using statistics through quantitative data. According to the
author's context I believe social networking is the number one source of communication. The
world's most popular online networking site has more than one billion users, half of whom access it
daily and a quarter of whom check it five times a day. This website is called Facebook. As well as,
other networks or search engines such as Twitter, Tumblr, Google, and Bing many have come to ...
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For example if there are more than 150 people spreading information within a group some of the
information is bound to be incorrect according to Dunbar's number. This is a great example of how
the human brain focuses on opinions more than facts through gossip and media outlets. In recent
news it was believed that Justin Bieber was dating his ex–girlfriend Selena Gomez, because of
social media postings. On the other hand, it has yet to be confirmed by Justin or Selena. However,
billions of social networking users have spread observations about the pair so therefore it exceeds
Dunbar's number. This simple news story shows that people will communicate and believe anything
that is spread within newspapers, social sites, and television without having proper

Is There One True Religion Or Is Religion Man Made?
Is there one true religion or is religion man made?
In a nutshell, religion is a composed gathering of convictions, social frameworks, and world
perspectives that relate humankind to a request for presence. Many religions have accounts, images,
and hallowed histories that expect to clarify the importance of life, the beginning of life, or the
Universe. Subsequently, these religions may have sorted out practices, ministry, a meaning of what
constitutes adherence or participation, blessed spots, places of worship and sacred writings. The act
of religion may incorporate customs, sermons, celebration or love penances, celebrations, wedding
administrations, or different parts of human society. Religions might likewise contain mythology.
The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The changes in these generations have not destroyed the religion per say but enhanced continuity
and relevance of the religion to the status quo. Preservation of Christianity is based on the core
principles such as dogma that is a set of rules that are universally believed to be incontrovertibly
true. My Christian background and beliefs, however, have been based on faith rather than rational
hypotheses. Is what I believe all a figment of my imagination?
In his article, Matt Slick asserts that Christianity is the one true religion (Slick). That is what
Christians believe and uphold to the truth despite the lack of plausible evidence to support the
hypothesis. Christianity and two other monotheistic religions, Islam and Judaism all refer to
Jerusalem as the Holy City (Fraser) but they don't differ in the ways of worship. Thinking about it, if
there is indeed one God, why the difference in religions and ways of worship. Additionally there
also inter–religious differences within religions such as Christianity. The debate on the existence or
non–existence of a true religion for that matter, in inseparable from the origin of religion.
Religion is intended to center the general population 's consideration and vitality on a solitary,
perpetual, uncompromising and imperceptible preeminent being. The supreme being professedly
made a sub–par human race only for some additional brotherhood and affection for himself and
afterward

Memory Consolidation Essay
In recent years, much debate and research has occurred over the process of memory reconsolidation.
Understanding the processes that underlie memory formation retrieval and storage is key to
understanding and guiding treatment for patients with conditions such as posttraumatic stress
disorder. This essay discusses the processes of consolidation and how that impacts on
reconsolidation and the implications of this knowledge on patients suffering posttraumatic stress
disorder.
Much psychological research suggests that new memories require time to stabilize and transfer to
long–term memory and that these newly acquired memories are disposed to to interference by
competing stimuli. Memory consolidation is the processes involved in the stabilization of a long–
term memory after it's initial acquisition (Dudai, 2004). Consolidation is described by two distinct
theories: synaptic consolidation, which transpires in the first few hours after learning and systems
learning where memories are stabilized over a period of weeks to years (Dudai, 2004).
Synaptic consolidation suggests that memory can exists in two ways, short term and long term.
Short term memories must either transfer to long term memory or be lost (Bramham Messaoudi,
2005). Synaptic consolidation occurs quickly, in the first few hours following the encoding of a new
stimulus (Bramham Messaoudi, 2005). Reverberating neural activity in closed circuits allows
memories of new experiences to be stored in the short term

