M.tech report 2013

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PREFACE
Energy is considered as a critical factor for economic growth, social development and
human welfare. Since their exploration, the fossil fuels continued as the major conventional
energy source with increasing trend of modernization and industrialization, the world energy
demand is also growing at faster rate. To cope up the increasing energy demand, majority of
the developing countries import crude oil apart from their indigenous production. This puts
extra burden on their home economy. Hence, it is utmost important that the options for
substitution of petroleum fuels be explored to control the burden of import bill.
There are limited reserves of the fossil fuels and the world has already faced the energy
crisis of seventies concerning uncertainties in their supply. Fossil fuels are currently the
dominant global source of CO2 emissions and their combustion is stronger threat to clean
environment. Increasing industrialization, growing energy demand, limited reserves of fossil
fuels and increasing environmental pollution have jointly necessitating the exploring of some
alternative to the conventional liquid fuels, vegetable oils have been considered as
appropriate alternatives to the conventional liquid fuels, vegetable oils have been considered
as appropriate alternative due to their prevalent fuel properties. It was thought of as feasible
option quite earlier. However despite the technical feasibility, vegetable oils as fuel could not
get acceptance, as they were more expensive than petroleum fuels. This led to the retardation
in scientific efforts to investigate the further acceptability of vegetable oils as alternate fuels.
Later, due to numerous factors as stated above created resumed interest of researchers in
vegetable oils as substitute fuel for diesel engines. In view of the potential properties, large
number of investigation has been carried out internationally in the area of vegetable oils as
alternate fuels.
1.2 ENERGY RESOURCES AND THEIR STATUS
Globally, about 40% of worlds energy needs are being met from petroleum products
as of today. The anticipated growth in demand was expected to be 7%. There has been a
significant and impressive growth in this sector which has surpassed and failed all the
estimates, forecast and projections made in this regard. It is estimated that the world oil
consumption will increase from 68 million barrel per day to 94 million barrel per day in next
decade. India is hard pressed for this important modern resources and is making all possible

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efforts to explore the off and on shore crude and gas production besides having more than
required refining capacity. The successful exploration of crude and natural gas from desert
area of the country and afterwards building infrastructure for its commercial production and
setting infrastructure facilities are given due importance. With the indigenous production of
32 MMT and import of 80 MMT now and 350 MMT by 2025 AD (according in Hydro
Carbon Vision 2025) the consumption is likely to increase to 150 MMT by next 8 years,
which will be difficult to meet with indigenous reserves, which are only 0.6% of world
reserves. This will increase the import bill to an all-time during next decade.
The energy generation sources and capacity in India have some limitations. Starting from
1347 MW of installed power capacity in 1947 and limited food production, today the country
is generating about 1,22,000 MW, whereas the need is around 1,50,000 MW power to meet
the country’s requirements in all sectors, including intensive agriculture. The peak hour
shortage is estimated 20%.The agriculture sector is worst effected from shortage of power.
Despite of promise and serious efforts many states are unable to provide electricity even for 8
hours during standing crop irrigation period in rural areas.
The demand for petroleum products in India has been increasing at a rate higher than the
increase in domestic availability. At the same time there is continuous pressure on emission
control through periodically tightened regulations particularly for metropolitan cities. In the
wake of this situation there is urgent need to promote use of alternative fuels which must be
technically feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable and readily
available.
1.3 TYPES OF ALTERNATIVE FUELS
Alternative fuels are fuels that aren’t made from petroleum. There are different kinds
of fuels that vehicles can use that aren’t made from petroleum. Various types of alternative
fuels that are explored, in partial usage and under extensive research are
 Solar Energy
 Alcohols – ethanol and methanol
 Compressed natural gas (CNG) – natural gas under high pressure
 Electricity stored in batteries
 Hydrogen (considered a special gas)

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 Liquefied natural gas (LNG) natural gas that is very cold.
 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) propane, it is hydrocarbon gas under low pressure
 Bio-diesel fuel made from plant oil or animal fat
1.4 BIO-DIESEL
Bio-Diesel is not the regular vegetable oil and is not safe to swallow. However,
biodiesel is considered biodegradable, so it is considered to be much less harmful to the
environment if spilled. Biodiesel also has been shown to produce lower exhaust emissions
than regular fuel. The best thing about biodiesel is that it is made from plants and animals,
which are renewable resources. Bio-Diesel is discussed elaborately in section. 1.5.
1.4.1 VEGETABLE OILS AS DIESEL ENGINE FUELS
Vegetable oils have become more attractive recently because of their environmental
benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. More than 100 years ago,
Rudolph Diesel tested vegetable oil as the fuel for his engine.
Vegetable oils have the potential to substitute for a fraction of the petroleum
distillates and petroleum based petrochemicals in the near future. Vegetable oil fuels are not
now petroleum competitive fuels because they are more expensive than petroleum fuels.
However, with the recent increases in petroleum prices and the uncertainties concerning
petroleum availability, there is renewed interest in using vegetable oils in Diesel engines. The
diesel boiling range material is of particular interest because it has been shown to reduce
particulate emissions significantly relative to diesel. There are more than 350 oil bearing
crops identified, among which only sunflower, safflower, soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed and
peanut oils are considered as potential alternative fuels for Diesel engines.
1.4.1.1 Direct Use of Vegetable Oils
The use of vegetable oils as an alternative renewable fuel to compete with petroleum
was proposed in the beginning of the 1980’s. The most advance study with sunflower oil
occurred in South Africa because of the oil embargo. The first International Conference on
Plant and Vegetable Oils as fuels was held in Fargo, North Dakota, in August 1982.

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1.4.1.2 The Advantages of Vegetable Oils as Diesel Fuel
The benefits of using vegetable oil as diesel fuel are listed below
 Liquid nature-portability
 Ready availability
 Renewability
 Higher heat content (about 88% of Diesel Fuel)
 Lower aromatic content
 Biodegradability.
1.4.1.3 The Disadvantages of Vegetable Oils as Diesel Fuel
The major problems of using vegetable oil as diesel fuel are higher viscosity, lower
volatility and the reactivity of unsaturated hydrocarbon chains. Although short-term tests
using neat vegetable oil showed promising results, problems appeared only after the engine
had been operating on vegetable oil for longer periods of time. The high fuel viscosity in
compression ignition causes the major problem associated with the use of pure vegetable oils
as fuel for Diesel engines. All the vegetable oils are extremely viscous, with viscosities
ranging 10-20 times greater than diesel fuel.
The major problem in direct use of vegetable oils as fuel into C.I engines is their
higher viscosity. It interferes the fuel injection and atomization and contributes to incomplete
combustion, nozzle clogging, excessive engine deposits, ring sticking, contamination of
lubricating oil, etc. The problem of higher viscosity of vegetable oils can be overcome to a
greater extent by various techniques, such as heating, dilution, emulsification and
esterification.
1.5 BIO-DIESEL: DEVELOPMENT AND USES
1.5.1 OVERVIEW ON BIO-DIESEL
Bio-Diesel is a name of a clean burning alternative fuel, produced from domestic,
renewable resources. Bio-Diesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended at any level
with conventional diesel to create a bio-diesel blend. It can be used in compression ignition
diesel engine with little or no modifications. Bio-Diesel is simple to use, biodegradable,
nontoxic, and essentially free of sulfur and aromatics. Due to problems encountered in the use
of neat vegetable oil.

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Bio-diesel is defined as the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from
renewable lipid sources.Bio-diesel, as defined is widely recognized in the alternative
fuels industry as well as by the Department of Energy (DOE), the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the American Society of Testing and Material(ASTM). This
definition has been the topic of some discussion, however as other materials (tree oil
derivatives, other woody products, or even biological slurries) have sometimes been referred
to as “bio-diesel.” Although these other materials are biological in nature, and are a
substitute for diesel fuel worthy of additional research and attention, they are not
deemed bio-diesel as accepted by the DOE, ASTM, or diesel engine manufacturers. Bio-
diesel is typically produced through the reaction of a vegetable oil or animal fat with
methanol in the presence of a catalyst to yield glycerin and methyl esters. The reaction is
depicted in below. Virtually all of the bio-diesel used and produced in the U.S. to date
has been made by this process, however, one additional process of importance is the
direct reaction of a fatty acid with methanol, also in the presence of a catalyst, to
produce a methyl ester in water.
1.5.2 BIODIESEL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL
In the past several decades, it has been found that biodiesel (esters derived from
Vegetable oils) is a very promising one. The most common blend is a mix of 20% biodiesel.
And 80% petroleum diesel, called “B20”. The widespread use of biodiesel is based on the
Following advantages
 Biodiesel is potentially renewable and non-petroleum-based
 Biodiesel combustion produces less greenhouse gases
 Biodiesel is less toxic and biodegradable
 Biodiesel can reduce tailpipe emissions of PM, CO, HC, air toxics, etc
 Little modifications are needed for the traditional CI engine to burn biodiesel

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 Biodiesel also has some negative attributes
 Lower heating value, higher viscosity
 Lower storage stability, material compatibility issue
 Slightly higher NOx emission
Among the above attributes of biodiesel, the higher NOx emissions from biodiesel
fuelled engines are a major concern due to more and restrict regulations, and therefore it
serves as the major motivation of this work.
1.5.3 SCOPE OF BIODIESEL IN INDIA
1) India has tropical advantage.
2) Enormous wastelands and low cost farm labor.
3) Biodiesel in India can be success story.
4) Annual growth rate – 6% compared to world average of 2%.
5) Oil pool deficit & Subsidies of Rs. 16,000 crores and Rs.18,440 crores (1996– 97)
6) Current per capita usage of petroleum is low (0.1 ton/year) against 4.0 in Germany or
1.5 tons in Malaysia.
Investment makes strong economic sense. India with just 2.4% of global area supports
more than 16% of the human population and 17% of the cattle population. A sustainable
source of vegetable oil is to be found before we can think of biodiesel.
1.6 OPERATING PERFORMANCE
The operating performance and characteristics of bio-diesel are similar to that of
conventional diesel fuel. Research results indicate that power, torque, and fuel economy
with B20 are comparable to petro-diesel. In addition, tests have demonstrated that the
lubricity characteristics of bio-diesel are markedly superior to that of conventional
diesel fuel. There are, however, precautions to consider when utilizing bio-diesel, or
high percentage bio-diesel blends. Bio-diesel is a natural solvent and will soften and
degrade certain types of elastomers and natural rubber compounds. Precautions are
needed to ensure that the existing fueling system, primarily fuel hoses and fuel pump
seals, does not contain elastomeric compounds incompatible with bio-diesel. If they do,
replacement with bio-diesel compatible elastomers is recommended. Fortunately, due to the
introduction of low sulfur diesel in 1993, virtually all the diesel OEM’s have gone to a
fluorocarbon (Viton) type seal that is bio-diesel resistant. Over the past three years,
however, there have been no reported elastomer problems with 20% blends of bio-
diesel with petro-diesel, even with older engines.

