Experimental Investigation Of A Direct Injection Dual Fuel...

Experimental Investigation of a Direct Injection Dual Fuel...
A Seminar Report On
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF A DIRECT INJECTION DUAL FUEL DIESEL–
NATURAL GAS ENGINE
Presented by JAGADEESH PUTTA ME04B118 S8 ME 27
Department of Mechanical Engineering NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CALICUT
KERALA– 673 601 Winter 2007–08
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this seminar report entitled "EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
OF A DIRECT INJECTION DUAL FUEL DIESEL–NATURAL GAS ENGINE "is a bonafide
record of the seminar presented by JAGADEESH PUTTA, Roll no:ME04B118, during winter
semester 2007–08 in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of B.Tech degree in
Mechanical Engineering by the National Institute of Technology, Calicut.
Faculty In–Charge of Seminar Department of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The seminar focuses on the study of the effect of compressed natural gas (CNG) and diesel fuel
injection pressures, together with the amount of fuel injected during the pilot injection for different
operating conditions, on combustion development, engine emission levels and fuel consumption.
1
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays the internal combustion engines are spread to the extent that they represent the main
cause of pollutant production. Nevertheless, it is well known that the stocks of fuels traditionally
used in this kind of engines will be able to satisfy the world's needs for few more decades. This
explains the massive research activity, drawn all over the world, addressed to the utilization of
innovative fuels and injection concepts in order to either replace the traditional ones or obtain a
more efficient and clean combustion. Compared to diesel engines, characterized by a high efficiency
but at the same time high levels of articulate, and to premixed charge gasoline engines, characterized
by a low efficiency because of knock limitations and pumping losses, lean burn engines can reach a
higher efficiency thanks to lower pumping losses and heat transfer. On the contrary, lean mixtures

generally imply higher levels of both total unburned hydrocarbons (THC) and carbon monoxide.
Nevertheless, mixing the fuel with an increasing quantity of air, flame instability, sometimes leading
to misfiring, is observed.
1.1 Methane as an Alternative Fuel Among the
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An Experiment on the Synthesis and Characterization of...
Introduction In this experiment, the focus will be the synthesis and characterization of biodiesel fuel.
Biodiesel seems to have become the substitute for fossil fuel. It can also be an alternative for the
petroleum–based biodiesel. By having renewable resources such as corn, soybeans, peanuts and
other makes biodiesel a viable option. Using these resources wouldn't help alleviate the problems
with fossil fuel in the US. Biodiesel is produced from the transesterification reaction of vegetable
oil. Transesterification is the reversible reaction where one ester is converted into another by
exchanging an ester group with an alcohol in the presence of a base.
Experimental
According to the Laboratory Manual, there are multiple steps. We will need 50mL vegetable oil,
10mL methanol, 0.5mL 9M NaOH, diesel fuel, salt and ice. For preparation of Biodiesel, various
types of oil were available for synthesizing biodiesel. Measure 50mL of biodiesel into a 250mL
beaker. Second, add a clean magnetic stir bar to the oil and the place the beaker on a stirring
hotplate. Adjust the stirring rate so that the solution is being well mixed without splashing and turn
heat on low. Third, while the mixture is heating prepare a solution of methanol and sodium
hydroxide. Measure 10mL of methanol into a small beaker. Add 0.5mL of 9M NaOH to the
methanol. Fourth, heat the mixture to 50C. As soon as the oil reaches 50C, turn off heat, but
continue stirring. Fifth, slowly pour the methanol/NaOH mixture

Hudson 6. Katlynhudson. Eng. 1113.3. Wallace. Feb. 10,
Hudson 6
Katlyn Hudson
Eng. 1113.3
Wallace
Feb. 10, 2017
Benefits of Biodiesel
?On the road again, just can?t wait to get on the road again.? The famous Willie Nelson has made
this song a country music classic. These days Willie Nelson is ?On the Road Again? in a whole new
kind of way. Willie Nelson constantly travels many of miles going to and from concerts. Instead of
filling his custom–made tour bus with classic diesel fuel, he uses an alternative fuel known as
biodiesel. Biodiesel is good for the environment, economy, and energy.
Bio diesel is good for the economy because it is a fuel which can be created from locally available
resources such as vegetable oils, coffee grounds, and animal fats. Biodiesel production and use ...
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The excess use of fertilizers can result in soil erosion and can lead to land pollution.
The production of biodiesel helps provide employment in many towns such as Durant, Oklahoma.
This plant alone has employed 148 people bestowing to Joel Arellano in the Durant Daily Democrat
June 22, 2006. The Bureau of Labor Statistics states the biofuels industry employs a wide range of
workers in a variety of occupations (Sept., 11): Scientist and engineers conduct research and
development, construction workers build plants and update infrastructure, agricultural workers grow
and harvest feedstock, plant workers process feedstock into fuels, and sales workers sell the
biofuels. A 2012 study by Richards found that ethanol production supported 401,600 jobs in 2011. A
National Biodiesel Board study found that the production of 1 billion gallons of biodiesel supports
39,027 jobs. While Rick Da Tech states that working on a biodiesel plant has been known to be very
dangerous because of the toxic and flammable liquids, it is hard to look past the many of job
opportunities it provides for public.
Pacific Biodiesel in 2017 says Biodiesel balances energy by how much is required to produce,
refine, and distribute the fuel compared to the amount of energy released when it is burned. This
property is used to determine how ?renewable? a fuel is. A higher ratio indicates a lower
environmental impact, as less fossil energy is needed to produce,

Biodiesel Vs. Diesel Fuel
Scotlyn Eavenson
Mrs. Blanchard
English 12
March 31, 2015 Biodiesel vs. Diesel
The world has seen fuel prices spiral up or down to meet supply and demand. Because of this,
people need to choose a cost effective fuel to meet their needs. Vehicles in the world today run off of
many different types of fuel. Biodiesel is a modern fuel compared to the commonly known diesel.
Biodiesel has several advantages over diesel. Biodiesel fuel comes from a renewable resource, it is
better on the environment, and it meets the Environmental Protection Agency's definition for fuel
standards. In addition, Biodiesel is the most promising alternative fuel source, backed by both
federal approval and incentives. Finally, consumer attitudes are changing for the positive when it
comes to biodiesel. For these reasons, biodiesel should be used more often by people in the world
today.
Biodiesel and diesel are made of up many different things. The most commonly known way
biodiesel is formed is from fryer grease. Vegetable oil, or other types of oils can also be used to
make biodiesel. Alcohol that comes from burning grains is called ethyl alcohol (Roos). This is also a
source of biodiesel. "The production of biodiesel starts with any of the above items and then these
are mixed with alcohol and a catalyst. This mixture is then heated which changes the fat into
biodiesel. Sometimes this is purified even more before it is sold" ("Benefits and Concerns"). This all
means that biodiesel fuel comes

The Effects of Fracking on the Environment Essay
While it is true "fracking", a procedure to obtain natural gas removal from shale formations, it is
also true there have been infrastructure security issues associated with this practice. Furthermore,
there have been ecological considerations from fracking brought to the forefront by countless
environmentalists. Indeed, hydraulic fracturing, as it is referred to, is a process by which shale gas
and oil is uprooted from a depth far below the earth's exterior. The process of extracting shale gas
and oil is employed aggressively while water is forced deep beneath the earth surface through a
geological arrangement. From this arrangement, oil and gas is exerted back to the earth's surface.
Moreover, once the hydraulic fracturing process is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Where this agreement usually ends, however, is with the question of quality control refining
processes from my viewpoint. Anotherwords, what control measures are enforced to ensure all
contaminants are entirely removed to guarantee a high level of quality assurance and security of the
petroleum sectors within the nation's infrastructures? Are there residual contaminants affecting the
quality of fuel supplied to the nation's energy consumers? From a preceding viewpoint, it can be
related to the Colorado Floods that occurred in September 2013. Even the prevailing thought of
hazardous waste introduced to the Colorado geographical landscape does not eliminate the second
and third order affects imposed on the nation's petroleum pipeline infrastructure by way of
corrosion, introducing chemicals into the pipeline arteries through small cracks that may extend
beyond Colorado, an implication that cannot be ruled out. Water contamination prevention–or across
the board programs–from the negative effect of hydraulic fracturing should be an expectation from
petroleum energy producers. Moreover, it reminds us of an infrastructure security vulnerability,
which is not often specified, when hydraulic fracturing is correlated to the role water functions
through the conventional petroleum refining process, along with vast arrays of petroleum pipelines
that exist across the nation's geographical landscapes. These concerns should be brought

Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide on Diesel Fuel Performance
Effect of Hydrogen peroxide on Cetane Number of Diesel/H2O2 Blend Muhammad Saad Khan,
Zulkafli Bin Hassan, Iqbal Ahmed
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University Malaysia Pahang, 26300 UMP,
Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia; Phone: +6017–9222194, Fax +609–5492535
ABSTRACT
Diesel has a mark as traditional hydrocarbon structure as conventional fuels. H2O2 freshly reported
as fuel combustion enhancer and to be a low–emission high–quality oxidizer. Consequently, this
article discusses the influence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) combination with diesel in different
percentages for combustion and COx, SOx and NOx emissions. A comparative study will be carried
out to analyze the effect on direct insertion of H2O2 into the ... Show more content on
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The average chemical formula for common diesel fuel is C12H23, ranging approximately from
C10H20 to C15H28. [7]. Specific gravity, flash point, viscosity, sulfur content, and carbon residue
increase with increase in service severity. The cetane number (which measures the fuel's ignition
quality) decreases with increase in service severity. There is
Table 1:Components of diesel fuel. also a decrease in volatility with increase in service severity.
Since the cetane rating of the fuel is a measure of the ignition characteristics of the fuel, it can be
concluded that the heavier members of the paraffin family have higher cetane ratings. In fact,
cetane, C16H34 (hexadecane) is the primary reference fuel in the cetane scale with an arbitrary
cetane rating of 100 while other normal paraffins have cetane ratings that vary almost linearly with
the length of the chain. S.No | General Formula | Hydrocarbon | Characteristics | 1 | n–paraffins |
CnH2n+2 (Straight chain) | Low specific gravity & high cetane number | 2 | Iso–paraffins |
CnH2n+2 (Branch chain) | Same sp.gr. as 1 but lower cetane no. & B.P. | 3 | Cyclo–paraffins |
CnH2n | Higher sp.gr. than 1 but lower cetane number | 4 | Benzenes | CnH2n–6 | Higher sp.gr &
B.P. but lower cetane no. than 1–3 | 5 | Naphthalenes | CnH2n–12 | Highest sp.gr & B.P. & lowest
cetane no. |
Important Properties of diesel fuel 1. Relative density or specific gravity 2. API gravity 3. Flash
point (usually above 130 0C) 4.

Biodiesel Incorporated
! BIODIESEL INCORPORATED (Case Study p565–569) Joshua Maxwell shut down his laptop and
looked out the window. From the second floor of the Graduate School of Management's new
building, he could see a number of cars driving on the nearby freeway and sitting in the adjacent
parking lot. Josh was in his last term of the full–time MBA program at UC Davis. He would soon be
graduating and entering a new chapter of his life. While he had the luxury of having several
management–level job offers from which to choose, he was unsure whether he wanted to follow
such a traditional route. There was one opportunity in particular that had recently come across his
path which gave him pause. Background The previous term, Josh had been enrolled in ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
All of these functions essentially provide a substitute for human effort. Due to the widespread
consumption of petrol–based liquid fuel, an incredibly large global infrastructure and set of
surrounding institutions have grown around the support of such consumption. The petrochemical
fuel industry manifests itself in the form of oil fields and reserves, pipelines, transport ships, and
fueling stations. The way energy is used worldwide is not sustainable. It is well–documented that the
use of these fuels is depleting the world's natural resource reserves, harming communities in terms
of health and displacement, and polluting the air and water in local environments. The drilling,
refining, and transporting of oil leads to spills on land and in oceans, and when petrol–based fuels
are used to power machines and automobiles, the air is polluted with greenhouse gases and
particulate matter such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur, and nitrous oxide emissions. In
spite of the drawbacks, the current energy industry is committed to the continuation of these ways,
primarily because of considerable assets and investment in the existing form of infrastructure. The
challenge, which became clear to the team from class discussion and further brainstorming, is to find
a form of fuel or technology that can mitigate the current negative affects on the environment of
petrol–based fuel while utilizing the existing infrastructure. The urgency of this challenge is
heightened by the

Environmental And Social Impacts Of New And Remanufactured...
3. Results and discussion
In this section the proposed approach is applied to a case study. In the case study, environmental and
social impacts of new and remanufactured diesel engines are assessed.
3.1 Goal definition, scoping and functional unit
The engines are produced and used in China. Each engine consists of 277 components made of cast
iron, steel, aluminium, steel alloy and rubber. The major components are cylinder block, cylinder
head, fly wheel housing, gear box, connection rod, crankshaft, and flywheel. Those components
account for 66% of the engine mass.
The system boundary for the new engine includes steel production, cast iron production, aluminium
production, electricity production, engine manufacturing and assembly, ... Show more content on
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The functional unit of the study is 300,000 km travelled by the diesel engine. The fuel efficiency of
the engine is 0.250 litres per km. It is assumed that the fuel efficiency of both engines is equal.
3.2 Life cycle inventory
In order to estimate the amount of resources required and emissions released to produce steel, cast
iron, and aluminium, inventory data published by [11] is utilized. To compute emissions released by
electricity production, China's electricity generation life cycle inventory found in [12] is used. To
calculate resources consumed and emissions produced due to diesel fuel refinery and combustion,
data presented in [13] and [14] are applied.
For the social aspect, based on the information provided by the manufacturer, data summarized in
Table 1 is obtained. Note that Rmfg stands for remanufactured. For the use phase, cost incurred due
to diesel fuel consumption is calculated as the following, 300,000 km × 0.25 litre/km × 7.724
CNY/litre = 579,315 CNY. 7.72 CNY/litre was the average price of diesel fuel in China in 2013.
CNY stands for Chinese Yuan, the currency of China. In order to estimate the portion of value–
added in the form of employee compensation in China (VAchina) over the life cycle of the diesel
engines, China's EIO table (42 sectors) for the year of 2007 is used [15]. Since the economic data is
in terms of 2013 CNY then we convert them to 2007 CNY by using China's GDP deflators, 130.768

Motorking Corporation
Motorking Corporation New Gas Extender
As Motorking Corporation considers introducing its now "gas extender" product into the market, the
management must consider various factors to determine if this is a good financial move. The
production manager needs to determine if the product will generate a profit for the corporation, how
much product is expected to sell to determine how much to produce and how much to outsource.
The first thing that the production manager must consider is the optimal quantity of cases that can be
produced. The marketing manager has indicated that if the economy is strong then Motorking will
sell 100,000 cases. If the economy is moderate Motorking will sell 70,000 cases, and if the economy
is weak, then ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This gives the production manager a 62.5% prediction that the economy will be weak and an 83.3%
prediction that economy will be strong.
Motorking Corporation must also determine whether or not to sign a contract with DSI to conduct
the survey. Based on the forecasted profits, a decision tree was constructed using the past market
research study conducted by DSI to provide a graphical representation of the decision–making
process. It shows the natural or logical progression that will occur over time.
For the Motorking Corporation, the DSI tree estimates a profit of $1,885,137.50 in a strong
economy and after subtracting the DSI fee of $20,000 leaves the corporation with $1,865,137.50
which is greater than $1,577,291 (This is Motorking's Expected Value for Perfect Information). This
proves that the Motorking should hire DSI to conduct a market survey.
The expected value approach is used to determine the expected value with perfect information
(EVPI). The EVPI is obtained by subtracting the expected value without perfect information (EMV)
from the EVPI.
The maximum payment that Motorking Corporation should pay for perfect information is $56,672.
Maximum payment for DSI services should be $327,846.88 ($1,885,137.50 – $1,577,291)
Motorking Corporation understands that the fuel additive industry is 1.3 billion dollars in the U.S.
and is divided up by the