Terri Schiavo Case
The case of Terri Schiavo is a landmark case that involved a fifteen year battle over whether or not
to provide life support for Terri Schiavo who was 26 years old when she collapsed in her bedroom in
February of 1990. According to Munson (2012), Terri Schiavo's husband Michael Schiavo, claimed
to have woken to the sound of a thud at approximately four a.m. and found Terri unconscious on the
floor. He called 911, but Terri had suffered cardiac arrest and by the time she was resuscitated she
had suffered irreversible brain damage.
Neurologists examined Terri and diagnosed her with irreversible brain damage caused by the lack of
oxygen during her cardiac arrest. The doctors eventually diagnosed Terri as being in a persistent
vegetative state ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As a member of the Republican Party and presidential hopeful for 2016, Governor Bush was
apparently not going to miss this opportunity to gain favor with conservative voters. The American
Nurses Association summed it up well when they stated, It is unfortunate that Terri Schiavo has
now become the symbol of so many political agendas. (Blakeney, 2005)
From the utilitarian standpoint, the taxpayers of the State of Florida stood to expend an inordinate
amount resources to keep one person alive who by most accounts no longer had full moral standing.
The harsh reality of this situation is many taxpayers could have used the healthcare resources that
were expended on one person.
The disabled community voiced concerns that if Terri's artificial nutrition and hydration were
removed this would initiate a cascading disregard for disabled persons or others who are judged to
have poor quality of life. (Perry et al., 2005, p. 747). As Perry, Churchill, and Kirshner point out
this is a gross overgeneralization. Those individuals voicing concern with this issue likely do not
understand the differences between PVS and many other forms of disability. Stressing liberty as the
fundamental issue means precisely that individuals will be able to choose for themselves... (Perry et
al., 2005, p.

Evolution Of Primate Intelligence Essay
The evolution of primate intelligence.
Intro and summary
Inquisitiveness, probably one if the most important trait a human being exhibits. This characteristic
has also extended to our quest to understand own past. One of the most fundamental reasons why we
are interested in the other primates is to obtain a precise view of how our ancestor may have lived.
Trying to get an insight into their environment, food, and social structure. Although there is no direct
evidence to prove that we as human beings have descended from any modern–type monkey or ape,
our genealogy does indicate that we have gone through stages, in which we possibly evolved from a
relatively medium–sized creature with good binocular vision, hands with good dexterity the ability
to climb trees. An evolutionary trend seen in primates involves the development of offspring both
before and after birth and their assimilation into ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another trait seen in primate evolution has been a more elaborate brain. In addition to brain size and
gestation periods, the social organization also demonstrates and plays an important role in primate
evolution due to its complexity and hierarchy.
Brain evolution
The fundamental explanation for the evolution of large relative brain size in early primates remains
undetermined and disputed (Insel). In particular, the neocortex of many primates has undergone
substantial expansion, and has reached its largest in humans (Rilling and Insel, 1999). The neocortex
is generally associated with, cognitive memory, and higher–order information processing. Emotions
such as fear, happiness, jealousy and understanding the need for conflict resolution stem from this
part of the brain. Although, many theories have been put forth to account for cerebral expansion in
primates, Epiphenomenal and developmental models have interpreted brain

Mini Bio : Social Assessment
Mini Bio–Psycho– Social Assessment A sixty year old, African–American, forty percent service
connected Vietnam–era veteran (E.S.) was referred to therapy because he recently lost his son and
needed help within the grieving process. He reported being the father to ten (now nine) children
from multiple wives. Veteran (E.S.) disclosed that the death of his son was a case of mistaken
identity and that his son was in the wrong place at the wrong time (suspected gang affiliation).
Unfortunately, the killer was unidentified and was never caught, which brought much grief and guilt
to this veteran. It seemed that this veteran was also robbed in not getting any closure, and this was
very evident in our sessions because he was always ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But what happens if one experiences negative intersectional play? His or her life tends to be full of
distress, hardship, oppression, discrimination, and hurt. This is evident in E.S.'s case. E.S. had a
complex case because he was not only grieving the loss of his son but he soon thereafter was
grieving the loss of his grandson. The grieving process appeared to be quite tough for E.S. since his
family unit had been torn apart (some lived in Los Angeles, while others lived in Chicago). Since his
children come from different wives it was hard for E.S. to navigate the family unit upon the loss of
one of his sons. He mentioned that it was difficult to talk with the boy's mother in this time of grief
because she would start crying and I just couldn't handle that. It appears that he felt inadequate for
not being the support that his ex–wife needed. This veteran did present signs of depression and grief.
E.S. attended a Bereavement Group in Building 500 at the West Los Angeles VA. Before I was
forced to terminate with E.S., I found out that he was on three different types of medications. He
was prescribed an antidepressant (Zoloft), medication for his blood pressure, and medication for his
cholesterol. While he was on this combination of medications, this veteran reported thoughts of
suicide. Veteran confirmed that the suicidal thoughts stemmed from his anti–depressant (Zoloft), and
once he stopped taking the Zoloft and