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The greatest driving force for the use of bio-diesel and bio-diesel blends is the
need to have a fuel that fulfils all of the environmental and energy security needs
previously mentioned which does not sacrifice operating performance. One of the largest
roadblocks to the use of alternative fuels is the change of performance noticed by users.
Bio-diesel has many positive attributes associated with its use, but by far the most noted
attribute highlighted by fleet managers is the similar operating performance to
conventional diesel fuel and the lack of changes required in facilities and maintenance
procedures. Bio-diesel is readily biodegradable and non-toxic. These characteristics make it
a valuable fuel, particularly in environmentally sensitive areas. It has been demonstrated that
bio-diesel blends will improve the biodegradability and reduce toxicity of petro-diesel. The
effect on biodegradability when bio-diesel is blended with petro-diesel in varying
percentages has been shown.
Animal fats, other vegetable oils, and other recycled oils can also be used to produce
bio-diesel, depending on their costs and availability. In the future, blends of all kinds of fats
and oils may be used to produce bio-diesel. Bio-diesel is made through a chemical process
called transesterification whereby the glycerin is separated from the fat or vegetable oil. The
process leaves behind two products methyl esters (the chemical name for bio-diesel) and
glycerin (a valuable by-product usually sold to be used in soaps and other products).
1.7 PLANT HISTORY:
Laxmi Taru (Simarouba Glauca)
Fig.1.1 shows Simarouba Tree

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Fig.1.2 shows Simarouba & Seeds.
Fig.1.3 shows Simarouba dried fruits, broken fruits, shells and kernels (top to bottom)
Simarouba Glauca, is an edible oil seed bearing tree, which is well suited for warm,
humid, tropical regions. Its cultivation depends on rainfall distribution, water holding
capacity of the soil and sub-soil moisture. It is suited for temperature range of 10 to 40oC. the
tree is now found in different regions of India. It can be grown on waste tracts of marginal,
fallow lands of Southern India.

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 Simarouba saplings are sturdy in nature and can survive under all types of terrain, and
soils with some depth for the roots to penetrate.
 Simarouba survives under rain fed conditions with rainfall around 400 mm.
 It can grow in all types of degraded soils and waste lands.
 It is not grazed by cattle, goat or sheep.
 It sheds large quantities of leaves, which makes soil more fertile.
 It protects the soil from parching due to hot sun shine.
 Its seed contains 65% edible oil.
 Oilseed cake is of best NPK value.
 Its fruit is also edible with sweet pulp.
 All its parts have medicinal value.
 It has a life of about 70 years.
 Its wood is termite resistant.
 It is not attacked by insects and pests.
 Its long roots prevent soil erosion.
i). Propagation, soil, climate and description:
It can be propagated from seeds, grafting and tissue culture technology. Fruits are
collected in India, in the month of April and May, when they are ripe and then dried in
sun for about a week. Skin is separated, and seeds are grown in plastic bags to produce
saplings. 2 to 3 months old sapling can be transplanted in plantation.
It is a tropical tree and rainfall should be at least 400 mm. The depth of the soil should
be at least 1 meter. pH of soil should be from 5.5 to 8. It can grow in any type of soil
which are unsuitable for cultivation of other crops. The average yield of Simarouba, per
hectare is Seed 4 tons, Oil 2.6 tons and cake 1.4 tons. Simarouba glauca DC with
Common names (Simarouba, oil tree, paradise tree or aceituno) is an important tree
species growing in the forests of Central America. It was first introduced by National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in the Research Station at Amravati, Maharashtra in
1960s. This was brought to the University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in 1986
and systematic Research and Developmental Activities began from 1993 onwards.
This medium sized evergreen tree begins to bear fruits, when it is 6-8 years old (3-4
years in case of grafts) and attains stability in production after another 4-5 years. The
flowering is annual, beginning in December in India, and continuing up to following
February. The trees are poly gamodioecious and only some females are heavy bearers. By

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grafting with a suitable scion in situ the sex of the plant can be transformed as desired and
the productivity can be increased. The drupelets turn black (in Kaali variety) or greenish
yellow (in Gauri variety) when they are ready for harvest during April/May. Manually
harvested drupelets are depulped, washed and sun-dried (moisture about 10%) and
transported at convenience for processing.
ii). Cultivation, eco-impact and distribution:
The plants can be grown as orchards, boundary planting or as avenue trees. At the
onset of regular monsoon, the grafts or seedlings of known sex are planted with 5 m (E-
W) X 4 m (N-S) spacing (500 plants/ha; 200 plants/acre), in pits 45 x 45 x 45 cm size half
filled with the top soil. Protective watering may be done by adopting SIM-FUN technique
for one or two summer seasons. Timely weeding and manure application improve the
growth of saplings and advance the flowering.
This ecofriendly tree with well-developed root system and with evergreen dense
canopy efficiently checks soil erosion, supports soil microbial life, and improves
groundwater position. Besides converting solar energy into biochemical energy all round
the year, it checks overheating of the soil surface all through the year and particularly
during summer. Large scale planting in the wastelands facilitates wasteland reclamation,
converts the accumulated atmospheric carbon dioxide into oxygen and contributes to the
reduction of green house effect/global warming.
Simarouba is established in about 200 hectares in Andhra Pradesh, 100 hectares in
Maharashtra, 100 hectares in Tamil Nadu and 100 hectares in Karnataka. For a long-term
strategy, cultivation of simarouba is advocated in the abundantly available
marginal/wastelands to attain self-sufficiency in oils and its implementation shall be
economically viable and ecologically sustainable.
Family : Simaroubaceae
Genus : Simarouba
Species : amara, glauca
Synonyms : Quassia simarouba, Zwingera amara, Picraena officinalis,
Simarouba medicinalis
Common Names : Simarouba, gavilan, negrito, marubá, marupá, dysentery bark,
bitterwood, paradise tree, palo blanco, robleceillo, caixeta,
daguilla, cedro blanco, cajú-rana, malacacheta, palo amargo,

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pitomba, bois amer, bois blanc, bois frene, bois negresse,
simaba
Part Used: Seeds, bark, wood, leaves Simarouba is a medium-sized tree
that grows up to 20 m high, with a trunk 50 to 80 cm in
diameter. It produces bright green leaves 20 to 50 cm in length,
small white flowers, and small red fruits. It is indigenous to the
Amazon rainforest and other tropical areas in Mexico, Cuba,
Haiti, Jamaica, and Central America.
iii). Plant chemicals, tribal &herbal medicine uses :
The main active group of chemicals in simarouba are called quassinoids, which
belong to the triterpene chemical family. Quassinoids are found in many plants and are
well known to scientists. The antiprotozoal and antimalarial properties of these chemicals
have been documented for many years. Several of the quassinoids found in simarouba,
such as ailanthinone, glaucarubinone, and holacanthone, are considered the plant's main
therapeutic constituents and are the ones documented to be antiprotozal, anti-amebic,
antimalarial, and even toxic to cancer and leukemia cells.
The main plant chemicals in simarouba include: ailanthinone, benzoquinone, canthin,
dehydroglaucarubinone, glaucarubine, glaucarubolone, glaucarubinone, holacanthone,
melianone, simaroubidin, simarolide, simarubin, simarubolide, sitosterol, and tirucalla.
The leaves and bark of Simarouba have long been used as a natural medicine in the
tropics. Simarouba was first imported into France from Guyana in 1713 as a remedy for
dysentery. When France suffered a dysentery epidemic from 1718 to 1725, simarouba
bark was one of the few effective treatments. French explorers "discovered" this effective
remedy when they found that the indigenous Indian tribes in the Guyana rainforest used
simarouba bark as an effective treatment for malaria and dysentery - much as they still do
today. Other indigenous tribes throughout the South American rainforest use simarouba
bark for fevers, malaria, and dysentery, as a hemostatic agent to stop bleeding, and as a
tonic.Simarouba also has a long history in herbal medicine in many other countries. In
Cuba, where it is called gavilan, an infusion of the leaves or bark is considered to be
astringent, a digestion and menstrual stimulant and an antiparasitic remedy. It is taken
internally for diarrhea, dysentery, malaria, and colitis; it is used externally for wounds and
sores. In Belize the tree is called negrito or dysentery bark. There the bark (and
occasionally the root) is boiled in water to yield a powerful astringent and tonic used to

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wash skin sores and to treat dysentery, diarrhea, stomach and bowel disorders,
hemorrhages, and internal bleeding. In Brazil it is employed much the same way against
fever, malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal parasites, indigestion, and anemia. In
Brazilian herbal medicine, simarouba bark tea has long been the most highly
recommended (and most effective) natural remedy against chronic and acute dysentery.
iv). Biological activities, clinical research & current practical uses:
After a 200-year documented history of use for dysentery, its use for amebic
dysentery was finally validated by conventional doctors in 1918. A military hospital in
England demonstrated that the bark tea was an effective treatment for amebic dysentery
in humans. The Merck Institute reported that simarouba was 91.8% effective against
intestinal amebas in humans in a 1944 study and, in 1962, other researchers found that the
seeds of simarouba showed active anti-amebic activities in humans. In the 1990s
scientists again documented simarouba's ability to kill the most common dysentery-
causing organism, Entamoeba histolytica, as well as two diarrhea-causing bacteria,
Salmonella and Shigella. Scientists first looked at simarouba's antimalarial properties in
1947, when they determined a water extract of the bark (as well as the root) demonstrated
strong activity against malaria in chickens. This study showed that doses of only 1 mg of
bark extract per kg of body weight exhibited strong antimalarial activity. When new
strains of malaria with resistance to our existing antimalarial drugs began to develop,
scientists began studying simarouba once again. Studies published between 1988 and
1997 demonstrated that simarouba and/or its three potent quassinoids were effective
against malaria in vitro as well as in vivo. More importantly, the research indicated that
the plant and its chemicals were effective against the new drug-resistant strains in vivo
and in vitro. While most people in North America will never be exposed to malaria,
between 300 and 500 million cases of malaria occur each year in the world, leading to
more than one million deaths annually. Having an easily-grown tree in the tropics where
most malaria occurs could be an important resource for an effective natural remedy-it
certainly has worked for the Indians in the Amazon for ages.It will be interesting to see if
North American scientists investigate simarouba as a possibility for North America's only
malaria-like disease: the newest mosquito-borne threat, West Nile virus. It might be a
good one to study because, in addition to its antimalarial properties, clinical research has
shown good antiviral properties with simarouba bark. Researchers in 1978 and again in
1992 confirmed strong antiviral properties of the bark in vitro against herpes, influenza,