A Report On The Production Of Biodiesel
BIODIESEL
Bi0–diesel is a bi0–degradable c0mbustible fuel made fr0m vegetable 0ils and animal fats.
GENERATION ΡROCESS
Fats/0ils are reacted with alc0h0l (methan0l), using a str0ng alkaline catalyst (s0dium hydr0xide
Na0H 0r ρ0tassium hydr0xide K0H)
This ρr0duces Bi0diesel(M0n0–Alkyl Methyl Esters) and glycerin F0r Examρle: 100 ρ0unds + 10
ρ0unds → 10 ρ0unds + 100 ρ0unds Triglyceride Alc0h0l Glycerin M0n0–Alkyl Methyl Esters
(Vegetable 0il) (Methan0l) (Bi0diesel)
But c0mmercial bi0diesel is blended with regular ultra l0w sulfur diesel (ULSD) and is s0ld. Such
as B10 which c0ntains 10% bi0diesel and 90% ρetr0leum diesel.
Ρure bi0diesel is kn0wn as B100 (100%) 0r neat bi0diesel. But usually B100 is n0t used in vehicle
engines due t0 engine warranty c0ncerns and m0re0ver 0ρerati0n with bi0diesel blends may result in
very slightly l0wer mρg due t0 l0wer energy c0ntent
N0w a days, m0st vehicles are n0w warranted uρ t0 B20 i.e. uρt0 20% bi0diesel c0ntent is all0wed
in the fuel.
CRITERIA F0R BIO–DIESEL ΡRODUCTION FROM WASTE OIL The high visc0sity vegetable
0il must be chemically c0nverted f0r it t0 0ρerate ρr0ρerly in a diesel engine.
Raw vegetable 0il cann0t meet bi0diesel fuel sρecificati0ns as: – It is n0t registered with the EΡA. –
It is n0t a legal m0t0r fuel. – It is high visc0sity s0 burns ρ00rly .
It is imρ0rtant that the fuel ρr0duced meets

Diesel Fuel Injector Research Paper
Signs That You Need a New Diesel Fuel Injector in Fredericktown, OH Maintaining your vehicle
can be a lot of work, whether you have a professional do everything or you take on the maintenance
duties yourself. You have to keep gas in the tank, get oil changes and even replace and repair parts
that stop working. With all vehicles having multiple parts that lend a hand at making it run,
whenever something goes wrong, it should be taken seriously. Of course, there are some issues that
people fail to address right away, but generally when a part is in need of repair, it is ideal to act
immediately. However, the problem some people have is that they don't know what signs to look for
to help them determine what is wrong with their vehicle. You can take your car in and let a
professional look at it, but when there is an issue with certain parts, like the fuel injector, there are
obvious signs to aid you ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Check engine light: Typically, when something is wrong with your vehicle, the check engine light
will come on. If you need to replace your fuel injector, the light will be triggered by a misfire.
Should your check engine light come on, you will want to check the code to help you determine if
the light turning on was in fact due to a misfire. Difficulty starting vehicle: An obvious sign that you
may need to replace your fuel injector is difficulty starting your car. In many cases, this problem will
occur when you have just refueled your vehicle and have a full tank of gas. Whether it occurs every
time you refuel or randomly, it will be worth having your vehicle checked out. Lack of acceleration:
As you hit the gas pedal and try to accelerate, if your car doesn't seem to be picking up speed, this
can indicate a problem with your fuel injector. Issues with accelerating can be a pain because it will
limit your driving, for example, prevent you from driving on the highway or at fast

Energy Of Nuclear And Chemical Fuel
A fuel can be any material that can react with other substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear
energy as heat or to be used for work. In our assignment, we will be dealing with the work that can
be used to drive vehicle. There are two types of fuels namely nuclear and chemical fuels. Chemical
fuel as the name indicates are the fuel where the energy is achieved by chemical reaction. The
abundant energy of nuclear fuel (by nuclear fission and fusion) cannot be made into application of
vehicles because of the unstable and hostile nature of the same, although chemical fuel are the
widely all over the world for every kind of daily usage. Chemical fuel can be classified as follows:
Solid fuel: Solid fuels as the name suggests are solid materials that are burnt or used to produce
energy and provide heating, usually released through combustion. Application of solid fuel for
transportation are steam engines and as rocket propellant. Wood, Biomass, Peat, Lignite, Bituminous
coal, Anthracite, Coke, Briquettes etc. are some types of solid fuels Liquid fuels: Mechanically
energy can be generated by harnessing liquid fuels which are combustible; they also take the shape
of their container and are fluidic in nature. instead of the fluid only the fumes of liquid fuels are
flammable. Most liquid fuels which are widely used are derived from fossil fuels. However, there
are several types of non–conventional fuels such as hydrogen fuel, ethanol, and biodiesel, which are
also

Argumentative Essay On Diesel Fuel
Being raised around a diesel truck has opened my eyes up to the many different concerns and
thoughts about diesel vehicles. In the 1890's the first diesel engine was built by a guy named Rudolf
Diesel, ever since then the diesel engine has evolved tremendously. Many people will argue that
diesel fuel is the worst fuel on the market for several reasons. A few of the reasons that people will
claim that diesel fuel is the worst fuel is because it is too expensive and it's harder for people to
afford, that the fuel isn't efficient enough, also people claim that diesel fuel is worse for the
environment than any other type of fuel. Little do the people that make those claims know that
diesel fuel is improving and becoming a better product. People claim gasoline is better because it is
cheaper, and one could get a better fuel mileage and it doesn't put out black smoke and that makes it
better for the environment. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One reason being that it cost more per gallon, but people can also drive a lot farther on a gallon of
diesel compared to a gallon of gasoline. "diesel engines offer 30– to 35–percent greater fuel
economy than comparable gasoline engines"(Proust, Anthony, and Marius–Dorin Surcel) So
therefore it would be cheaper to use diesel fuel because if one can travel further on a gallon of diesel
than gasoline people would be filling up their gas tank a lot less and won't spend as much money
every week. Diesel does cost more to produce, but that's only because it makes the fuel cleaner and
makes it last longer and wouldn't take as much

Diesel Burned Fuel
These engines are more powerful than regular engines and produce more power. Diesels are slow to
rev and have much lower max rpms that a gas engine. Cause of this diesels like turbos so the air can
be taken in quicker and the motor can burn the fuel better (Truck Trend). Diesels used compressed
air which is heated then fuel is shot in and combusts (Truck Trend).Because diesels run of
combustion the motor runs cooler. This means that the radiator and cooling fan can be down sized
(Truck Trend). It didn't take long for diesel engines to be used in trains, power stations, factories,
and ships due to them being more efficient and reliable. The higher the rpms can go the more power
it can make. For this reason diesels use turbos to burn the fuel ... Show more content on
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Diesel engines are able to burn much dirtier fuel and deliver more fuel energy diesel engines are the
engine of choice for most industrial jobs(Blackwell). Diesels soot is un burnt fuel. The reason for
the un burnt fuel is that the motor didn't have enough oxygen to mix with the fuel (Truck Trend).
High output diesels use more fuel than air which produces soot. As more fuel is injected into the
motor more soot is formed. The air/fuel ratio in diesel must be lean for excessive amounts of black
smoke not to be formed (Truck Trend). Soot is formed when all the fuel in the cylinder is not burned
(Truck Trend). Diesels that put out no smoke use less fuel than air which causes the mpg to be better
(Truck Trend). Diesels get better fuel economy than gas engines because they use a leaner air/fuel
ratio meaning more air is taken in than fuel (Truck Trend). Diesel automobiles were popular in the
1970s and 1980s for their fuel efficiency. They are become more popular again for the same
reason(Blackwell). The reason diesels get better mpg than gas is because the runoff combustion
instead of spark (Truck Trend). The higher the compression ratio the better the fuel economy (Truck