The Hippocampal System
Cholecystokinin from entorhinal cortex enables neural plasticity in auditory cortex Background:
Patients with defect to medial temporal lobe depict deficits in making new declarative memories but
are still able to recall older memories, suggestion is that medial temporal lobe is necessary for
converting memories in neocortex. Introduction: The hippocampal system composed of
hippocampus and adjoining entorhinal, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices [1]. Fuction which
they perform is as the gateway from hippocampus to a neocortex, the entorhinal and perirhinal
cortices form powerful complementary connections with neocortex [2–4]. Experimental approach:
Animals: Sprague–Dawley rats will be operated for immunohistochemistry, in vivo extracellular
recordings, and behavioral practices. Guinea pigs will be operated for in vivo intracellular
recordings. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All rats will be slaughtered eight days after infusion and perfused in transcardial manner with 200
ml, 0.9% NaCl proceeded by 300 ml 4% paraformaldehyde/0.1 Molar phosphate buffer having 0.1%
glutaraldehyde. In vivo extracellular recordings in an anesthetized rats: Anesthesia will be triggered
with urethane sodium (two g/kg,) and maintained throughout operation and neuronal recordings
with repeated supplements. Atropine sulfate (0.05 mg/kg, subcutaneously) will be injected 15
minute before induction of anesthesia to decrease tracheal secretions. In vivo intracellular
recordings in anesthetized guinea pigs: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) will be liberateded at the level of
medulla through the opening at the back of neck, and animals will be artificially oxygenated. The
recording electrode will be a glass pipette filled with 3.0 Molar KAc or 0.5 Molar KCl (pH 7.6, 0.05
Molar Tris HCl buffer) with the resistance between 60 150 MΩ. Stimulating, recording and drug
infusion in awake

Examples Of Neocortex
1. Humans have three different layers of different friends and intimates that we can hold a capacity
for which was based off of our sizes of the neocortex, or more exact the frontal lobe. A vague
explanation of the neocortex and frontal lobe of humans is the neocortex controls our sleep,
memory, and learning and our frontal lobe is our primary motor cortex. ...Dunbar discovered that
the number grows and decreases according to a precise formula, roughly a 'rule of three'.
Konnikova, (236) Based off of the rule of three humans on average have 150 casual friends,
people I may talk to or invite out from time to time. The first Dunbar number from the rule of
three is 50, my close friends, I see them more often than those of my 150 but I wouldn't consider
them intimate, I might share a few more details with them about casual things in life. The second
Dunbar number from the rule of three is 15, these are supposedly my intimate friends, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The third Dunbar number is 5, these people are most likely family members, a partner, and a best
friend. Someone I could trust fully and share everything with. 2. When I think of traits for a good
friend that would make a close friendship I often think about a dog companion. I have a dog of my
own that I love with all my heart and her traits are what bring us so close. My friendships would
have to consist of some of these traits in order for the friendship to be considered close. The traits
I admire in friendship are loyalty, trustworthiness, respect, open minded, and friendly affection.
We'd have to be

Infantile Reflex And Neocortex
Infantile reflexes include the tonic neck reflexes, grasping reflexes and many others. As the
neocortex begins to mature, it inhibits these primitive reflexes, causing them to disappear in normal
adults. However, in people with frontal or parietal lobe damage or tumours, these reflexes are
reactivated. This raises the question: What kind of mechanisms does the neocortex employ to exert
inhibitory control over such reflexes? Since the brain is so complex, a vast variety of possible
mechanisms could exist and be utilised by the frontal and parietal lobes to suppress the reflexes.
Perhaps, there could be neuronal projections to the reflex centres where inhibitory neurotransmitters
such as GABA halt those reflexes. Another possibility could be

Neocortex: The Three Parts Of The Coping Brain
The three parts of the coping brain are thinking, emotional and reptilian. The thinking brain is also
called Neocortex. The neocortex has seven major characteristics. The first characteristics is the
problem solving brain, then the choose among different options, ability to learn, develop new coping
strategies, ability to understand, ability to create and ability to adapt. It is by far the largest coping
brain. It is responsible for coordinating all coping brain responses when we are faced with stressful
situations. This is the only brain function that has the ability to name and group things and
experiences by words.
The Emotional part of the coping brain is also know as the mammalian brain, because it is common
to all mammals whose babies