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polio, and vaccinia viruses.Another area of research on simarouba and its plant chemicals
has focused on cancer and leukemia. The quassinoids responsible for the anti-amebic and
antimalarial properties have also shown in clinical research to possess active cancer-
killing properties. Early cancer screening performed by the National Cancer Institute in
1976 indicated that an alcohol extract of simarouba root (and a water extract of its seeds)
had toxic actions against cancer cells at very low dosages (less than 20 mcg/ml).
Following up on that initial screening, scientists discovered that several of the quassinoids
in simarouba (glaucarubinone, alianthinone, and dehydroglaucarubinone) had
antileukemic actions against lymphocytic leukemia in vitro and published several studies
in 1977 and 1978. Researchers found that yet another simarouba quassinoid,
holacanthone, also possessed antileukemic and antitumorous actions in 1983. Researchers
in the UK cited the antitumorous activity of two of the quassinoids, ailanthinone and
glaucarubinone, against human epidermoid carcinoma of the pharynx. A later study in
1998 by U.S. researchers demonstrated the antitumorous activity of glaucarubinone
against solid tumors (human and mouse cell lines), multi-drug-resistant mammary tumors
in mice, and antileukemic activity against leukemia in mice.Simarouba is the subject of
one U.S. patent so far and, surprisingly, it's not for its antimalarial, anti-amebic, or even
anticancerous actions. Rather, water extracts of simarouba were found to increase skin
keratinocyte differentiation and to improve skin hydration and moisturization. In 1997, a
patent was filed on its use to produce a cosmetic or pharmaceutical skin product. The
patent describes simarouba extract as having significant skin depigmentation activity (for
liver spots), enhancing the protective function of the skin (which maintains better
moisturization), and having a significant keratinocyte differentiation activity (which
protects against scaly skin).
While at least one scientific research group attempts to synthesize one or more of
simarouba's potent quassinoids for pharmaceutical use, the plant remains an important
natural remedy in the herbal pharmacopeias of many tropical countries and in the
rainforest shaman's arsenal of potent plant remedies. Natural health practitioners outside
of South America are just beginning to learn about the properties and actions of this
important rainforest medicinal plant and how to use it in their own natural health
practices. Simarouba bark tea is still the first line of defense for amebic dysentery and
diarrhea among the natural products available. It's also a good natural remedy for viruses.
Although not widely available in the U.S. today, it can be found in bulk supplies and in
various natural multi-herb anti-parasite and anti-viral formulas.

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1.8 Advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel
Advantages
1. It is made from renewable resources.
2. It produces less pollution compared to petro-diesel engines.
3 It is biologically degradable and reduces danger of contamination of soil.
4. It contains no sulphur, element responsible for acid rain.
5. Engines last longer when using it.
6. It produces 78% less carbon dioxide than petro-diesel fuel.
7. Very much cost effective
Disadvantages
1. It is suitable for use in low temperature.
2. It can be used in only petro-diesel powered engines.
3. Biodiesel is more susceptible to water contamination and this can lead to corrosion.
4. Biodiesel releases nitrogen oxide which can lead to formation of smog.
5. The availability of seeds is seasonal.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Anil Duhan : The present context the Simarouba seeds are economically very
important as they contain 60-75% oil, which can be used in the manufacture of
vegetable fat and/or margarine. It is also used in production of Bio-Diesel. [1,4,5]
2. Mustafa : Canakci free fatty acids and moisture reduce the efficiency of
transesterification in converting these feed stocks into biodiesel .Hence , this study
was conducted to determine the level of these contaminants in feedstock samples
from a rendering plant. Levels of free fatty acids varied from 0.7% to 41.8%, and
moisture from 0.01% to 55.38%. These ranges indicate that an efficient process for
converting waste grease and animal fats must tolerate a wide range of feedstock
properties.
3. M. Pugazhvadivu : The performance and exhaust emissions of a single cylinder
diesel engine was evaluated using diesel, waste frying oil without preheating and
waste frying oil preheated to two different inlet temperatures 75 and 1350C. The
engine performance was improved and the CO and smoke emissions were reduced
using preheated waste frying oil. It was concluded from the results of the
experimental investigation that the waste frying oil preheated to 1350C could be used
as a diesel fuel substitute for short term engine operation.[17,18,19]
4. Mishra S.R : Simarouba seeds contain about 40 % kernel and kernels content
55-65% oil. The amount of oil would be 1000 – 2000 kg/ha/year for a plant spacing
of 5m X 5m. It was used for industrial purposes in the manufacture of soaps,
detergents and lubricants etc. The oil cake being rich in nitrogen (7.7 to 8.1%),
phosphorus (1.07%) and potash (1.24%) could be used as valuable organic manure.
Simarouba was a rich source of fat having melting point of about 290C. The major
green energy components and their sources from Simarouba were biodiesel from
seeds, ethanol from fruit pulps, biogas from fruit pulp, oil cake, leaf litter and thermal
power from leaf litters, shell, unwanted branches etc. The transesterification of
Simarouba glauca oil by means of methanol in presence of Potassium hydroxide
catalyst at less than 650C. The viscosity of biodiesel is nearer to that of the diesel.
Simarouba glauca oil consists of 96.11% pure triglyceride esters.

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5. Mishra Sruti Ranjan : Biodiesel production by transesterification of
Simarouba oil with methanol in a heterogeneous system, using CaO as a solid
base catalyst. The reaction variables such as the molar ratio of methanol to oil,
reaction temperature, mass ratio of catalyst to oil and the reaction time was studied.
At 650C, 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil ratio. The heterogeneous catalytic
process is expected to be an effective biodiesel production process with low cost and
minimal environmental impact because of the possibility of simplifying the
production and purification processes under mild conditions. Therefore, many
heterogeneous catalysts for the transesterification of oils have been developed. The
conversion in excess of 90% was achieved at a temperature of 1000C in the
transesterification reaction of soybean oil with ETS-10 zeolite15. It has also been
reported that the conversion to methyl ester reaches 87% with the potassium-loaded
alumina catalyst, when a mixture with a molar ratio of methanol to oil of15:1 is
refluxed for a reaction time 7 hours16. Besides these, there have been several other
reports on heterogeneous catalysts for the transesterification of oils to biodiesel.
6. Shuli Yan, Steven O. Salley, Manhoe Kim and K. Y. Simon Ng : This
paper reports that Biodiesel, a renewable fuel with similar combustion properties to
fossil diesel, is normally produced by the transesterification of highly refined oils
with short- chain alcohols. Conventionally, some homogeneous base catalysts such as
NaOH and KOH were employed. However, these homogeneous catalysts are
corrosive. And removal of these catalysts after reaction causes a large amount of
waste wash water and a long time for phase separation. So to overcome this problem
Heterogeneous basic catalysts such as supported alkaline metal hydroxide catalysts
and alkaline earth metal oxide catalysts have been studied. Supported CaO catalysts
have a high activity and an improved tolerance to water (2 %) and FFA (3 %). In this
study, a lanthanum modified CaO catalyst was prepared and used in unrefined and
waste oil system for biodiesel production. The effects of catalyst structure and
reaction parameters on the yield of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) were studied.
7. N.R.Banapurmath : Experiments have been conducted on a single cylinder,
4stroke, direct injection, water cooled CI engine operated in single fuel mode using
Honge, Neem and Rice bran oils. In dual fuel mode combinations of producer gas
and three oils were used at different injection timings and injection pressures. Dual

17
fuel mode of operation resulted in poor performance at all the loads when compared
with single fuel mode at all injection timings tested. However, the BTE is improved
marginally when the injection timing was advanced. Decreased smoke, NOx
emissions and increased CO emissions were observed for dual fuel mode for all the
fuel combinations compared to single fuel operation.
8. Avinash Kumar Agarwal, K. Rajamanoharan: In This Paper an
experimental investigation has been carried out to analyze the performance and
emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine fuelled with Karanja oil and
its blends. A series of engine tests, with and without preheating/pre-conditioning
have been conducted using each of the fuel blends for comparative performance
evaluation. The performance parameters evaluated include thermal efficiency, brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC), brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), and
exhaust gas temperature whereas exhaust emissions include mass emissions of CO,
HC, NO and smoke opacity. The results of the experiment in each case were
compared with baseline data of mineral diesel. Significant improvements have been
observed in the performance parameters of the engine as well as exhaust emissions,
when lower blends of Karanja oil were used with preheating and also without
preheating. The gaseous emission of oxide of nitrogen from all blends with and
without preheating are lower than mineral diesel at all engine loads. Karanja oil
blends with diesel (up to50% v/v) without preheating as well as with preheating can
replace diesel for operating the CI engines giving lower emissions and improved
engine performance.
9. Dae-Won Lee : Calcium oxide is the single metal oxide catalyst most frequently
applied for biodiesel synthesis. The order of activities of the tested catalysts followed
the order of Lewis basicity: Ca(OH)2<CaO<Ca(CH3O)2. The reaction rate over the
heterogeneous catalysts, however, was much lower than that of the homogeneous
catalysts such as NaOH. As a method to increase catalytic activity, the author
attempted to increase the surface basicity of CaO by chemical treatment. The authors
immersed CaO into ammonium carbonate solution and calcined the catalyst at high
temperature of 900°C, which turned CaO into a super basic material. A FAME yield
of 94% was obtained for the transesterification of jatropha curcas oil with a relatively

18
lower methanol/oil ratio (9:1) and catalyst amount (1.5wt %) at a reaction
temperature of 70°C.
10.Lohith.N : In the present investigation, karanja oil based methyl ester (biodiesel) is
produced by using calcinated calcium oxide, a heterogeneous base catalyst by
transesterification process. Results obtained through the actual study suggest that
calcium oxide being treated with ammonium carbonate solution and calcinated at
high temperature becomes a solid super base, which shows high catalytic activity in
transesterification. CaO will probably brought about as the good productivity as
homogeneous catalyst (NaOH or KOH) and by taking advantage of the easy product
recovery i.e. while clear phase of glycerin is easily separated and in a pure form.
Under optimum conditions, the conversion of Karanja oil reached over 88 to 90%.
Engine performance with biodiesel does not differ greatly from that of diesel fuel.
The B20 shows good brake thermal efficiency in comparison with diesel. A little
increase in fuel consumption is often encountered due to the lower calorific value of
the biodiesel.In view of the petroleum fuel shortage, biodiesel can certainly be
considered as a potential alternative fuel. [2,8,9,12,13,14,15,16]
11. Suresh Raddy : the heterogeneously catalyzed process, especially using solid
base catalysts, has been studied continuously for the last decade. Calcium oxide is the
single metal oxide catalyst most frequently applied for biodiesel synthesis, probably
due to its cheap price, lower corrosiveness, minor toxicity, easy catalyst recovery,
and high availability. Most of the major exhaust pollutants such as CO, CO2 and HC
are reduced with the use of neat biodiesel and the blend as compared to neat diesel.
But NO2 emissions increase when fuelled with diesel– biodiesel fuel blends as
compared to conventional diesel fuel. This is one of the major drawbacks of
biodiesel. In view of the petroleum fuel shortage, biodiesel can certainly be
considered as a potential alternative fuel.
The referred journals suggested the use of heterogeneous catalyst for the
better yield and cost reduction of process. The quality of the oil is good. The activity
of the catalyst is good, which improves the quality of bio-diesel and the separates
glycerin easily. The combination of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyst plays a
very good role in this research. The catalyst can be reused for the next process.
Therefore Simarouba glauca trees must be regarded as a sure source of 2nd