Bio-Diesel Persusavie Speech
Persuasive Speech
Alternative Fuels for Diesel
11/30/06
8:00 AM
To persuade listeners to support alternative fuels
The strain on the diesel supply in America is too high and a stable source must be found to alleviate
the strain. Bio–diesel is a suitable additive in diesel that would help reduce this strain. Bio–diesel is
also much safer than conventional petrol–diesel.
Topic: Alternative Fuels for Diesel
Speaker 's Goal: To persuade listeners to support alternative fuels
General Purpose: To persuade
Specific Purpose: To persuade listeners to support alternative fuels to diesel such as bio–diesel.
Thesis Statement: The strain on the diesel supply in America is too high and a stable source must be
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
3. The cost of securing oil for the United States is extreme.
a. In 1996 it cost the U.S. 57 billion dollars to obtain enough oil to keep the country running,
according to www.biodiesel.org.
(1.) The taxes to obtain that oil added another 4 billion dollars.
(2.) The estimated environmental costs were $45 for each barrel.
b. A very shocking figure, according to www.biodiesel.org, is that for each billion dollars spent on
foreign oil, ten–thousand to twenty–five–thousand working Americans lost their job to outsourcing.
4. Diesel is a much better fuel option compared to regular gasoline.
a. Diesel burns hotter, therefore producing more energy, wikipedia.org.
b. Cars that run on diesel get 40% better gas mileage, wikipedia.org.
c. Diesel running engines produce roughly 69% less greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide,
wikipedia.org.
5. Even though diesel may sound like a very good fuel option, there are also disadvantages to using
diesel.
a. Diesel contains a high amount of sulfur, which is bad for the environment, wikipedia.org.
b. Diesel is also very harmful to your body. On the Material Safety Data Sheet diesel has some very
shocking information listed for it.

(1.) Skin: Severe skin irritant. Contact may cause redness, itching, burning, and severe skin damage
(2.) Cancer: Possible skin cancer hazard.
(3.) Target Organs: There is limited evidence from animal studies that overexposure may cause
injury to the kidneys.

Can We Americans Switch From Non Renewable Diesel Fuel
Can we Americans switch from non–renewable diesel fuel, to renewable biodiesel? I believe this
switch is vital to our future. With gasoline prices volatile and the Obama administration committed
to easing the United States ' addiction to oil, many Americans seem to be taking more interest in
pursuing alternative fuels. These alternative fuels include those derived from farm crops and other
renewable organic sources. Among the most widely available are biodiesel and vegetable oil, both of
which can be used to power a diesel engine. Making this switch would greatly lessen our
dependence on imported oil, in addition to bolstering national security and reducing our trade
deficit. Other benefits of biodiesel include a boost to the U.S. ... Show more content on
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Since it is of plant origin it does not have sulfur. Diesel fuel has a considerable amount of sulfur in it
and it gets converted to sulfur dioxide which is very harmful to the atmosphere and can cause acid
rains and also lung problems for all americans. Since biodiesel is ultimately derived from animals or
plants, it is renewable, unlike fossil fuels. The fact that it can be homegrown also could lessen
dependence on foreign oil and support local farmers. A major source of controversy when it comes
to biodiesel and other biofuels such as ethanol is what ingredient are used to make the fuel. When
oils from crops are used, a number of problems can arise. For instance, biodiesel and other biofuels
are often touted as environmentally friendly since they are typically made from plants, which suck
the global warming gas carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to grow. However, the land may be
damaged in order to grow these crops as demand for biofuels grow for example, in Indonesia,
biodiesel may be causing deforestation, as native forests are destroyed to make way for palm oil
plantations, according to the Union of Concerned Scientists. The chemicals from agricultural
fertilizers and pesticides may also upset ecosystems. Another complex issue that is raised when
crops are used to make biofuel is whether that has or will drive up food prices. Instead of using new
oil from crops, recycled oil

Diesel Fuel ( The Dominant Fuel )
Introduction:
Diesel (the dominant fuel) has grown in its demand in several countries. Yet, to counteract the
increased rate at which diesel is sold, we are forced to seek alternative ways to provide effective and
sustainable qualitative fuels. After researching alternative fuels based on the knowledge of how
diesel works in an engine, it was found that diesohols (blend of diesel and alcohol) were proven an
easy understudy to pure diesel. Without any major modification in an engine, diesohols have the
ability to power a car, for example, like in any normal circumstance (Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Sciences, 2015).
Diesel fuel is a mixture of alkane hydrocarbons (a compound containing hydrogen and carbon).
These hydrocarbons are saturated, essentially meaning the fuel has a low density – this is important
so that the vehicle using such fuel can operate efficiently (Energy Information Administration,
2013). Furthermore, alkanes are extremely combustible, ensuring sufficient burning of the diesel
(Nave, R.). After observing these characteristics of diesel, it became essential to prove that alcohols
too had properties similar to these (despite sources supporting the change from diesel to a
combination of diesel and alcohol). Alcohols do have equivalent hydrocarbons (Chemical Industry,
2015). The alcohol molecule too contains oxygen contributing greatly to the act of combustion
(Natural Resources and Environment Department). This property, together with its saturated nature

The Use Of Port Injection Gasoline With Direct Injection...
Therefore, natural gas has a tremendous potential to be used in CI engines effectively based on the
RCCI concept. Operating a CI engine in the RCCI mode has become possible as the result of new
fuel system technology and engine controls. The high octane number fuel used in the literature is
often gasoline or ethanol. The U.S. Department of Energy has devoted significant resources to its
national laboratories to investigate the practical applications of port–injection gasoline with direct–
injection diesel fuel, as seen in recent publications from Oak Ridge16,25, Sandia39, and Argonne
National Labs17. Because of the lean gasoline–air mixture in the CI engine cylinder, its lower
combustion temperature can reduce engine heat loss, increase fuel efficiency (up to ∼45%), and
decrease exhaust pollution. European institutions are also actively exploring gasoline as a CI engine
fuel65. Of the passenger cars in Europe, 45% use CI engines due to the efficiency advantage. On the
basis of this dual–fuel concept, various fuel injection schemes and piston geometries have been
tested74. One study even used a single fuel stock, gasoline, for both port injection and direct
injection but added a cetane improver, 2–ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN), to the direct–injection fuel
stream to enable autoignition31. These successes suggest that it would of great interest to investigate
such dual–fuel operations using two fuels with vastly different reactivity. However, existing studies
are predominantly