Dangers Of Music
The Dangers of Music As one may tune in to some of their favorite music, has he or she ever
wondered what music does to someone? Before one decides to listen to some music, he or she
should think of what this music will do if they listen to it. One should always be careful of what they
do or even listen to. It may not seem harmful, but the matter is actually very serious. Parents may
perceive it to be innocent and normal when children and teenagers listen to music, but in reality,
sometimes unbeknownst to the parents, music has deep psychological implications for children and
teenagers(Mushtaq 107). The Dangers of Music are that it affects the brain, body, feelings, and
desires in a very negative way. The first danger of Music is that it affects the Brain. Music affects
the memory, the limbic system, and concentration and judgment of the person. When music is
played, it acts much like an intoxicant, in that it makes a person forget about his or her surroundings.
It takes the mind into a delusional state. In the realm of mind, there is mounting evidence that
certain types of music have a negative effect on one's ability to think and learn, especially at the
time he or she is listening to the music. Studies at two separate universities, for example, have found
that rats have a much more difficult time learning to pass through a maze if they are subjected to
rock music... Music blurs the critical judgment of the brain (Mushtaq 56–57). This shows that
music is dangerous and

Reliving The Moment
Anna Hunter Miss. Roth English 1–2 pd 3 21 March 2017 Reliving the Moment DV has most often
been treated at a psychodynamic level and only few attempts have been made to explain DV at the
level of brain–behavior relationship (Spatt 6). The feeling of déjà vu is like a person is living in a
dream for a second or reliving a certain moment in life. People have feelings on reliving a moment
and not understanding why. The feeling is called déjà vu. Déjà vu has people wondering what causes
it to really happen. In this research paper, it will talk about déjà vu feels like reputation, where in the
brain it occurs, and often how déjà vu happens in the United States. People have wondered why or
what causes it to happen. This research paper will ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But how many times does it happen? Déjà vu is a common reaction to a feeling of reliving a
moment or a dream. The déjà vu phenomenon has established a strong presence in our popular
culture. A recent search of the Internet using the keyword déjà vu brought up over 400,000 sites
(Brown n.p.). Déjà vu is a very common reaction in the United States because of what people dream
or think and do during life. It is a very casual feeling and has a lot of information on the Internet.
Déjà vu experiences are common in normal subjects (Brown n.p.). Déjà vu is so common that the
feeling is mutual. The way that people react to déjà vu is acting like that person is angry, depressed,
or said something funny. It is a normal action and action in humanity and throughout this world.
According to Hook, there is still much to learn about déjà vu and the mechanisms behind it
(Science Daily n.p.). Even though déjà vu occurs often, scientists still do not know everything about
déjà vu. The people are still trying to figure out what makes it happen and why it

Temporal Lobe Research Paper
The temporal lobe is one of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. It is right behind the temples, in the
bottom–middle part of the cortex. The temporal lobe is anterior to the occipital lobe, separated by
the preoccipital notch, and inferior to the parietal and frontal lobe. The temporal lobe is delineated
above by the lateral sulcus, or sylvian fissure. It takes up about 17% of the cerebral cortex, making it
the second largest lobe after the frontal lobe. Only Primates have temporal lobes. The anatomy of
the temporal lobe is quite complex, which corresponds to the lobe's wide range of functions. The
temporal lobe is involved in facial recognition, audio reception, olfactory reception, visual
reception, emotional responses, and memory. Although ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It allows us to recognize and respond to language, faces, smells and sounds. In addition, it is
essential for human learning the memory development. Structures like the hippocampus and
amygdala are extremely important for carrying out these functions. Damage to temporal lobe can
lead to amnesia, alzheimer's disease, increased or decreased sex drive, temporal lobe epilepsy,
seizures, and a disturbance in our senses. The fact that the temporal lobe is only present in primates
shows its importance in general intelligence. Emotion, senses, memories, without the temporal lobe
none of this is