19
Generation Bio-diesel and the foundation around which a profitable Business plan
can be built for its ability to provide large amount of oil and its pure hardness and
stress handling ability.
The calculation has made for the catalyst:

20
3. STUDY OF CATALYST:
In conventional industrial biodiesel processes, the methanol transesterification of
vegetable oils (edible and non edible oil) is achieved using a homogeneous catalyst system
operated in either batch or continuous mode. In most cases the catalyst is sodium hydroxide
or potassium hydroxide. It is recovered after the transesterification reaction as sodium or
potassium methylate and sodium soaps in the glycerol phase. An acidic neutralization step
with, for example, aqueous hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is required to neutralize these
salts or sometimes water. In that case glycerol is obtained as an aqueous solution containing
sodium chloride. Depending on the process, the final glycerol purity will be about 80% to
95%.When sodium hydroxide is used as catalyst, side reactions forming sodium soaps
generally occur. This type of reaction is also observed when sodium methylate is employed
and traces of water are present. The sodium soaps are soluble in the glycerol phase and must
be isolated after neutralization by decantation as fatty acids.
In addition to this saponification issue, homogenously catalyzed transesterification,
whether an acid or base catalyst is used, suffers some drawbacks in terms of process integrity.
The first drawback is corrosion of the reactor and pipelines by dissolved acid/base species,
which inevitably raises the material cost for process construction. The second is the
impossibility of catalyst recovery from the reactant-product mixture. Catalyst separation can
only be achieved by neutralizing the remaining catalysts and disposing of them at the end of
the reaction, which raises problems with environmental pollution. A third drawback of
homogenously catalyzed transesterification is the limitation in establishing a continuous
process. For these reasons, the mixed catalyzed process, especially using solid base catalysts,
has been studied continuously for the last decade. Homogeneous catalysed process are
illustrated in Fig.3.1

21
Fig.3.1 Global scheme for a typical continuous homogeneous catalysed process.
To avoid catalyst removal operations and soap formation, much effort has been
expended on the search for solid acid or basic catalysts that could be used in a mixed
catalysed process. Some solid metal oxides such as those of tin, magnesium, and zinc are
known catalysts but they actually act according to a homogeneous mechanism and end up as
metal soaps or metal glycerates. So a new continuous process is described, where the
transesterification reaction is promoted by a completely mixed and heterogeneous catalyst.
3.1 Mixed Base Catalyst
a). Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate
The catalyst can be called as Disodium hydrogen mono phosphate. It bears formula
weight of 141.98 (anhydrous). The chemical formula of the component is Na2HPO4. This

22
chemical is white crystalline, odorless solid. This can be used as emulsifier, texturizer and
buffer. An anhydrous component losses its weight by 5% when heated at 40oC.There are
variety of components in disodium hydrogen phosphate other than anhydrous. They are
Dihydrate, Heptahydrate, Dodecahydrate. This base component is used as heterogeneous
catalyst, which actually takes more time to produce biodiesel. This heterogeneous catalyst
will be collected after the reaction and reused for the next process (4 to 5 times).
The following test is been conducted to identify Disodium hydrogen Phosphate:
i). Solubility: Freely soluble in water; insoluble in ethanol
ii).pH: 9.0- 9.6 (1 in 100 soln)
iii).Test for sodium: Passes test
iv). Test for phosphate: Passes test
v). Test for orthophosphate : Dissolve 0.1 g of the sample in 10 ml water, acidify
slightly with dilute acetic acid TS, and add 1 ml of
silver nitrate TS. A yellow precipitate is formed.
b). Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium Hydroxide is a base component usually preferred to obtain biodiesel. It can
also be called as Caustic soda, soda lye. Compared to the heterogeneous catalyst
homogeneous catalyst will work effectively. But the use of homogeneous catalyst will
produce more glycerine and more water will be used to wash the soap content of this catalyst.
Hence the yield of homogeneous catalyst is less.It appears in white granules, chips, or pellets.
Solid forms rapidly absorb water vapor from the air, generating heat. Concentrated solutions
of sodium hydroxide in water are available from chemical supply companies. It is a odorless
component and not volatile at room temperature. If inhaled, mist or dust containing sodium
hydroxide will cause irritation and burning of the nasal passages and airways. Therefore,
irritation of the nose and throat provides an indication that the concentration of airborne
sodium hydroxide is sufficient to produce initial symptoms of toxicity.
c). (Disodium Hydrogen Phosphate + Sodium Hydroxide) MIXED BASE:
The mixed base catalyst is prepared by mixing 2% Disodium hydrogen
orthophosphate and 0.1% Sodium Hydroxide in the solvent and it’s been used for the reaction
to takes place. Here the heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts are used hence the name
mixed base catalyst. The quantity of heterogeneous component is more because of which the

23
mixed base catalyst is recycled at the end of the reaction. The property of the mixed base
catalyst is improved because of additional homogeneous catalyst to the mixture.
The most recognized problem with the heterogeneously catalyzed process is its slow
reaction rate compared with the homogeneous process. For this reason, the reaction
conditions of heterogeneous catalysis are intensified to enhance its sluggish reaction rates by
adding homogeneous catalyst (0.1–0.2wt%) and methanol/oil molar ratio (6:1–8:1). Another
problem of the heterogeneous process is the dissolutions of active species into liquids, which
makes the catalysis partly ‘homogeneous’ and then causes problems in biodiesel quality and
limits the repeated utilization of catalyst. Mixed base catalysis is the most viable process for
the transesterification of triglyceride into biodiesel. The mixed catalysis features lower
corrosiveness, environmental friendliness, easy catalyst recovery and high process integrity,
all at levels superior to those of homogeneous catalysis.
HOMOGENEOUS METHOD MIXED METHOD
KOH or NaOH is used as base.
NaOH and Na2HPO4 are used as mixed solid
base
Reaction is very fast (time taken is
25mins).
Relatively fast process (time taken is 40mins,
Where as in heterogeneous reaction time
taken will be 70mins.)
Catalyst dissolved in the reaction
mixture.
Catalyst does not dissolved in the reaction
mixture.
Purification of biodiesel is difficult. Purification of biodiesel is much easier.
Catalyst cannot be recycled
Catalyst can be recycled and reused again and
again.(4 to 5 times.)
Table 3.1: Comparison between Homogenous & Mixed Method
3.2 Advantages of mixed (homogeneous andheterogeneous) base catalyst
1. Relatively faster reaction rate than acid-catalyzed transesterification.
2. Reaction can occur at mild reaction condition and less energy intensive.
3. Easy separation of catalyst from product.
4. High possibility to reuse and regenerate the catalyst.
3.3 Disadvantagesofmixed (homogeneous andheterogeneous) base catalyst
1. Poisoning of the catalyst when exposed to ambient air.
2. Sensitive to FFA content in the oil due to its basicity property.

24
3. Soap will be formed if the FFA content in the oil is more than 3 wt.%
4. Too much soap formation will decrease the biodiesel yield and cause problem during
product purification.
5. Leaching of catalyst active sites may results in product contamination.

25
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY:
Seeds contain 60-75% oil that can be extracted by conventional methods. Each well-
grown tree yields 15 to 30 Kg nut lets equivalent to 2.5-5 Kg oil and about the same quantity
of oilcake. This amounts to 1000-2000 Kg oil/hectare/year (400-800 Kg/acre/year) and about
the same quantity of oil cake. The oil is largely used in the preparation of bakery products in
Central America. In India it can be used in the manufacture of vanaspati, vegetable oil and/or
margarine. The oil is free from bad cholesterol. It can be also used for industrial purposes in
the manufacture of Biofuels, soaps, detergents, lubricants, varnishes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals etc. The oilcake being rich in nitrogen (8%), phosphorus (1.1%) and potash
(1.2%), is good organic manure. The shells can be used in the manufacture of particleboard,
activated charcoal or as fuel. The fruit pulp, rich in sugars (about 11%) can be used in the
preparation of beverages. The pulp along with leaf litter can be economically used in the
manufacture of Vermi compost (about 8 tons/hectare/year or 3 tons/acre/year). The bark and
leaves are medicinally important. The wood is generally insect resistant and is used in the
preparation of quality furniture, toys, in match industry, as pulp (in paper making) and as
fuel.
4.1 Biodiesel preparation
To prepare a biodiesel firstly its FFA(Free Fatty Acid) is checked and based on the
value of FFA number of process needed to prepare a biodiesel is determined.
4.1.1 Determination of free fatty acid content in the oil
It involves following steps:
1. Prepare 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide solution by mixing 4 grams of NaOH crystals with 1
litre of water.
2. Take 25 ml of 0.1N NaOH solution in a clean and dry burette.
3. Take 50 ml of Isopropyl alcohol in a clean and dry 250 ml conical flask.
4. Add few drops of NaOH solution and shake well.
5. Measure 10 grams of oil to the flask and shake it well.
6. Heat the mixture above 60º C.

26
7. Allow the mixture to cool a little.
8. Add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
9. Titrate against 0.1N NaOH from burette.
10. Titrate till color persists for at least one minute.
11. Note down the burette reading.
12. Free fatty acid content is obtained by using the below formula.
FFA Content =
FFAContent 99
Note that the above formula contains 28.2 which is the molecular weight of oleic acid
divided by ten. Oils are not made of only oleic acid hence this formula results in small errors,
normally accepted.
When the FFA value is more than four both esterification and transesterification are
done to prepare a biodiesel.
4.1.2 Transesterification
The above equation 1 shows the chemical structure of long chain triglyceride reacts
with base catalyst in present of solvent as methanol, which breaks long chain into glycerol
and methyl esters. The representations R1, R2 and R3 are long chain alkyl groups.
1

27
4.1.2.1 Methodology:
Fig. 4.1 Block diagram indicating conversion of oil to Biodiesel
Transesterification is a chemical reaction used for the conversion of vegetable
oil/Seed oil to biodiesel. In this process vegetable oil is chemically reacted with an alcohol
like methanol or ethanol in presence of a catalyst like NaOH. After the chemical reaction,
various components of vegetable oil break down to form new compounds.
The triglycerides are converted into alkyl esters, which is the chemical name of
biodiesel. If methanol is used in the chemical reaction, methyl esters are formed, but if