Engines Run On Petroleum : Diesel Fuel
Engines run on petroleum. Petroleum is used in many products such as plastics, ink paint, shoe
polish, nylons, roof shingles, novelty candy, cosmetics, candles, vaseline, bug biller, ammonia, tires,
asphalt, crayons, paper, cups, and wax paper. Although petroleum may be useful in many
applications, the best used for petroleum is diesel fuel for many reasons. One reason diesel fuel is
the best and most efficient use for petroleum is that diesel fuel contains about 14% more energy by
volume than gasoline. This makes diesel fuel the most efficient fuel for use in automobiles and
trucks. Diesel fuel is especially the most efficient fuel for use in towing all types of vehicles for
many reasons. One reason diesel engines are better for towing is that they have more low end torque
because of their higher compression ratios. A diesel engine 's compression ratio is between 15:1 and
23:1 compared to the compression ratio of a gasoline engine which is 10:1 to 12:1 but if the
compression ratio is raised from 10:1 to 15:1, the thermal efficiency will improve by roughly nine
percent. Diesel engines also deliver twenty–five to thirty percent better fuel economy than similar
performing gasoline engines. When compared to a 4.0 liter gasoline engine, the Cummin's 4BT3.9
diesel engine is much more fuel efficient engine.
In theory, diesel engines and gasoline engines are quite similar. They are both internal combus
tion
engines designed to convert the chemical energy available in fuel

Diesel Engines Fuel Pressure Is Controlled Mechanically...
ABSTRACT
In the past, in diesel engine fuel pressure was controlled mechanically and depending on the
camshaft. Due to this geography lots of problems occurs like engine emission, engine torque, engine
efficiency etc. To overcome these problem or for the better performance caterpillar invented new
technology called Hydraulically actuated Electronic Unit Injection (HEUI) fuel systems.
1.1 Introduction:
To achieving outstanding fuel economy, high torque output and to reduce the emission produced
from the relatively small engine displacement an innovative injection technology has came in the
early 1990's. The use of hydraulic force to pressurize fuel for injection was innovative technology to
advance the use of powerful, cleaner and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since the functions of metering, increase of pressure, timing and atomization are all combined into
the injector. These especially designed injectors are supplied not only with fuel but highly
pressurized lube oil. An engine driven high pressure oil pump supplies fuel to the injectors at
pressures close to 4,000 psi. Within the injector, hydraulic force is further amplified to give HEUI's
the capability to achieve injection pressures of up to 28,500 psi from the latest injectors. Since oil
can be pressurized to very high pressures independently of engine speed, high injection pressure is
achievable at low engine RPM. The high pressure injection capabilities joint with electronic control
of timing and injection rate ensures the best atomization of fuel, low emissions, higher performance
and fuel economy. This pressure is available at almost any engine speed and load condition which
permits the HEUI system to perform in any diesel engine application by simply changing software
programming. This feature by definition tells the difference the HEUI system as a type of common
rail fuel system. In sequence developments in HEUI technology have allowed for improved ability
to shape the rate of fuel injection which further reduces combustion noise and emissions for quieter
cleaner engine operation. HEUI injectors are easily replaced by technicians with almost no
adjustment or special engine

Alternative Fuel For Transport As Vs. Diesel
Hypothesis: Biodiesel is a viable and in some cases a superior alternative fuel for transport as
compared to diesel. Introduction: Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a renewable, clean burning replacement for
diesel that reduces dependence on crude oil supply across the world. It is created from a various mix
of feedstocks such as: used cooking oil, vegetable oil, soybean oil and fats from animals. Biodiesel
is the first and only EPA designated biofuel in commercial scale production. Biodiesel is long
hydrocarbon chain with an ester functional group at one end of the molecule. As seen in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1. The production process of Biodiesel can be done in 4 steps. The first is Acid
Esterification. Acid Esterification: When feedstock oils, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) acts as a catalyst, this is dissolved in methanol (3CH3OH) and
incorporated into the pre–treated oil. The co–products of this reaction are biodiesel (3RCOCH3O)
and glycerine(C5H5 (OH)3). The reaction equation for this process looks like: C3H5 (RCOOH) 3 +
3CH3OH  3RCOCH3O + C3H5 (OH) 3 (Biodiesel of Las Vegas, 2010). Methanol recovery:
Usually after the trans–esterification process the biodiesel(3RCOCH3O) and glycerine(C5H5
(OH)3) are separated into two layers. The Biodiesel and glycerol are not miscible in each other,
which causes them to split into two layers. Biodiesel will separate to the top of the mixture and
glycerol to the bottom. This is due to biodiesel and glycerol being polar and non–polar compounds.
Glycerol has a higher density than biodiesel, which is why it separates to the bottom of the two
liquids (Stanford, 2011). The methanol is now removed from the products to prevent reaction
reversal. The methanol is then cleaned and recycled back to the beginning of the process (Biodiesel
of Las Vegas, 2010). Biodiesel refining: Once the biodiesel(3RCOCH3O) has been separated from
the glycerine(C5H5 (OH)3), the biodiesel is put through a purification process. This process
removes all remaining alcohol and catalyst. It is then dried and stored. An additional distillation
process may be implemented to ensure that the

Diesel Fuel Costs Affecting The Trucking Industry
These days, there's an apparent glut in the diesel market, meaning there's more diesel available than
there is demand for it. That's good news for flatbed transportation companies, and indeed the the
entire transportation industry. With diesel prices running 28 percent less than a year ago, there are
certainly benefits to be reaped. But, just how are lower diesel fuel costs going to affect the trucking
industry now and into the foreseeable future?
Lower Operational Costs
Clearly, lower fuel prices means that it costs less money to keep trucks rolling down the road, but
just how much less? The average commercial truck uses 20,500 gallons of fuel over the course of a
year. At last August's prices of right around $3.85 a gallon, that would come to $78, 925. This year,
however, with an average price of $2.77, that same volume of fuel will only cost $56,785. That's a
substantial savings, especially when you take into consideration that fuel is one of the largest
expenses for trucking companies, constituting at least 39 percent of the costs. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Expedient delivery of goods outweighed the cost differential. However, since intermodel
transportation pricing is governed by fixed costs, such as terminal expenses, not fuel costs, shipping
costs will remain higher in this area. Now, lower fuel costs will further help to increase the use of
trucks, rather than rail for transportation. This type of shift has not been seen in the industry since
2010, but it appears the trend will continue for the foreseeable future.
Fuel

Diesel Fuel Vs. Diesel Engines
Who would like to drive a car that gets mediocre gas mileage, a car that has lower torque, and a car
that is all round mediocre? Now who would like to drive a car with improved gas mileage, superior
torque, and a great, reliable engine? The obvious choice is the latter, a car with a diesel engine.
Diesel and gasoline engines have been each other's competition since the 1930's when the first diesel
run car was produced. There is one main mechanical difference between these two engines; a
gasoline engine ignites the gasoline with spark plugs, a lighter of sorts, and the diesel engine ignites
the diesel by compressing it so much that it spontaneously combusts. Although there are a few other
types of engines now, such as hybrid or electric, diesel is still superior to these.
I have spent numerous hours doing extensive research on the different aspects of diesel engines and
have come up with the conclusion that they are the superior motor.
Through the course of this speech I will show you why going diesel is the better choice, and prompt
you to make the switch to diesel if you have not done so already.
The three main reasons that diesel is better compared to all other engines are: they last longer, they
are more economical, and they are capable of running off of biodiesel.
First, diesel engines last longer and are structurally stronger than all other types of engines.
Diesel engines are much stronger than gasoline, hybrid, or electric engines, and they run for a
copious