Cellular Pathophysiology
The two major hallmarks of Alzeheimer's, in terms of cellular pathology, are neuritic plaques and
neurofilbrillary tangles.
NFTs
Structure: paired helical filaments with some straight filaments
Major component: hyperphosphorylated tau protein
Tau protein is a microtubule–associated protein that is normally located in the axon's microtubule
network
Adopt a somato–dendritic distribution in the neuron
In pyramidal neurons they are flame–shaped
In round neurons they appear round
Insoluble, resistant to clearance, persist even after the neuron dies
The pathophysiology surrounding neurofibrillary tangles and hyperphosphorylated tau is poorly
understood, but there are 2 theories as to how this works:
Tau protein aggregates trigger a stress ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Learning, Memory, Language, Speech. In: Barrett KE, Barman SM, Boitano S, Brooks HL. eds.
Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, 25e. New York, NY: McGraw–Hill;
2016.http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com.ezproxy.fau.edu/content.aspx?
bookid=1587Sectionid=97163657. Accessed February 09, 2016.
Kumar, V., Aster, J. C. (2015). The Central Nervous System – Neurodegenerative Diseases. In A.
K. Abbas (Ed.), Robbins and Cotran Pathological Basis of Disease (9th ed., pp. 1287–1291, 1294–
1295). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders.
Sattar, H. A. (2011). Fundamentals of pathology: Medical course and step 1 review. Chicago:

Essay On Limbic Brain Vs Neocortex
In a paragraph, discuss at least two key ideas from this chapter that you found to be interesting or
that stood out to you in some way, and explain, with example and details, why you found them to be
interesting. It's interesting to me that the limbic brain is said to have no capacity for language.
Seems strange to me to think of any one part of the brain functioning independently of any of the
other parts of the brain. I was also interested in the statement about rational decisions taking longer
to make, and that they can be of lesser quality. My guess is that it depends on the individuals
experience with making types of decisions that they are familiar or unfamiliar with, as to the quality
of the decision that will be arrived at, regardless ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These can be about the chapter itself or a question that popped into your head as you were reading.
Anything you are wondering about is good. 1. If the limbic brain (which drives behavior) has no
capacity for language; what are the possibilities for creating more connections between the limbic
brain and the neocortex? 2. If it were possible to observe the functions of the limbic brain's behavior
from the perspective of the neocortex, would it be possible to integrate a more complex and
inclusive why motivated behavior, balanced into the grounding of reason and logic? And or vice
versa. In what way do you think Sinek's ideas apply to relationships? Is it important to consider why
you enter a relationship with someone, rather than simple attraction? What impact would it have on
relationships (not just romantic ones) if the people in the relationship had different WHYS?
Relationships are affected by collections of whys. There is each person, and their own particular
whys that come from their own personality in some way. Then there are the togetherness whys
that come from the unity of the relationship that seem to sort of merge or correspond with each
person in a more fluid

Primate Anatomy : Primate Primates
Primate Brains
The primate order to which we as humans belong can be divided into two sub–orders: the
Strepsirrhini, also known across much literature as prosiminans, containing lemurs and lorises and
the Haplorrhini containing tarsiers, monkeys and apes. The Strepsirrhini divide further into
Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes, and the Haplorrhini divide into Tarsiiformes and Simiiformes, also
known as anthropoids which consist of apes and humans. The Simiiformes divide into Platyrrhini
(New World monkeys) and Catarrhini (Old World monkeys and hominoids), (Napier, 2014). Fig.1
attached shows the divisions of primate classification. Primates have various characteristics that
identify them from other vertebrates such as, opposable thumbs, nails ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This has been suggested by many researchers to be related to their large neocortical area, which has
expanded to produce a highly convoluted brain, (Aboitiz and Montiel, 2012).
The neocortex is part of the cerebral cortex which is the outermost layer of the brain in mammals,
(Fleagle, 2013). Within primate evolution, this area of the brains seems to have undergone
considerable change and growth. The neocortex in apes and humans equals between 65–76% of the
total brain weight, (Dunbar, 1995). It appears to be involved in higher functions such as sensations,
voluntary movements, memory, thought and interpretation. This strengthens the idea that a large
neocortex infers intelligence amongst primates, (Fleagle, 2013).
The neocortex is thought to have originated about 160–300 million years ago and is suggested to
play a role in helping the animal understand its complex environment to enable its survival.
Therefore, it makes sense that much of the neocortex is involved in sensations and largely vision,
(Allman, 1990). In fact it has been found that the brain of anthropoid primates is mostly dominated
by this visual system found in the neocortex, (Aboitiz Montiel, 2012). The primary visual cortex
(part of the neocortex), is large across many anthropoid primates and it has been shown that for
catarrhine primates, group size correlates with facial motor nuclei (which innervate muscles to
control facial