28
ethanol is used, then ethyl esters are formed. Both these compounds are Biodiesel fuels with
different chemical combinations. In the chemical reaction alcohol replaces glycerin.
Glycerin that has been separated during the transesterification process is released as a
by-product of the chemical reaction. Glycerin will either sink to the bottom of the reaction
vessel or come to the surface depending on its phase. It can be easily separated by
centrifuges, and this entire process is known as transesterification.
The biodiesel produced by the process of transesterification has much lower viscosity,
which makes it capable of replacing petro-diesel in diesel engines. In earlier years when the
process of transesterification was not known, the viscosity of vegetable oil was the major
hindrance for its use as a fuel for motor engines. The transesterification process has been able
to remove this problem.
The by-product of the transesterification chemical reaction is the glycerin that
originally formed the bond between the chains of fatty acids. Glycerin can be used for various
purposes. Thus during transesterification process nothing goes to waste. All the products and
byproducts are utilized for various purposes.
4.1.2.2 Procedure
Take 1ltr of simarouba oil in a 3 neck flask with reflux condenser, heat the oil up to
65°C.When it reaches 65°C add 300ml of methanol and 20gms of Disodium hydrogen ortho
Phosphate and 1gm of Sodium Hydroxide base catalysts. Run the process for about
90mins.Transfer that oil into separating funnel, allow it to settle for about 4-5 hours then
three layers will be formed as shown in fig 4.3, upper layer is biodiesel, middle layer is of
glycerin and the last layer is catalyst. Separate the catalyst and glycerin. The advantage of
heterogeneous method is that the recovered catalyst can be reused. The yield after this
process was found to be 92-95% of biodiesel. (920-950ml)

29
Fig.4.2 Transesterification setup Fig.4.3 Settling in separating funnel
4.1.3 Steps Involved in transesterification
1. Measuring the Free fatty acid content in the oil.
2. Heating the oil up to 65oC.
3. Adding required amount of Sodium Hydroxide and methanol.
4. Heating the solution using a magnetic stirrer for two hours.
5. Keeping the oil for settling process in a settling funnel for five hours.
6. After settling methanol is recovered from the solution through distillation.
4.1.4 Factors affecting transesterification process
(a) Oil temperature: The oil used in the preparation of Biodiesel should be heated to 600C.
The temperature has to be strictly maintained for best results. If the used is waste oil, it
should be heated to 1300C. Further heating of oil above the mentioned temperatures will
result in poor quality Biodiesel.
(b) Reaction temperature: The reaction temperature of oil alcohol and catalyst should
be limited between 600C to 650C. Increase in reaction temperature will result in loss
of methanol during the reaction and increase in darkness of the product.
Biodiesel
Glycerin
Catalyst

30
(c) Type of catalyst and concentration: The concentration of alkaline catalyst used should
vary between 0.5% and 1.5% by weight. The concentration of acidic catalyst used in the two
stage transesterification process should be between 0.45% and 2.5%.
(d) Intensity of mixing: Oil, alcohol, catalyst should be mixed thoroughly by stirring it for 5
to 10 minutes.
(e) Purity of reactants: The reactants used in the preparation of Biodiesel should be highly
pure; any impurity present will adversely affect the quality of Biodiesel prepared. Wax like
impurities should be completely absent.
The required amount of NaOH and H2SO4 for esterification and transesterification can be
taken from the below chart.
Table 4.1: FFA-NaOH Chart
F.F.A(of oil) H2SO4(in gm)
1 0.25
2 0.5
3 0.75
4 1
5 1.25
6 1.5
7 1.75
8 2
9 2.25
10 2.5
11 2.75
12 3
FFA(of oil) NaoH (gm)
0 3.5
1 4.5
2 5.5
3 6.5
4 7.5

31
13 3.25
14 3.5
15 3.75
16 4
Table 4.2: FFA-H2SO4Chart
The tables guide us choose the process either transisterification or esterification.
After finding Free Fatty Acid (FFA) of oil we note down the reading. If the
FFA is more than 4 then we go for esterification by choosing Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4).
If the FFA value is less than 4 then we go for transisterification.
Ex: In the 2 cases one litre of oil is used.
i). When the FFA of oil is 3.5, then go for transisterification. Take 7.5grams of
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). By this reaction we get the biodiesel and glycerine. After
this we are going to separate biodiesel.
ii). When the FFA of oil is 6, then we go for esterification. Take 1.5 grams of
Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4). By this reaction we get 2 layers
a). Top layer is acidic, which reduces the FFA of oil. It will be thrown out.
b). Bottom layer is oil with less FFA, which is collected and the FFA is
checked again.
If the FFA is less than 4, then the oil is collected and allowed it to
transisterification. Finally the Biodiesel is collected.
4.1.5 Methanol recovery from biodiesel
1. Transfer the Biodiesel into the reaction vessel.
2. Make the necessary arrangement for the distillation set up, like heating and fixing the
double wall condenser along with the recovery flask.
3. Maintain the temperature at 343K.
4. Methanol stars evaporating.
5. Collect the methanol in a conical flask.
6. Switch off the system when the methanol condensation stops.

32
Fig 4.4: Methanol recovery through distillation
4.1.6 Washing of biodiesel
1. Transfer the Biodiesel after methanol recovery into the plastic washing funnel.
2. Spray 300 ml of warm water slowly into Biodiesel.
3. Water gets collected in the bottom of funnel.
4. Keep 15 minutes for settling for each trail.
5. Remove the water and check the pH value.
6. Repeat the process till pH of water reaches 7.
Fig.4.5: Washing of biodiesel Fig.4.6: Heating of biodiesel

33
4.1.7 Heating of biodiesel
1. Transfer the washed Biodiesel from the washing funnel to the 1 liter beaker.
2. Add the magnetic pellet and adjust rpm to suitable speed.
3. Heat the Biodiesel to the temperature of 393K(moisture evaporates)
4. Allow the Biodiesel to cool gradually.
5. Measure the quantity of final finished Biodiesel.
6. Store it in a clean and dry container.
4.2. Properties of biodiesel
4.2.1 Blends chosen and preparation
1. B10: This blend includes 10% of Simarouba Oil Methyl Ester (SOME- Biodiesel)
and 90% of diesel.
For 1 liter of blend preparation 100ml of SOME & 900ml of petro-diesel is measured
& mixed thoroughly using magnetic stirrer for around 20 minutes. Similarly remaining
blends are also prepared.
2. B20: This blend includes 20% of SOME and 80% of petro-diesel.
6. B100: This is pure SOME biodiesel.
4.2.2 Different Properties Studied
1. Flash point.
2. Kinematic viscosity.
3. Copper strip corrosion.
4. Density and Specific gravity.
4.2.2.1 Flash Point (Pensky Martin Closed Cup)
The lowest temperature at which the vapor of a combustible liquid can be made to
ignite momentarily in air is identified as the flash point and correlates to ignitibility of fuel.

34
Low flash point can indicate residual methanol remaining from the conversion process. The
flash point is often used as a descriptive characteristic of liquid fuel and it is also used to
characterize the fire hazards of liquids.“Flash point” refers to both flammable liquids and
combustible liquids.
Test Procedure:
Pour measured biodiesel up to the mark indicated in the flash point apparatus, Heat
the oil & stir the oil at regular intervals. Introduce external fire near the opening provided in
the apparatus at regular period till a flash is observed. Once the flash is observed note the
temperature. The noted temperature at the time of flash is the flash point of biodiesel. The
above procedure is repeated for all the prepared blends and tabulated as shown in table 4.3.
SL
NO.
BLENDED
PROPORTIONS
FLASH POINT
(°C)
1 B10 68
2 B20 72
3 B30 77
4 B100 (Biodiesel) 165
5 Petro-Diesel 54
Table 4.3: Flash point of biodiesel, petro-diesel & its blends
Fig 4.7: Pensky Martin Flash point instrument

35
Graph 4.1 Temperature vs. Blends
There are various standards for defining each term. Liquids with a flash point less
than 60.5°C (140.9 °F) or 37.8°C (100.0 °F) depending upon the standard being applied are
considered flammable, while liquids with a flash point above those temperatures are
considered combustible. It can be seen from the graph 4.1 that flash point keeps increasing
with blends. For pure biodiesel (B100) it was found to be 165°C. So all the blends are found
to be satisfactory.
4.2.2.2 Kinematic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the resistance offered by one layer of fluid over another layer.
The viscosity is important in determining optimum handling storage, and operational
conditions. Fuel must have suitable flow characteristics to ensure that an adequate supply
reaches injectors at different operating temperatures. High viscosity can cause fuel flow
problems and lead to stall out. The viscometer bath is used to maintain correct constant
temperature for estimating Kinematic viscosity of biodiesel.
Test Procedure:
Fill the Biodiesel in the cannon–fensky viscometer [tube no 100, direct type] bulb as
shown in fig 4.8. Insert the viscometer tube in the viscometer-water-bath apparatus. Heat the
oil to 40°C and maintain the temperature for a period of 20-30 min. After 30 min open the
tube, suck the oil and simultaneously start the stopwatch when the oil reaches starting point
mark. Stop the stopwatch once the oil flow reaches the bottom mark in the bulb. Note the
seconds on the stopwatch.

36
Kinematic viscosity in Centistokes (Cst) =
Specimen calculation for B100:
 Time taken for flow between markings in the tube is found to be 197.5sec
 The standard viscometer factor as specified by manufacturer is 0.0238
Therefore Kinematic viscosity for B100 sample = (197.5) x (0.0238) = 4.7Cst
Similarly kinematic viscosity is found for all the prepared samples and tabulated.
Sl
No.
Blended
Proportions
Time
(Sec)
Kinematic
Viscosity
(Cst)
1 B10 112 2.67
2 B20 126 3.00
3 B30 134 3.19
4 B100 (Biodiesel) 197.5 4.7
5 Petro-Diesel 107 2.54
Table 4.4: Time taken for flow & kinematic viscosity of biodiesel, petro-diesel & its blends
Fig.4.8 Kinematic viscosity bath instrument with cannon fensky tube
EndingPoint
StartingPoint

37
Graph 4.2: Kinematic viscosity vs. Blends
Viscosity keeps on increasing with blends. For simarouba biodiesel as per ASTM
specifications it can be in the range of 1.9-6.0. After the test viscosity range for biodiesel and
its different blends is found to be satisfactory and in the range of 2.67-5.9.
4.2.2.3 Copper strip corrosion test
Acid and sulfur-containing compounds have the potential to cause corrosion in an
engine system. The Copper strip corrosion test indicates the potential of biodiesel to affect
the copper and brass fuel system part. Polished copper strip are immersed in the biodiesel
sample and placed in a sample tube in a heated bath for several hours. The sample test strip is
then compared to a standard test strip to determine the effect of biodiesel on the copper.
Test Procedure:
Pour the Biodiesel in the test bomb of copper strip corrosion apparatus till the
marking. Immerse the polished copper strip in the test bomb containing biodiesel. Keep this
test bomb apparatus with Biodiesel in a water bath vertically. Heat the water bath for 3hrs.
Maintain the temperature at 50°C.After 3 hrs remove the copper strip from the apparatus and
compare it with standard copper strip and the observations are tabulated.
SL NO.
BLENDED
PROPORTIONS
OBSERVATION
1 B10 No Corrosion
2 B20 No Corrosion