Argumentative Essay On Diesel Fuel
Diesel is the fuel of choice in the European automotive market, due to the fact that it provides high–
torque, efficient alternative to gasoline. The American view of diesel, however, is much less positive
overall – most Americans remember the noisy, smoky diesels of decades past and know little about
the quiet, clean diesels of the present. One of the best arguments for the switch to diesel fuel in the
United States is that a fueling infrastructure is already in place, as transportation companies rely on
diesel fuel to distribute goods across the United States (Is Diesel). This would negate the need to
construct an entirely new infrastructure, which could cost hundreds of billions of dollars. Diesel is
also considerably more environmentally friendly than gasoline, due to the fact that it is less refined
(a process which uses large amounts of energy) and that it is more efficient than gasoline (ACEA).
The combustion process in a diesel engine, which exerts high pressure on the fuel to ignite it, is the
source of the motor's increased ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, simply because diesel is cleaner and more efficient than gasoline does not mean that
operating a diesel is any more cost effective. Many customers are intimidated by the higher cost of
diesel fuel, which was approximately 20 cents higher on average than gasoline in July 2014 (Fuel
Prices). The upfront cost of a diesel can begin to eat away at a buyer's budget as cars equipped with
diesel engines are often priced at least a few thousand dollars higher than a standard gasoline
engine. According to research by Alex Davies and Andy Kiersch for Business Insider, the time it
takes for the fuel savings to equal the upfront cost is at least 42,000 miles (for the BMW 328d).
While all of the luxury vehicles tested eventually did break even (though an

After Treatment Of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
AFTER–TREATMENT OF PAH IN AUTOMOTIVE
1. Summary
2. Motivation
2.1. Environmental issues
2.2. Health issues
2.3. Laws and regulations
3. Objectives
3.1. Control techniques
3.2. Economics 4. Introduction
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) consist of two or more benzene–ringed compounds
made of only carbon and hydrogen. Compounds which are made of two rings are known as di–
aromatics whereas those made of three benzene rings are known as tri– aromatics and so forth. As
the number of rings increase, molecular weights of these compounds also increase and the
compounds tend towards higher thermodynamic stability. Most common examples of PAHs are
naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene etc.
Further, as these compounds become heavier, the particle's size increases and hence these
compounds are also known to be pre–cursors of soot formation. In this report we will only be
studying PAH in the vapour phase whose particle sizes will be restricted to less than 1.5 nm.
Following diagram shows the formation of PAH resulting in soot, in a premixed flame. Figure 1:
Formation of PAH followed by soot. (Howard originally in Bockhorn) In a study carried out by Y.
Lev et al, it is seen that the concentration of total PAH is around 0.25 ng to 1 ng per µg of total
particulate matter depending on the number of rings, which is a very small quantity of the total
hydrocarbon emission from automotive. Figure 2: Ratio of total PAH to PM depending on the size
of the compound [Y.Lev]
But,

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bio-Diesel
6.5.2. Bio–diesel
Chemically, bio–diesel is a methyl ester of C16 –C18 saturated and unsaturated fatty acids obtained
through base, acid or enzyme catalyzed transesterification of vegetable oils with methanol. Enzyme
catalyzed transesterification make the whole production process considerably sustainable and
greener. In Europe, biodiesel is made predominantly from rape seed oil. Worldwide so many plants
have been used for the production of biodiesel such as jojoba oil, jatropha oil, karanja oil etc.
Transesterification of vegetable oil produce bio–diesel and glycerol. Glycerol can be further used for
other important applications. The biodiesel so obtained can be added to diesel fuels in different
percentage compositions that may vary from 5% to 30%. In some ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Disadvantages
Besides having several advantages plant based renewable raw materials few limitations associated
with their use are given below:
Most of the plant products that can be used as a building block for industries have conventionally
been used as food resources. Plant resources need lots a space for their development. Biomass is
essentially seasonal, which affect their continuous supply as a feedstock. A broad range of materials
that comprise biomass could be damage if new processes need to be developed for each feedstock.
The building blocks extracted from biomass are foreign to traditional chemical producers and must
be demonstrated to function similarly to existing building blocks.
8. Conclusions
Plant based raw materials are already replacing fossil based materials. They have high substitution
potential especially for the products that have direct contact to humans e.g. tenside in detergents,
pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In addition to that, their cost effectiveness and high concerns for
environmental consequences promote their use in various industries. In the future, plant–derived
chemicals are expected to play an increasingly significant role in the commercial development of
new

Sample Resume : Purchasing Administration
I am requesting four (4) non–liberal, introductory credits for prior learning in Purchasing
Administration. I have developed college–level knowledge in Purchasing Administration through
my professional experience working in the Maintenance of Equipment department of Metro–North
railroad as a business analyst worked closely with the procurement and materials management group
of the railroad on matters of inventory usage and material shortage controls. The study of
Purchasing Administration involves an introduction to inventory forecasting, the administration of
procurement requests, the solicitation and evaluation of supplier proposals, procurement contract
execution, logistics management, and legal and environmental issues affecting purchasing.
In order to meet federal regulations for the safe operation of locomotives, regularly scheduled
inspections are performed on a three month, annual and five year period so that safety devices on the
equipment can inspected and replaced before their expected end of service life. This means that a
constant flow of inventory material must be available for these scheduled replacements and it is
important that the forecast of inventory levels prevent material from being unavailable during these
inspections. The process of inventory forecasting has to take into account the expected level of
scheduled activity along with the lead time for procuring material from its time of requisition to the
arrival of the material. In addition,

Arson Dog Research Paper
I think arson dogs are a great tool to have and probably just as reliable as the chemical sniffer, the
reason for this is because a dog has a greater smell than that of any person. A trained arson dog is a
tool not a sure thing when going to court. A trained arson dog can detect nearly 0.1mL of accelerant.
An arson dog probably would not give false readings due to its training. (Gaensslen & Larsen 2013)
The chemical sniffer can break or give false positives unlike the arson dog. The reason I think arson
dogs do a better job is when the chemicals or physical evidence where the dog located it at is
collected and analyzed. The chemical sniffer can give false positives and if evidence is collected and
analyzed but comes back negative then to

The Fuel Of Diesel Cars
Diesel Cars have never been able to take a proportional share of the Automotive market (in the US
anyway). 2 Litre TDI Volkswagen Passenger Cars did the impossible for quite a while; until it came
to light that they were cheating on emissions tests; likely killing diesel's future as a fuel. A year
before Charles and Frank made their first car, Rudolf Diesel patented the design for diesel powered
combustion engine. He believed that this would revolutionize the industry, because diesel fuel
harbored a higher concentration of energy per gallon (132×106 vs 155×106 joules, gasoline and
diesel respectively; in terms of energy density). The problem is that the exhaust is typically dirtier
due to the much oilier nature of the fuel. Diesel however, has a potential to be just as clean as
gasoline is, but the trade off is the added efficiency; Volkswagen Passenger cars cheated and lied
about the former to pad the latter, effectively killing the fuel's future. VW AG was installing a
Robert Bosch made defeat device, despite Bosch not condoning the way it was used. The software
within had an advanced algorithm that would figure out when the TDI engine was being tested (is
the car on a dyno i.e. not moving etc.). During testing times, the engine would optimize for clean
emissions, at all other times 2 Litre TDI Volkswagen Passenger Cars were maximizing mileage to
the detriment of the environment. Traditionally diesel cars are heavier and costlier than their petrol
powered counterparts. Not