Autism Spectrum Disorder
Statistical evidences. ASD's gender proportion suggests that the autism is sex–linked, and the
statistical evidence convincingly shows that genetic factors are playing key role in the prevalence of
ASD. To begin with, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) published the relationship between the number of autistic boys and girls. The
statistical evidence shows that boys are more inclined to become autistic than girls. CDC states that
1 in 42 boys and 1 in 189 girls were identified as having ASD. This observation shows that ASD is
likely a sex–linked inheritance. Sex–liked inheritance is defined as a pattern of inheritance
characteristic of genes located on the sex chromosomes of organisms having a chromosomal
mechanism for sex determination (Sadava et al., 2014). If the ASD was sex–linked inheritance, the
ratio between male and female exhibiting the phenotype would result in 3 to 1 under the normal
curve. The ratio between boy and girl is approximately 5 to 1, which shows that there is a strong
association between sex–linked inheritance and ASD. For this reason, it is reasonable to conclude
that ASD is primarily influenced by the genetic factor, which is prenatal. On the other hand, some
behavioral psychiatrists would argue that the conclusion is inaccurately determined, since the
genetic mutation would not occur within a decade. As indicated in Appendix C: Table 1, the rate at
which the number of ASD children increase

Coping Brain Analysis
The three parts of the coping brain:
Reptilian Coping Brain– Instinctive survival– Survival is an automatic response for our brain.
Aggression helps show that we are stronger by using aggressive behavior. Fear helps us to avoid
threats or deaths. Revenge is the coping brain trying to get back at other people who have hurt us.
Tribalism and territorial behavior is how the reptilian coping brain joins forces with others.
Reproductive instinct is why we have an instinctive urge deep in our body and brain that drives us to
duplicate ourselves. Emotional Coping Brain–. Emotional expression is how we show expression in
our faces. Our emotional coping brain depends on how our thinking brain's interprets our
relationships with others. Social identity ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It takes coping courage to learn how to deal with painful problems. Reptilian and emotional coping
brains can act without the help of our thinking brain and we need them to help us stay safe and
secure. common misconceptions about coping
One of the most common mistakes we make when stressed by upsetting experiences is to try to shut
off our awareness of emotional brain's ability to sense what we are feeling. We can lose the ability to
care in a positive way. We may become insensitive to hurting other people with our words or
actions. Our strongest automatic coping response is from reptilian brain, which senses when we are
physically threatened by danger. The smart way to use our brain is by using the neocortex thinking
ability to decide how we should be coping to get over emotional upsets. How do coping strategies
help you manage anger
Healthy coping capability and self–acceptance is important for keeping us from either harming our
self or others. Many adolescents are simply left with trial and error ways of learning coping skills.
But we can learn to manage our anger and sadness responses to stress and avoid its harmful effects
on our health and brain

Neocortex Research Paper
A relatively large neocortex differentiates mammals from other most other animals (Amthor). The
neocortex allows higher cognition, such as data processing, voluntary movement, and language (Lui
et al. 18). Cognitive activities such as these are critical for human life and thus proper neocortex
development is important. The development involves the formation of six horizontal neuronal
layers, which all differ in function and connection. The differences between layers comes mainly
from unique axon projections of the excitatory projection neurons located in each layer. Upper
layers (L1 through L3) are involved in data processing and have inter–hemisphere projections.
Lower Layers (L5–L6) are involved in voluntary motor function and have subcortical connections.
Layer 4 tends to have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In mice, this process starts around Embryonic Day 11.5 as the neural progenitor cells located in the
Ventricular and Subventricular Zones (SVZ) migrate upwards to form what will later become Layers
2 through 6. Neurons are formed as these neural progenitor cells become Radial Glial Cells (RGC),
a subpopulation of stem cells, and differentiate. The timing of the differentiation determines when
neurons will form the lower or upper layers. When the differentiation occurs early in neurogenesis,
the neurons migrate slightly to form the lower layers. In later neurogenesis, the differentiated
neurons migrate past the lower layers and begin forming the upper layers. The formation of the
upper layers tends to arise from differentiation of Intermediate Progenitor Cells (IPCs) rather than
RGC differentiation. IPCs are formed from neural progenitor cells alongside RGCs (Kwan et al.
1538). While neurogenesis in humans may lead to differing relative sizes of the layers and SVZ, the
structure of six specified layers is the same. The divisions between the layers do not occur in
humans until around gestational week 9 to 11 (Deboer et al.