38
3 B30 No Corrosion
4 B100 (Biodiesel) No Corrosion
5 Petro-Diesel No Corrosion
Table 4.5: Observations of tested Copper Strips for biodiesel, petro-diesel & its blends
Fig.4.9 Copper strip corrosion instrument Fig.4.10 Tested copper strip (b) compared with
standard copper strip (a)
4.2.2.4 Density and specific gravity: (Hydrometer method)
i). Density
The mass density or density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. The
symbol most often used for density is ρ. Density is also defined as its weight per unit volume
although; this quantity is more properly called specific weight. Less dense fluids float on
more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended, with some care, to less
dense solids floating on more dense fluids. If the average density (including any air below the
waterline) of an object is less than water (1000 kg/m3) it will float in water and if it is more
than water it will sink in water.
ii). Specific gravity
It is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density
(mass of the same unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio
of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of the reference
substance. The reference substance is always water for liquids and air for gases.
A hydrometer is the instrument used to measure the specific gravity (relative density)
of biodiesel. That is the ratio of the density of water. The hydrometer is made of glass and

39
consists of a cylindrical stem and bulb weighed with mercury or lead shot to make it float
upright. The hydrometer contains a paper scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity
can be read directly.
Test Procedure:
Measure 500 ml of the Biodiesel in a clean & dry measuring cylinder. Allow the
Biodiesel to settle. Gently lower the hydrometer in to the biodiesel in the cylinder until its
floats freely as shown in fig 4.12. Note the point at which the surface of the Biodiesel touches
the stem of the hydrometer. Read the hydrometer level and tabulate.
Specimen calculation: For B100 (Biodiesel)
Density = 1000 × S. g kg/m3
= 1000× 0.865
= 865 kg/m3
The above calculation shows the conversion of measured specific gravity to density. The
values of measured specific gravity and calculated density are tabulated in table 4.6. The
graph 4.3 shows the comparison of density of different blends of biodiesel and petro diesel.
SL
NO.
BLENDED
PROPORTIONS
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
DENSITY
(Kg/m3
)
1 B10 0.780 780
2 B20 0.795 795
3 B30 0.812 812
4 B100 (Biodiesel) 0.865 865
5 Petro-Diesel 0.815 815
Table 4.6: Specific Gravity & Density of biodiesel, petro-diesel & its blends

40
Fig.4.11 Hydrometer & Measuring jar with hydrometer immersed in it
Graph 4.3 Density vs. Blends
As shown in Table 4.6 density and specific gravity of biodiesel B100 obtained are
very high compared to the suitability in compression ignition (CI) engine, therefore it is also
evident that dilution or blending of biodiesel with other fuels like petro-diesel fuel would
bring the viscosity and density close to a specification range. Therefore biodiesel obtained
from simarouba was blended with petro-diesel in varying proportions to achieve the required
viscosity and density close to that of a petro-diesel.

41
4.2.3 Comparison with ASTM standards
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is an international standards
organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide
range of materials, products, systems, and services. The obtained fuel properties are
compared with ASTM standards and it is found that all the values are within specified range.
Sl. No Properties Standard Range Obtained
1 Flash point (°C) ASTM D93 >130 * 165
2
Kinematic Viscosity (Cst) at
40°C
ASTM D445 1.9-6.0 2.67-4.7
3 Specific gravity ASTM D4052 0.87-0.90 0.78-0.865
4 Calorific value (kJ/kg) ASTM D240 -- 37933.4
5 Cloud point, oC IS:1448 (P 10) -3 to 12 25
6 Ash, %w/w IS:1448 (P 4) 0.5max Nil
7
Carbon residue, Ramsbottom,
%w/w
IS:1448 (P 8) 0.05max Nil
8 Pour point, oC IS: 1448 (P 10) -15 to 10 13
Table 4.7: Comparison of fuel properties with ASTM standards
*the range is for B100 (Biodiesel)
4.3. Performance study on CI engine
The experimental work carried out experiment was conducted in the Engine Research
Laboratory at Sri Venkateshwara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur; Chennai Fig.4.12
shows how the lab is setup. The main purpose of this study is to produce the simarouba

42
biodiesel and to perform an experiment whose results will show a significant reduction in
harmful emission and also compare the performance and combustion characteristics.
Fig.4.12 Engine lab setup
4.3.1. Engine
The engine used in the study is a vertical single cylinder diesel engine, model TAF 1
produced by Kirloskar Oil Engines. This engine has a compression ratio of 17.5:1. It has a
power rating of 3.7 KW at 1200 rpm, 4 KW at 1500rpm,5.7 KW at 1800rpm and 6.2 KW at
2000rpm.Specifications of the engine are provided on the Table 4.8
SL NO ENGINE PARAMETERS SPECIFICTION
01 Machine supplier KIRLOSKAR OIL ENGINES LTD
02 Engine Type TAF-1(Kirloskar, Four Stroke)
03 Number of cylinders Single Cylinder
04 Number of strokes Four-Stroke
05 Rated power 4.4KW (6HP) @1500RPM
06 Bore 87.5mm
07 Stroke 110mm

43
Table 4.8: Engine Specifications
Fig.4.13 Test Engine Fig.4.14 Eddy- current Dynamometer
Fig.4.15 AVL Digas-444 Fig.4.16 AVL 437C Smoke meter Fig.4.17 Piezo
Amplifier analyser
08 Cubic Capacity 661.5cc
09 Compression ratio 17.5:1
10 Rated Speed 1500 RPM
11 Dynamometer Eddy current dynamometer, make Benz systems
12 Type of cooling Air cooling
13 Fuel injection Pressure 200 bar
14 Fuel Petro-Diesel
15 Brake power Measurement Strain gauge brake power cell
16 Speed Measurement Rotary encoder
17 Temperature Indicator Digital
18 Cylinder Pressure Measurement AVL Pressure Transducer GH12D,range 250bar

44
4.3.2 Emissions Measurement
Exhaust Gas Measurement
Exhaust gas measurement is done in exhaust gas sensors to measure the emissions
from the engine exhaust. Two types of sensors are used to measure the exhaust gas
composition.
Exhaust Gas Analyzer
Emission samples are pulled from the exhaust pipe through a filter and the sample
then flows into the AVL DIGAS 444 ANALYSER. It is designed to measure the CO, HC,
NOx, CO2 etc. It consists of a sample cell through which a light is directed from the source to
the optical block. The light is not absorbed by the sample gas it is passed though four optical
band pass filters that are each characteristics for the target gases. Four pyro-electric detectors
that share the same housing collect light passed through the filter. They produce a voltage
that is proportional to light intensity. Then the detector outputs are amplified in amplifier and
sent to an A to D converter.
Smoke Meter
The exhaust gas from the engine is bypassed and given to the AVL 437C SMOKE
METER and the smoke absorption is found. A smoke meter is designed to measure the
smoke emissions from the diesel engine exhaust. It uses the partial steam technique, which
provides for direct and continuous measurement of the smoke sample. This technique
measures the amount of light blocked by the sample on the scale of zero opacity to black with
zero opacity indicating no smoke in the sample cell and the black indicating that the tube is
completely blocked.
Dynamometer
The engine is brake powered using a direct current dynamometer produced by Benz
systems. It is capable of 110 kW of power absorption and uses a wheat stone bridge strain
gauge that measures the force used to calculate the torque produced by the engine. The
energy absorbed by the dynamometer is dissipated by a resistor bank. Brake powering on the
engine is done by introducing an electric current into the dynamometer. This current gives the
dynamometer resistance to spinning. The engine compensates by adding more fuel to
increase the power. An increase in power helps the engine to overcome the resistance from
the dynamometer and maintain a set speed on the engine controller. The brake power
percentages are the percentage of the engine’s power being used.

45
4.3.4 Measurement System
The test bed is fully instrumented to measure the various parameters such as flow
measurement, brake power measurement, pressure measurement, etc during the experiments
on the engine.
Flow Measurement
Air flow measurement is done by the flow sensors, a conventional U- tube manometer
as well as air intake differential pressure transducers unit present in the control panel. There
are two parallel air suction arrangements, one for U- tube manometer having arranged of
100-0-100mm and another for pressure differential unit, which senses the difference in
pressure between suction and atmospheric pressure. This difference in pressure will be sent to
transducer which will give the DC volt analog signal as output which in turn will be
converted into digital signal by analog to digital converter and fed to the engine software.
For liquid fuel flow rate measurement, the fuel tank in the control panel is connected
to the burette for manual measurement and to a fuel flow differential pressure unit for
measurement through computer.
Brake power Measurement
The electrical current dynamometer is provided to test the engine at different brake
powering conditions. A strain gauge type brake power cell mounted beneath the
dynamometer measures the brake power. The signals from the brake power cell are interfaced
with analog to digital converter to give Torque in N-m. The dynamometer is brake powered
by the brake powering unit situated in the control panel.
Pressure and Temperature Measurement
A water cooled piezoelectric transducer mounted on the cylinder head surface
measures the cylinder dynamic pressure .The temperature measurements are made with
k-type thermocouples and strain gauge pressure transducers
Engine Speed Measurement
Engine speed is sensed and is indicated by an inductive pickup sensor in conjunction
with a digital RPM indicator, which is a part of the eddy current dynamometer control unit.
The dynamometer shaft rotating close to inductive pickup rotary encoder sends voltage pulses

46
whose frequency is converted to RPM and displayed by digital indicator in the control panel,
which is calibrated to indicate the speed directly in number of revolutions per minute.
4.3.5 Test Fuels
The test fuel used for this experiment is a blend of biodiesel with petro diesel for 4
different percentages (B10, B20 and B30), Simarouba Biodiesel (B100) and petro diesel.
4.4 Methodology and Experimental Procedure
1) Switch on the mains of the control panel and set the supply voltage from servo stabilizer
to 220volts.
2) Open the cooling water line to the dynamometer
3) Engine is started by hand cranking under no brake power condition and allowed to run for
a 20minutes to reach steady state condition.
4) The engine soft version V2.00 is run to go on ONLINE mode.
The engine has a compression ratio of 17.5 and a normal speed of 1500 rpm
controlled by the governor. An injection pressure of 200 bar is used for the best performance
as specified by the manufacturer. The engine is first run with petro-diesel at brake powering
conditions such as 7, 14, 21 and 28 N-m. Between two brake power trials the engine is
allowed to become stable by running it for 3 minutes before taking the readings. At each
brake powering condition performance parameters namely speed, exhaust gas temperature,
brake power, peak pressure are measured under steady state conditions. The experiments are
repeated for various combinations of petro-diesel, Simarouba biodiesel blends. With the
above experimental results, the parameters such as total fuel consumption, brake specific fuel
consumption, brake mean effective pressure, brake specific energy consumption, brake
thermal efficiency are calculated. Finally graphs are plotted for brake specific fuel
consumption, brake thermal efficiency with respect to brake powering conditions for petro-
diesel, Biodiesel and its blends. From these plots, performance characteristics of the engine
are studied.