Diesel Fuel Prices & Trucking Industry Essay
The recent surge in the cost of heating oil, diesel fuel, and gasoline in the United States has had
significant impact on many sectors of the U.S. economy, but most importantly it has had quite a
devastating affect on the trucking industry. This is important due to the fact that nearly "70% of U.S.
communities rely solely on trucking for their supplies" ("ATA" 23). If the government continues it's
trend of non–intervention and refuses to place pressure on OPEC, the prices will continue to soar
well over the two–dollar mark, and cause the trucking industry as a whole to shut down bringing the
U.S. economy to a grinding halt.
What is the reason that gasoline and fuel prices are so high? Most people believe it is because of
OPEC raising the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
4). A clear example of this can be seen by The Chrysler Corporation's sales of Dodge Ram pickup
trucks. Once the "11th best selling vehicle, it is now the 4th best seller; above the more fuel efficient
Ford Taurus and Honda Accord" (Phillips 22).
The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and EIA (Energy Information Administration) both
play key roles in the types of fuel we can run in our cars and trucks and thus they indirectly play a
role in the overall "price package" that we consumers have to pay. When fuel arrives in the United
States about 95% of it is in its natural state; that is crude oil. It is then pumped or shipped to
refineries where certain qualities are achieved such as diesel fuel, kerosene, gasoline, and heating
oil. The EPA's role is to regulate the amount of additives and other chemicals that are added to the
fuels, which give them certain cleansing and lubricating properties. An important and very
controversial additive in diesel fuel is sulphur.
All grades of diesel fuel, No.1 (kerosene), No.2 on–road fuel, and No.3 off–road fuel, have sulphur
in them to keep the engines burning clean and to allow the fuel to burn properly (diesel fuel is
almost non–flammable in it's virgin state without additives). Sulphur however is a dangerous
pollutant and has very damaging affects on the ozone layer, thus it is the EPA's responsibility to step
in and decide on the

Petroleum Gas And Gas Services
CE 1–1
Central Gas Co. is the leader in oil & gas services in Jordan. It was the first to bring/use LPG
(liquefied Petroleum Gas) technology in Jordan. The major activities of the company are; designing,
installation and commission LPG centralize systems, supply clients with LPG via its own fleets,
replacing Diesel fuel burners or any other burners by LPG burners, and conducting studies and
consultation for both the public and private sector in the field of LPG technologies.
Organizational Structure
CE 1–2
My duties and responsibilities while working at Central Gas Co. included, but not limited to as the
following:
I worked on parallel with the proposal and design teams on the plant design and draft.
Preparing / coordinate the drawings for general submissions to be approved.
I derived the Bill of quantities.
I initiate and prepared all tender documents and circulated the same to select contractors.
I finalized the order with help of the top management and issue the order to the selected one.
I prepared reports of the developments of the project to the General Superintendent and Director.
I have supervised and managed the execution of the work by managing technician's team that being
responsible of LPG systems installation in many sites.
I have supervised and was working with a team on some projects for piping design of LPG central
network systems.
Commission the installation of the LPG systems according to the NFPA standards applied in Jordan.

Biodiesel Case
Clinton Biodiesel, LLC Data Collection and Analysis Paper
The current issue for Clinton Biodiesel, LLC is that the plant is down and cannot produce biodiesel
because of one of the processes within the production are down, which is the degumming system.
When the degumming is system is being used it will not function properly to remove all gums and
resin, which is causing the system to not fully complete its process to purify the diesel. If the diesel
is not fully purified, it is worth less in some cases or in worst cases it cannot be sold at all. The
current method of the plant is to use corn oil; this method requires an extra process. The extra
process that is required is the degumming process or skid. Until, we are able to get the degumming
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
I used a dot plot to compare the difference in the prices for the soy bean oil and rapeseed oil for both
years. This helped to get an idea of which product has had lowered prices consistently. One of the
other methods I will be using is Hypothesis testing to confirm or refute my hypothesis of which oil
will be more cost effective for the plant. In the past rapeseed oil has been proven to be very cost
effective and in most countries is sold for less than any other oil. My Ho before conducting research
and gathering data is going to be that rapeseed is the most cost effective oil substitute to corn oil.
My Ha is that it is not the most cost effective corn oil substitute. After conducting research, I have
come to find that I have rejected my Null hypothesis and determined that it is not the most cost
effective alternative to corn oil and that rather soy bean oil is. The data is telling me that half of
2015 the soy bean was lower and in all of 2014 the soy bean oil was lower. I don't think there is
100% correlation in this data or that you could rely on it 100% because there was a slight dip in
prices towards the end of 2015. But, it looked as though it was only for competition. I think more
research should be done in very serious situations where small numbers are going to make a large
difference. I would say that this project is a great example of one of these

The Future Of Natural Gas
To date gas markets have been regional in character. Is LNG likely to alter this?
BSM179 Oil & Gas Economics
ABSTRACT
Natural gas is finding its place at the very heart of the energy discussions. The recent discoveries of
quite a substantial amount of natural gas in the U.S.A, primarily as a result of the shale gas
development, have attracted much interest towards natural gas as a key component of energy supply
and have lowered prices well below recent expectations. But in other parts of the globe, prices of
Natural Gas remain high and also at the same time: varied. This study seeks to inform discussion
about the future of natural gas and will LNG be able to narrow the price diversity quite prevalent in
regional respective gas ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
GLOBAL GAS MARKETS
Source: Waterborne, US FERC (prices as of 7th June 2013).
Traditionally, world gas markets have operated as three largely self–contained regions. These are
comprised of the Americas; Europe, Africa, and the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) and the Far East and Middle East. These regions enjoyed limited interconnectivity and
each region developed its own distinctive supply/demand and pricing dynamics. In the Americas,
prices are determined by short–term contracts indexed to the primary market prices set at the "Henry
Hub." In Europe, prices are mostly determined by long–term contracts based on the "next best
alternative," typically indexed against fuel oil and heating oil prices. In the Middle and Far East,
pricing is also typically based on long–term contracts, indexed to a mix of oil prices, but within a
defined range and often at higher levels compared to Europe.
These different pricing models have, to date, resulted in very different price levels and price
volatility between the regions.
North American natural gas prices now hover at $4/MMBtu, down from highs in the $10/ MMBtu to
$13/MMBtu range just a few years ago.
In Europe, demand for additional gas continues to accelerate, driven by the depletion of
conven¬tional gas, on–going environmental concerns (particularly the growing consensus against
shale gas) and the Fukushima disaster's impact on the role of nuclear power.

Goodyear Argumentative Essay
Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel that is recycled from vegetable oils, animal fats, and
restaurant grease. Used to replace petroleum diesel fuel by its clean burning. It is a liquid fuel often
known as B100 or neat biodiesel in its pure, unblended form. It is used to fuel compression–ignition
engines like petroleum diesel. Both biodiesel and petroleum have compounds that crystallize in very
cold weather. To prevent this, fuel blenders and suppliers use cold flow improvers.
Electricity is used to power all–electric vehicles and plug–in hybrid electric vehicles. By drawing
electricity directly from the grid and other off–board electrical power sources, like Goodyear's
Electricity–Generating Tire Concept and stores the power in the batteries. Hybrids electric vehicles
use electricity to boost fuel efficiency by using electricity to power the vehicles for increase energy
security and emissions benefits. Most plug–in vehicle owners, will power their vehicle at home, but
some employers offer access to charging at the workplace. Some states, offer plug–in vehicle drivers
access to public charging stations at businesses, hospitals, and libraries. The idea is rapidly
expanding and becoming more convenient for drivers and the confidence to meet their needs. ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The research and efforts are under way to build the hydrogen fueling infrastructure and produce
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that are practical for widespread use. Hydrogen, or H2, is produced from
domestic resources. Although in its market infancy as a transportation fuel, government and industry
are working towards clean, economical, and safe hydrogen production and distribution for use in
fuel cell vehicles. Fuel cell vehicles are starting to enter the consumer market in localized regions
domestically and around the world. This resource ranges from school buses to military

The Fuel Of Diesel Vehicles
Today, we live in a world that's vastly interconnected. Something that happens across seas can affect
a whole nation, several nations, or even all of them. Recently Volkswagen was put in the hot seat
when they were caught imputing software into their diesel vehicles, that makes it show a different
emissions output than was accepted by the EPA. They called this device the, "defeat device." Thusly
all of their vehicles that were diesel were marketed as low emissions which turned out to be a lie.
The article on bbc.com states, "The engines emitted nitrogen oxide pollutants up to 40 times above
what is allowed in the US." This is a huge blow to the company as far as public opinion goes. They
lost the trust of millions of people around the world. They have been producing allegedly clean
diesel emissions for a long time now and even included that in their advertisements. Because of this
scandal they were forced to recall millions of diesel vehicles with this device causing them to lose
over $2.5 billion. Their first quarterly loss in the past 15 years. This sounds like a lot of money but
the EPA is still considering fining Volkswagen for each car they produced and lied about. The
amount they are considering charging them is roughly $37,500 for each car which leads to a
maximum fine of $18 billion. That's more than the value of most of the cars, which really shows
how seriously they are taking this. Even for a giant like VW that is a massive blow financially. From
now on every