Kurzweil's Neocortex Essay
From beginning to end, Kurzweil organizes his piece into various topics by chapters. Within these
various chapters, he announces the main idea, and either gives data/research or a story to accredit
the claim. To further his ideas, Kurzweil inserts various rhetorical devices, such as analysis and
assertions/justifications. Lacking any of these strategies leaves the context with no form of
groundwork that potentially allows the substance to deteriorate in approval. Comprehensively,
creating a mind is a vague term that most may not understand right away. Knowing the possibility of
confusion, Kurzweil analyzes every bit and piece of his synopsis through complex analysis. As the
chapter progress so does the complexity of the statements by allowing the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Throughout the text, the word 'neocortex' is brought up a plentiful amount of times. Over time, the
idea of certain items evolves into complex statements that'll potentially be understood by the reader
after they endure the various explanations over a chapter or more. To exemplify this, the term
'neocortex' first appears in the introduction; where the basic description of its responsibility to deal
with patterns of information(10). Further along, in chapter three, the same term advances into a
labyrinth of connections. Not only does this mass, that consists of eighty percent of the human brain,
influence memory patterns and such, but that it, is a comparable hierarchy of pattern recognizers
processing actual images of objects...and a hierarchy of concepts... and a hierarchy of thought,(49).
What this means is that our memory is prone to a humans main five senses: smell, sight, hearing,
touch, and taste. If one

Myelination Essay
Demyelination Areas of high neuroplasticity also tend to be areas of scarce myelination. As
mentioned earlier in this paper, these areas both tend to reside within the evolutionarily new
neocortex. Neocortical areas exhibit an early and brief myelination cycle as compared to older and
deeper brain areas, which exhibit later and extensive myelination. The axons of the neocortex are
long, thin, and sparingly myelinated compared to other regions of the brain, as observed through
Nissl staining. These Nissl stains verify a pattern of myelination in which the highest cortical areas
are the most sparsely myelinated. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the pattern of neural damage, such as
neurofibrillary tangles associated with AD, follows the pattern of myelination. In other words, these
tangles develop in the areas that are most sparsely myelinated. In contrast, areas of heavy
myelination are much more resistant to stressors that cause neuronal degeneration5. It is believed
that areas of decreased myelination are characteristic of cells retained in their juvenile state. Without
the structural encasing of myelin, these cells are more flexible to changes, and thus have higher
plasticity than cells that are heavily myelinated. Therefore, neurons of the neocortex are likely
highly plastic largely because of their lower degree of myelination. In addition to increasing
neuroplasticity, demyelination may provide ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the human brain evolved to encompass higher order functions, this increased cortical activity
lead to increased metabolic demands. Broadly speaking, these heightened metabolic demands
created energetic stressors in the brain, thereby amplifying the negative consequences of synaptic
plasticity and demyelination in the human brain and making it more susceptible to

A Study By Spocter And Hopkins Examined Comprehensive...
A study by Spocter and Hopkins examined comprehensive comparative analysis the distribution of
neuropil across the areas of the neocortex of humans and our closest living relatives, chimpanzees.
According to the research article, meaning of the neuropil is an area in the nervous system
composed of unmyelinated axons, dendrites, and glial cell processes that form a synaptically dense
region. The researchers' purpose of this study was analysis the neuropil fractional connectivity with
both hemispheres in six cytoarchitecture regions using image analysis techniques which they are
frontopolar cortex (area 10), Broca's area (area 45), frontoinsular cortex (area f1), primary motor
cortex (area 4), primary auditory cortex (area 41/42) and planum temporale (area 22). Based on the
results, the researchers compared the distributions of the neuropil in the neocortex to chimpanzees.
Therefore, the clinical meaning of this research to find significant modification within the studied
regions that accompanied the evolution of the human brain. For this research, the study group
contained 12 brain chimpanzees, 6 females (mean age 37.8) and 6 males (mean age 29.3) that had
died of natural causes. Related to this sample size, researchers also analyzed the 12 normal human
subjects, consisting 6 females (mean age at death 53.7) and 6 males (mean age at death 53.7) (details
shown in table 1). The first preparation of this study, chimpanzee brains had been coronal cut at the
level of the