47
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
The experiments were conducted on a direct injection compression ignition engine for
different brake power and different blends (Biodiesel-B10, B20, B30 and B100) of
biodiesels. Analysis of performance like brake specific fuel consumption, brake thermal
efficiency, Exhaust gas temperature and emission characteristics like hydrocarbon, oxides of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxides are evaluated. The biodiesel used is as per
ASTM standard, there is no modification in the engine. The experiment is carried out at
constant compression ratio of 17.5:1 and constant injection pressure of 200bar by varying
brake power.
5.1 Calculation
Initially performance of the diesel engine is studied by using petro diesel. Engine is
operated for 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% brake power. Graph is plotted from the calculation.
Finally this graph is compared with graphs/ curves obtained by using biodiesel and its blends.
Calculation for petro-diesel at full load condition:
1. Fuel: Petro-Diesel
2. Engine rated BP: 4.3 KW
3. Engine rated speed: 1500 RPM
4. Injection pressure: 200bar
5. Compression ratio: 17.5:1
6. Applied Torque (T): 28 N-m
7. Measured Speed (N): 1444 RPM
8. Specific Gravity (S.g): 0.85
9. Time (t): 25.66 S (time taken for 10cc of petro-diesel)
10. Calorific value (CV): 43500kJ/Kg
1. Brake power, BP,
= (2πNT)
(60X1000)
= (2π X 1444 X 28)
60000

48
= 4.23 KW
2. Total Fuel Consumption, TFC
= (10 X 3600 X S.g)
( t X 1000)
= (10 X 3600 X 0.865)
(25.66 X 1000)
= 1.214 Kg/ Hr
3. Specific fuel consumption, SFC
= TFC
BP
= 1.214
4.23
= 0.287 Kg/ KW hr
4. Brake Thermal Efficiency, BTE
= (BP X 3600 X 100)
(TFC X CV)
= (4.23 X 3600 X 100)
(1.214 X 43500)
= 28.84 %
The calculation is made by taking maximum brake power for petro-diesel. Similarly
using the same above mentioned formulas various parameters are calculated with the
observed readings.
5.2 Engine Performance
5.2.1 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of
brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the
engine develops power from fuel.

49
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) = Total fuel consumption
Brake power
This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines. In CI
engines the BSFC increases at high brake powers owing to the increased fuel waste (smoke)
associated with high fuel-air ratios. At lower brake powers BSFC increases due to decrease in
mechanical efficiency.
As the speed is reduced from the point of best economy along a line of constant bmep,
the product of mechanical and indicated thermal efficiency appears to remain constant down
to the lowest operating speed. An interesting feature of the performance curves is that they
show the power at maximum economy is about half of the maximum power.
The variation of Brake Specific Fuel Consumption with Brake Power for different
ratio of Biodiesel for injection pressure 200bar are represented in Graph 5.1
Graph 5.1 BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption) curve VS BP( brake power)
5.2.2 Brake ThermalEfficiency (BTE)
B.TH = Brake Power
Heat Supplied
= BP x 100
mf x CV
Where,
mf = mass of fuel consumed in kg/s
CV = Calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg

50
Graph 5.2 BTE(Brake Thermal Efficiency) curve VS BP(Brake Power)
Graph 5.2 shows that the variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with Brake
power for different blends. Brake thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio between the brake
power output and the energy of the fuel combustion. The above graph shows as the Brake
power increases the brake thermal efficiency increases to an extent (at load 3.5KW) and then
decreases slightly at the end. The brake thermal efficiency reduces due to heat loss and
increase in brake power. The decrease in brake thermal efficiency for higher blends may be
due to the combined effect of its lower heating value and increase in fuel consumption. The
curve B30 is running nearer to the petro-diesel curve, which shows B30 blend can be a
favorable to existing diesel engine.
5.2.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
The variation of exhaust gas temperature with applied brake power for different
blends is shown in Graph 5.3. The result indicates that the exhaust gas temperature decreases
for different blends when compared to that of petro-diesel. The highest temperature obtained
is 462°C for petro-diesel for full brake power. The reason for the reduction in exhaust gas
temperature is due to the lower calorific value of blended fuel as compared to the petro-diesel
and lesser temperature, at the end of compression. Lower exhaust loss may be a possible
reason for higher performance.

51
Amount of heat carried away by exhaust gases,
Qg = mg x Cp x (T2-T1) in kJ
Where,
mg= mass of exhaust gas in kg/s
Cp=Specific heat at constant pressure in kJ/kg K
T1=Inlet Gas Temperature in K
T2= Outlet Gas Temperature in K
Graph 5.3 EGT(exhaust gas temperature) VS BP(brake power)
The variation of Exhaust gas temperature with respect to brake power is presented in
graph 5.3 for different blends & petro-diesel. The engine starts running with low temperature
at low brake power. As the brake power increases the temperature inside the engine increases
exponentially till it reaches full brake power. This rise of temperature is because of
continuous flow of exhaust gas through outlet port.
5.3 Exhaust Emission
Today, emissions are major criteria in selecting engine fuel. Every year emissions
standards for both spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI) engines are more and
more stringent. This section will focus on characterizing the emission behavior of the engine
under the different brake powers and speeds. An ideal engine combustion process would only

52
yield CO2, H2O, O2, and nitrogen, but actual combustion yields those products along with
NO, CO, hydro carbons (HC), and several other trace constituents.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide, or C02, is a desirable by-product that is produced when the carbon
from the fuel is fully oxidized during the combustion process. As a general rule, the higher
the carbon dioxide reading, the more efficient the engine is operating. Therefore, air/fuel
imbalances, misfires, or engine mechanical problems will cause CO2 to decrease. Remember,
"Ideal" combustion produces large amounts of CO2 and H20 (water vapor).
Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen (02) readings provide a good indication of a lean running engine, since 02
increases with leaner air/fuel mixtures. Generally speaking, 02 is the opposite of CO, that is,
02 indicate leaner air/fuel mixtures while CO indicates richer air/fuel mixtures. Lean air/fuel
mixtures and misfires typically cause high 02 output from the engine.
Other Exhaust Emissions
There are a few other exhaust components which impact drivability and/or emissions
diagnosis, that are not measured by shop analyzers.
They are:
1. Water vapor (H20)
2. Sulfur Dioxide (S02)
3. Hydrogen (HO)
4. Particulate carbon soot (C)
Sulfur dioxide (S02) is sometimes created during the combustion process from the
small amount of sulfur present in gasoline. During certain conditions the catalyst oxidizes
sulfur dioxide to make S03, which then reacts with water to make H2S04 or sulfuric acid.
Finally, when sulfur and hydrogen react, it forms hydrogen sulfide gas. This process creates
the rotten egg odor you sometimes smell when following vehicles on the highway. Particulate
carbon soot is the visible black "smoke you see from the tailpipe of a vehicle that's running
very rich.

53
Causes of Excessive Exhaust Emissions
As a general rule, excessive HC, CO, and NOx levels are most often caused by the
following conditions:
1. Excessive HC results from ignition misfire or misfire due to excessively lean or rich
air/fuel mixtures
2. Excessive CO results from rich air/fuel mixtures
3. Excessive NOx results from excessive combustion temperatures
5.3.1. Hydrocarbon Emission (HC)
Graph 5.4 HC(Hydrocarbon) with BP (Brake Power)
Unburnt hydro carbons emission is the direct result of incomplete combustion. It can
be observed from HC emissions of Simarouba blends are highly lower than petro-diesel fuel.
Because the petro-diesel is having an incomplete and unstable combustion of the tested fuels.
The Simarouba biodiesel blends, generally exhibit lower HC emission at lower engine brake
powers and higher HC emission at higher engine brake powers. If the combustion is complete
then more number of oxygen liberates, otherwise the formation of oxygen will be less.
Because of relatively less oxygen available for the reaction when more fuel is injected into
the engine cylinder at a high engine brake power. At near stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures,
hydro carbon emissions are higher and lean fuel mixtures have substantially low HC
emission. They are primarily irritating. They are major contributors to eye and respiratory
irritation caused by photochemical smog. The emission amount of HC (due to incomplete
combustion) is closely related to Design variables, operating variables and engine condition.
The Surface to volume ratio greatly affects the HC emission. Higher the surface to volume
ratio, higher the HC emission.

54
The variation of hydrocarbon emission for different blends is shown in graph 5.4
At lower BP petro-diesel is having less HC of 10 ppm but with increase of power the HC
increases to 49ppm. It is seen from the graph that blend B30 having less HC emission
compared to all blends, hence it is been preferred as best alternate for petro-diesel.
5.3.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Graph 5.5 CO (Carbon monoxide) with BP(Brake Power)
The carbon monoxide emission is shown here for different blends and compared with
petro-diesel. With increase in brake power the CO emission increases. As the brake power
increases the rich mixture is supplied hence incomplete combustion takes place and more
carbon monoxide is produced.It has a strong affinity (200 times) for combining with the
hemoglobin of the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the
hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the blood tissues. CO affects the central nervous system. It is
also responsible for heart attacks and a high mortality rate.
As the products cool down to exhaust temperature, major part of CO reacts with
oxygen form CO2 However, a relatively small amount of CO will remain in exhaust, its
concentration creasing with rich mixtures.
The carbon emissions are shown in graph 5.5 for different blends and compared with
petro-diesel. The CO emission is increasing with increase in brake power. As the brake power
increases the rich mixture is supplied hence incomplete combustion takes place and more
carbon monoxide produced. CO emission is more for B10 (about 0.1%) when compared with
all other blends. The CO emission at the full brake power is more for all the blends, this is

55
due to maximum supply of air-fuel mixture to the engine. It is seen from the graph that blend
B30 having less CO emission compared to all blends, hence it is been preferred as best
alternate for petro-diesel.
5.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Graph 5.6 NOX (Nitrogen Oxide) with BP(Brake Power)
The variation of NOx emission for different dual biodiesel blends is indicated in
below graph 5.6. Oxides of nitrogen in the engine exhaust are a combination of nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high temperatures.
Therefore, high temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main reasons for the
formation of NOx. The NOx emission for all the fuels tested followed an increasing trend
with respect to brake power. These are known to cause occupational diseases. It is estimated
that eye and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15 ppm of nitrogen
oxide, and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposure to 25 ppm of nitrogen oxide.It also
aggravates diseases like bronchitis and asthma.
Graph 5.6 shows the variation of NOx emissions with brake power for different
blends & petro-diesel. It is seen from the graph that blend B30 having less NOX emission
compared to all blends, hence it is been preferred as best alternate for petro-diesel.
At high combustion temperatures, the following chemical reactions take place behind
the flame:

56
5.3.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Graph 5.7 CO2 (Carbon dioxide) with BP(Brake Power)
If, however, combustion is complete, the only products being expelled from the
exhaust would be water vapor which is harmless, and carbon dioxide, which is an inert gas
and, as such it is not directly harmful to humans.
The product CO is considered undesirable emission, it also represent loss of chemical
energy. CO behave as fuel that can be combusted to supply additional thermal energy,
CO + ½ O2 CO2 + heat
Graph 5.7 shows the variation of CO2 emissions with brake power for different blends
& petro-diesel. The CO2 emission for biodiesel and its blends is higher than that of petro-
diesel at all brake powers. As the brake power increases the supply of fuel increases which
causes the emission of CO2 at full brake power. The blend B30 value moving nearer to the
petrol-diesel value. Hence we can conclude that the B30 blend will be a promising fuel.
5.4 Combustion Analysis
5.4.1. Cylinder Pressure VS Crank Angle
If we refer to the graph of engine pressure Vs crank angle, this graph shows how the
pressure in the combustion chamber, between the compression rings, and in the crankcase
varies with crank angle in an engine cycle. There is a time delay in the pressure change from
one chamber to the next due to the restricted flow passage created by the compression rings.
Later in the power stroke, when the exhaust valve opens, pressure between the compression

57
rings will be greater than in the combustion chamber, and some gases will be forced back into
the chamber. This is called reverse blow by.
It is clear that peak pressure increases while increasing the brake power. All the
biodiesel blends, combustion starts earlier in comparison to petro-diesel. It is also observed
that peak pressure shifts towards TDC with increasing brake power for all the blends. Much
of variation in combustion process is not observed among these blends. It is considered for all
the blends (B10, B20, B30, B100 & petro-diesel). The variation of Pressure VS Crank angle
is considered for different brake powers. The variations of peak pressure at different loads are
showed below.
a). 00% Brake power
b). 25% Brake power
c). 50% Brake power
d).75% Brake power
e). 100% Brake power
a). At 00% Brake power:
Graph 5.8 Cylinder pressure v/s Crank angle for petro-diesel and SOME Biodiesels blends
In Graph 5.8 the pressure value is increasing with increase of crank angle up to peak
point (5o to 10o), then decreases with increasing angle. The peak pressure attained by
diesel is53bar. Since the engine is at zero load, hence the pressure is low.