The Fuel Of The Diesel Engine
The diesel engine has been the number one choice for power, reliable and high fuel economy
worldwide (Jääskeläinen, 2013). However, as petroleum becomes more and more expensive, the
new challenge that has been presented to todays society has been to find a sustainable way to
continue running these engines without relying on diminishing petrol supplies (Connolly, 2013). The
world has turned to biofuels; the use of biodiesel can produce power, performance and economy,
along with assisting in the reduction of emissions and Greenhouse gases. However, its widespread
use has been halted due to the ethical issues surrounding its production. The use of agricultural land
for the use of bio–fuels, detriments the mass food crisis and insecurity that the world faces. Is it
really ethical to be using bio–fuels to cut carbon emissions, which in turn could lead to millions of
people in Asia starving to death?
The inventor of the diesel engine, Dr. Rudolf Diesel, first conceptualised Biodiesel fuel in 1895. He
generated and demonstrated a diesel engine that used peanut oil as its main fuel source in 1900 at
the Paris World Exhibition, as he viewed using vegetable oil fuel as a means to provide economic
growth in remote areas of the world due to widely available agricultural crops as the source of the
fuel (Diesel Service and Supply, 2013). In Australia, the use of bio–diesel in the transport industry
has been under much debate. Bio–diesel is produced through a process knows as

Diesel Fuel Prices & Trucking Industry
The recent surge in the cost of heating oil, diesel fuel, and gasoline in the United States has had
significant impact on many sectors of the U.S. economy, but most importantly it has had quite a
devastating affect on the trucking industry. This is important due to the fact that nearly "70% of U.S.
communities rely solely on trucking for their supplies" ("ATA" 23). If the government continues it 's
trend of non–intervention and refuses to place pressure on OPEC, the prices will continue to soar
well over the two–dollar mark, and cause the trucking industry as a whole to shut down bringing the
U.S. economy to a grinding halt. What is the reason that gasoline and fuel prices are so high? Most
people believe it is because of OPEC raising ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This may not seem like a big deal but to the refineries that produce the fuel it is a very big deal
because all of their equipment would have to be changed to allow for the "desulphurization" of the
fuel. Though the refineries argued against it saying less sulphur would damage engines the EPA
upheld their decision. Thus the refineries had to put in new equipment, which in the long run ended
up tacking on "an additional $ 3.9 billion to already high fuel costs" ("Cutting Sulphur" 13). One of
the industries hardest hit by the fuel cost increase is the trucking industry. Truckers depend on diesel
fuel as their lifeblood, without it the rigs and our economy would come to a screeching halt. There is
no single affect of high fuel costs on every driver and company; rather there are many varying
degrees to which they are all affected. To large companies, it is more of an inconvenience than a
problem because they do such a large amount of business that the slight change in the price of diesel
is almost negligible in comparison to their revenues. For smaller businesses it is a whole different
ballgame. These companies are constantly fighting and working their figures to get business because
it is survival of the fittest. Whoever has the lowest rate per pallet or by the truckload is usually the
one who gets the contract and with this additional expense for fuel it makes it very difficult to cut a
good

Experimental Theory, State Of The Art, And Economics
The Fischer–Tropsch (FT) process is a part of the larger Gas to Liquids technology. The purpose of
the FT process is to convert syngas, which is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, to liquid
hydrocarbon fuels. Syngas for FT can be coal, natural gas, or biomass derived, which opens several
pathways for how FT can be industrialized. Since its creation, the FT process has continuously been
researched and commercialized, but it remains an unpopular pathway to obtain liquid fuels. Ongoing
development of the process is primarily due to the value and promise of the FT products. This paper
will give an overview of the FT process with a focus on describing the process, experimental theory,
state of the art, and economics.
2. Process ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
[1]
2.1 Reactions and Products
The FT process or FT synthesis is a set of catalytic processes for converting synthesis gas (syngas,
carbon monoxide hydrogen and/or other gases mixture) into liquid hydrocarbons. [2]
The reactions in the FT process are generally described as the following:
Alkanes: (2n + 1)H2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n+2 + nH2O (1)
Alkenes: 2nH2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n + nH2O (2)
Oxygenates: 2nH2 + nCO ⇒ CnH2n + 2O + (n – 1)H2O (3)
Water Gas Shift: CO + H2O ⇔ CO2 + H2 (4)
The reaction stated before can be achieved with the help provided by the catalysts. The catalysts that
can be used in this process are varied. The preferred catalysts are the metals that have electron
configuration of d7 (although not required) [4]. These includes (1) Fe (Iron) = [Ar] 3d6 4s2, (2) Co
(Cobalt) = [Ar] 3d7 4s2, (3) Ni (Nickel) = [Ar] 4s2 3d8, (4) Mo (Molybdenum) = [Kr] 4d5 5s1, (5)
Ru (Ruthenium) = [Kr] 4d7 5s1. (6) Rh (Rhodium) = [Kr] 4d8 5s1, (7) W (Tungsten) = [Xe] 4f14
5d4 6s2, (8) Other platinum group noble metals. [5]
In real life, catalysts considered for FT synthesis are based on transition metals of iron, cobalt,
nickel and ruthenium. Among these catalysts, it is generally known that nickel (Ni) tends to promote
methane formation, as in a methanation process; thus generally it is not desirable. Iron (Fe) is

relatively low cost and has a higher water–gas–shift activity, and is therefore more suitable for a
lower hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio (H2/CO) syngas

Bio-diesel: Alternative Fuel Source Essay
Bio–diesel: Alternative Fuel Source
Introduction
Currently today more than 99% of all fuel consumed is petroleum (3). In the year 2025 the world's
reserves of petroleum will be a dry source (7). Other than the shortage of petroleum, the burning of
petroleum also causes many problems such as global warming. In this case, engineers and scientists
need to come up with an alternative energy source for gasoline not only because of the shortage, but
because of the environmental problems gasoline and other fossil fuels cause for the environment.
Out of all forms of alternative fuels for vehicles bio–diesel seems to be the next alternative source of
fuel, but more research needs to prove this assumption.
In this report bio–diesel ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The properties of this bio–diesel are also very similar to our current fossil fuel diesel. The bio–diesel
can almost go directly into our current fossil diesel engines. This diesel can also mix with the
current fossil diesel to run the current engines. Also when comparing the bio–diesel with the fossil
diesel it is found that the bio–diesel has a lower energy content, but it has a higher fuel density and
better ignition quality because of its higher cetane number (2).
Another thing that researches have tried to compare is how toxic bio–diesel is to the environment.
Researches have found that bio–diesel is great because it can biologically degrade. This then makes
spills and leaks less of a hazardous concern when comparing it to our current fuel sources (5).
Study comparing fuels used in a Locomotive
A recent study done by Southwest Research Institute (SWRI) at the Locomotive Exhaust Emissions
Test Center in San Antonio Texas looked at the CSX No. 2629, a model GP38–2 Locomotive (4).
This research was done to compare different types of fuels with the two different engines, and to test
the four fuels for the HC, CO, NOx, and PM values. Each of the studies was done three times and
then the average value of these experiments was compared. The reason for this study was to
compare the bio–diesel with other types of fuel, along with

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