What Makes Us Human? Essay
What makes us human?, is an unanswered question asked by many. Is it because of our ability to
have empathy for others? Or is it because of our cognitive ability which allows us to look into the
future? One of the main arguments made that separates humans from animals is our communication
style; our language. Is language inherently unique to human? To answer such a question, we first
operationally define language as; a system of communication based upon words and the
combination of words into sentences (University of Oslo). The purpose of language is for us to be
able to convey an infinite amount of ideas to one another. Sign language in general also falls under
this definition as it has a complex system of rules and syntax that allow the signed figures to
function as words. Animal communication on the other hand, is operationally defined as, the
transmission of a signal from one animal to another such that the sender benefits, on average, from
the response of the recipient (Pearce 1987). With this in mind, current research has shown that the
answer is that language is inherently unique to humans. WHERE DOES HUMAN LANGUAGE
COME FROM? The backbone structure of language lies within two fundamental theories,
continuity based theory and discontinuity based theory. Continuity theory suggests that human
language is another form of animal communication, but it is far more complicated. It can be can be
derived evolutionarily by well–understood processes operating on the kind

Consolidation: The Case Of Declarative Memory Avoidation
Memory consolidation is a process of gradual stabilization that new memories must undergo in
order to persist (Müller and Pilzecker, 1900). In the case of declarative memories (or explicit
learning), consolidation initially takes place within the hippocampus before these memories become
permanently stored within the neocortex. Evidence for this time– and region–dependent systems
consolidation has been demonstrated by lesion and imaging studies in primates and rodents
indicating that recent memories are stored within the hippocampus, whereas remote memories are
stored in the neocortex (McClelland et al., 1995; Squire and Alvarez, 1995; Frankland and
Bontempi, 2005). Several lines of evidence from rodent studies suggest that the medial prefrontal

On Intelligence by Jeff Hawkins
In On Intelligence, Jeff Hawkins hypothesizes a system of human intelligence based on memory,
predictions, and pattern matching in what he calls a memory–prediction framework. Because he
studied and worked in computer science, rather than neuroscience, Hawkins has a unique
perspective and writes in terms that are accessible to someone from a non–neurological background
or standpoint and often analogous to computer architecture, making the subject matter relatable to
the interested layman. However, though he offers a plausible structure of the brain that mostly aligns
with current thinking, he does not take into account important recent research, omitting
neurologically developments that have been accepted by the scientific community. The main
difference that he offers, between traditional approaches to artificial intelligence and his thinking, is
the importance of drawing on memory (and associated learned patterns and processes) versus
computation. He discusses at length a hierarchical system of the brain, but leaves out two very
important components to that system: the thalamus and hypothalamus. He also draws broad
conclusions without discussing specific mechanisms for how they are achieved, so his theory is not
entirely sound, though it could prove to be. Also, possibly because of his background, and not being
immersed in the world of biological science, he is able to critique areas of neuroscience and
artificial intelligence with interesting points about each. The book

The Effects Of Stress On First Year Students Essay
Stress and Learning: The Effects of Stress on First Year Students
A young college student sits at a mundane wooden desk. He's frantically working on an essay that
he has already spent days writing. He needs to finish this English essay so he can move on to work
regarding the speech outline that is due later in the evening. In addition to that, he also has two tests
the next day that require a few hours of review each. He never pictured college to be a cakewalk but
never did he imagine it would take this much to earn a decent grade. This is the reality for most
college students, especially ones in their first year. It 's a difficult struggle but everyone that 's been
through college has been here before: cramming for tests, spending hours writing essays, reading
chapter after chapter of thousand page books, the late nights studying... The stress is an atrocious
beast everyone with a degree has had to battle. Stress is commonplace among college students,
especially ones fresh out of high school due to the newly found freedoms they enjoy conflicting with
the colossal amount of responsibility gained at the same rate. How does all of this stress affect the
process of learning? First, it must be understood that learning is a biological process within the
brain. Robert Leamnson, The author of Thinking About Teaching and Learning, describes the
biological process as The establishment of axons between neurons that create synapses. and
explains that: The ability of the brain

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