58
b). 25% Brake power:
point (5o to 10o) then decreases with increasing angle. The peak pressure attained by
diesel is 59bar.
c). 50% Brake power:
diesel is 62bar.

59
d). 75% Brake power:
diesel is 64bar.
e). 100% Brake power:
petro-diesel is 68bar.

60
6. CONCLUSION:
The present investigation evaluates production of SOME from Na2HPO4 and NaOH
mixed base catalyst and performance of SOME blends with petro-diesel are compared with
petro-diesel in a single cylinder, 4-stroke water cooled diesel engine model TAF 1 produced
by Kirloskar Oil Engines. This engine has a compression ratio of 17.5:1. It has a power rating
of 3.7 KW at 1200 rpm, 4 KW at 1500 rpm, 5.7 KW at 1800 rpm and 6.2 KW at 2000 rpm.
For varying loads and various blends of biodiesel with one compression ratio (17.5:1)
and single injection pressure (200bar) as engine varying parameters.
The following conclusions are drawn from this investigation.
i).The yield obtained by using homogeneous catalyst is less (86% to 92%) because the
formation of glycerine is more compared to heterogeneous catalyst.
ii). The use of mixed catalyst yields more biodiesel (920ml-950ml) and the catalyst will
be used 4 to 5 times by the addition of NaOH.
iii).SOME satisfies the important fuel properties as per ASTM specification of Biodiesel.
iv).Engine performance with biodiesel does not differ greatly from that of petro-diesel
fuel. The B30 shows good brake thermal efficiency in comparison with petro-diesel. A
little increase in fuel consumption is often encountered due to the lower calorific value of
the biodiesel.
v). Most of the major exhaust pollutants such as HC is reduced with the use of biodiesel
and the blend as compared to diesel. But NOX emissions increase when biodiesel fuelled
with diesel as compared to conventional diesel fuel. This is one of the major drawbacks of
biodiesel.
vi).Among the blends, B30 gives better results as Brake thermal efficiency, brake specific
fuel consumption, Exhaust gas temperature, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, Carbon
monoxides and Carbon dioxides without any modification in the petro-diesel engine.
vii).In view of the petroleum fuel shortage, B30 blend biodiesel can certainly be
viii). The existing petro-diesel engine performs satisfactorily on biodiesel fuel without
any significant engine modifications.
ix). Engine performance with biodiesel does not differ greatly from that of petro-diesel.
The B20 shows good brake thermal efficiency in comparison with petro-diesel. A little
increase in fuel consumption is often encountered due to the lower calorific value of the
biodiesel.

61
x). Most of the major exhaust pollutants such as CO, CO2 and HC are reduced with the
use of neat biodiesel and the blend as compared to petro-diesel which is very much
beneficiary. But NOX emissions increase when fuelled with petro-diesel and biodiesel
fuel blends as compared to petro-diesel fuel. This is one of the major drawbacks of
biodiesel as NOX emission is hazardous to human health.
xi). The pressure vs crank angle varies with the blending used inside the cylinder. ie., the
pressure is less for biodiesel blends and for petro-diesel is more, but in this graph we find
the variation in less amount. Hence the curves are compared with loads not with blends.
xii) The reaction time taken by heterogeneous catalyst is more when compared to mixed
base catalyst.
From all the above points it can be concluded that produced Simarouba oil Methyl
Ester (SOME) using mixed base catalyst (NaOH+Na2HPO4), is safer and can certainly be

62
7. SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK:
Some aspects are identified with the present work, and are presented below.
 Biodiesel production technology needs further study in the aspects of elimination of
biodiesel purification process by using newly developed heterogeneous base catalyst
like, Zeolites, MgO and ZnO etc instead of homogeneous catalyst (H2SO4 & NaOH).
 Along with neat simarouba Biodiesel some oxygenated fuel additives can be added
and Performance characteristics can be analyzed.
 The properties of blend may be further improved to make use of higher percentage of
simarouba oil in the blend by preheating the blend.
 Further analysis can be conducted on Computational fluid dynamics.
 Lithium ion impregnated calcium oxide as nano catalyst can be used for the biodiesel
production from simarouba oil.

63
8. REFERENCES:
[1] Ramadhas A.S, Jayaraj S., Muraleedharan C., “Use of vegetable oils as I.C. Engine
fuel – A review.” Renewable Energy, Vol 29, pp. 727- 742, 2004
[2] Anil Duhan, Yeshwant Suthar., “Effect of processing on seed oil of simarouba glauca
(dc): an underutilized plant”Vol-6, No.7, July 2011 ISSN 1990-6145
[3] Mishra S.R., Mohanty M.K., Das S.P., “Production of Bio-diesel (Methyl Ester) from
Simarouba Glauca Oil” Vol. 2(5), 66-71 ISSN 2231-606X
[4] Ma F. and Hanna M.A."Biodiesel production: A review”, Bio-resource Technol, 70, 1–
15 (1999)
[5] Gerpen J. V., “Biodiesel processing and production”, Fuel Process Technol, 86,1097–
1107 (2005)
[6] Joshi Syamsunder and Hiremath Shantha. 2000. “Simarouba - A potential oilseed
tree”, Current Science. 78: 694-697.
[7] Alcantra R., Amores J., Canoira L., Fidalgo E., Franco M.J. and Navarro A.,
“Catalytic production of biodiesel from soybean oil, used frying oil and tallow”, Biomass
and Bioenergy, 18(6), 515–27 (2000)
[8] Mishra Sruti Ranjan, Mohanty Mahendra Kumar and Pattanaik Ajay Kumar
“Preparation of Biodiesel from Crude oil of Simarouba glauca using CaO as a Solid Base
Catalyst” 49-53, Sept. (2012) ISSN 2277-2502 Vol. 1(9)
[9] Gryglewicz S., “Rapeseed oil methyl esters preparation using heterogeneous catalysts”,
Bioresour Technol, 70, 249–53 (1999)
[10] Tanabe K. and Holderich W.F., “Industrial application of solid acid–base catalysts”,
Appl Catal A, 181, 399–434 (1999)
[11] S.T.Jiang, F.J.Zhang “Sodium Phosphate as a solid catalyst for Biodiesel
preparation”

64
[12] Lohith.N, Dr. R.Suresh, Yathish.K.V, “Experimental Investigation Of Compressed
Ignition Engine Using Karanja Methyl Ester (Kome) As Alternative Fuel”, ISSN: 2248-9622,
Vol. 2, Issue4, July-August 2012, pp.1172-1180
[13] Benson Babu, Dr. R.Suresh, Yathish.K.V, “Effect of dairy scum methyl ester on DI
engine performance and emission”, ISSN : 2319-3182, Volume-1, Issue-1, 2012
[14] Dr.R.Suresh, Suresh Raddy, K.V.Yathish, “ Experimental Investigation of Diesel
Engine Using Blends of Jatropha Methyl Ester as Alternative Fuel”, ISSN 2250-2459,
Volume 2, Issue 7, July 2012
[15] Dae-Won Lee, Young-Moo Park, Kwan-Young Lee, “Heterogeneous Base Catalysts
for Transesterification in BiodieselSynthesis” Springer Science, Business Media, LLC 2009.
[16] Shuli Yan, Steven O. Salley, Manhoe Kim, K. Y. Simon Ng , “Using Calcium Oxide
Based Catalysts in Transesterification of SoybeanOil with Methanol” Department of
Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Wayne State University,5050 Anthony Wayne
Drive, Detroit, MI, USA, 4820, 2009
[17] N.R.Banapurmath et al, “Combustion Characteristics Of A Four Stroke C.I Engine
Operated On Honge Oil, Neem And Rice Bran Oils When Directly Injected And Dual Fuelled
With Producer Gas Induction”, Renewable Energy 34, 1877-1884,2009.
[18] Avinash Kumar Agarwal, K. Rajamanoharan, “Experimental investigations of
performance and emissions of Karanja oil and its blends in a single cylinder agricultural
diesel engine”, Elsevier journal of Applied Energy- 86, 106–112, 2009.
[19] M.Pugazhvadivu, K.Jayachandran, “Investigation On The Performance And Exhaust
Emissions Of A Diesel Engine Using Preheated Waste Frying Oil As Fuel”, Renewable
Energy 30, 2189-2202, 2005.
Books:
[20] John.B.Heywood, Internal combustion engine fundamentals. (The McGraw Hill Book
Co; 1988)
[21] V.Ganesan, Internal combustion engines. (The McGraw-Hill Pvt Ltd, 2011)

65
Standards/ Patents:
[22] ASTM Standards for Biodiesel (B100).
Website References
 www.sciencedirect.com
 www.wikepedia.org
 www.chemistryabout.com

66
9. PUBLICATION ARISED FROM THE PRESENT WORK:
Amruth.E, Dr. R.Suresh, Yathish.K.V., “Production Of Simarouba Biodiesel
Using Mixed Base Catalyst, and Its Performance Study on CI Engine”.
International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol. 2
Issue 5, May - 2013 ISSN: 2278-0181
Amruth.E, Dr.R.Suresh Attended International Conference (AMMMT-2013)
held at Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumkur, Karnataka

69
10.Bio-Data:
Mr. AMRUTH E
C/O N GANESH RAO
#L-4, 4TH MAIN, 1ST STAGE
HEBBAL, MYSORE
PIN: 570016
MOB: 9008528080
Mail: amruth.e@gmail.com

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