1. 1
PERFORMANCEAND EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A
THERMAL BARRIER COATED FOUR STROKE CI ENGINE USING
DIESEL, BIODIESELAND ETHANOL BLENDs AS FUELs
ABSTRACT
India is producing a most of non-edible oils such as linseed, castor, mahua, rice
bran, karanji (pongamia), neem, kusum (Schlechera trijuga),etc. Some of these oils
produced are not being properly utilized. One hundred years ago, Rudolf diesel
tested vegetable oil as a fuel for his engine. With the advent of cheap petroleum,
appropriate crude oil fractions were refined to serve as a fuel and diesel fuels and
diesel engines evolved together. In the 1930s and the 1940s vegetable oils were used
as diesel engine fuels from time to time, but usually only in emergency conditions.
Recently, because of increase of increase in crude oil prices, limited resources of
fossil fuel and environmental concerns there has been renewed focus on vegetable
oils and animal fats to make bio-diesel.
In the present work, Diesel-Biodiesel-Ethanol and Diesel-Biodiesel-Diethyl ether
fuels were tested in normal diesel engine and thermal barrier coated (Al2O3) diesel
engine. The various performance parameters are calculated and emission parameters
were studied.
The results shows that the Brake thermal efficiency was found to be highest for
TDBD .The Torquewas found out to be constant irrespective of the fuel blends
used .The Brake mean effective pressure was also out be constant irrespective of
the fuel blends used.DBD was found to have lowest Specific energy consumption
at initial loads. The Specific fuel consumption of all the fuels was found to be
similar at higher loads .TDBE had lowest CO emissions among all fuels used.
TDBE was also found have lowest CO2 at higher loads. DB had the lowest HC
emissions at all loads .TDBE and TDBD had higher NOx emissions among all fuels
used. TDBE and TDBD had higher smoke emissions at initial loads but eventually
had lower smoke emissions at higher loads.

2. 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS 7
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 9
3. AN OVERVIEW OF BIODIESEL, ETHANOL, DIETHYL
ETHER AND THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS
3.1 PRIMARY ALCOHOLS AS FUELS FOR ENGINES 16
3.2 PROPERTIES 18
3.3 VEGETABLE OILS AS ENGINE FUELS 19
3.4 BIODIESELAS ENGINE FUELS 21
3.5 TRANSESTERIFICATION 21
3.6 THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS 23

3. 3
3.7 DEE 26
4. COMPARISON OF FUEL PROPERTIES 27
4.1 FUEL PROPERTIES 27
4.2 EVALUATION OF THE FUEL PROPERTIES 28
4.3 COMPARISON OF FUEL PROPERTIESOF DIESEL 29
5. EXPERIMENTALSETUP DETAILS
5.1ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS 30
5.2 INSTRUMENTSUSED
5.2.1 EDDYCURRENT DYNAMOMETERS 31
5.2.2 AVL 437 SMOKEMETER SPECIFICATION 31
5.2.3 FIVE GAS ANALYZER 32
5.2.4 AVL GAS ANALYZER SPECIFICATIONS 33
5.2.5 AVL SMOKEMETER 34
6. METHODOLOGY
6.1 FUELS USED 35
6.2 TEST PROCEDUREFOR ENGINE 36
6.3 EXPERIMENTALSETUP 37
7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 38
7.1 PERFORMANCECHARACTERISTICS 39

4. 4
7.1.1 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICENCY 39
7.1.2 TORQUE 40
7.1.3 BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE 40
7.1.4 SPECIFIC ENERGYCONSUMPTION 41
7.2 EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS 42
7.2.1 CO EMISSION 42
7.2.2 CO2 EMISSION 43
7.2.3 HC EMISSION 43
7.2.4 NOX EMISSION 44
7.2.5 SMOKE EMISSION 45
8. MATLAB PROGRAM AND SIMULINK MODEL 47
8.1 MATLAB AND SIMULINK 47
8.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT OF MATLAB PROGRAM 48
8.3 GRAPHS PLOTTED BYTHE MATLAB PROGRAM 49
8.4 SIMULINK MODELFOR FINDING
PERFORMANCEPARAMETERS 51
CONCLUSION 53
APPENDIX 54

5. 5
REFERENCES 55
TABLE OF FIGURES
1. MINIMUM THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF SOME
MATERIALS 24
2. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY WITH TEMPERATURE
OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 24
3. COMPARISON OF FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF DIESEL,
BIODIESELAND ITS BLENDS 28
4. COMPARISON OF VISCOSITIESOF DIESEL, BIODIESEL
AND ITS BLENDS 28
5. COMPARISON OF CLOUD POINT AND POUR POINT OF
DIESEL, BIODIESELAND ITS BLENDS 29
6. EXPERIMENTALSETUP FOR THE PROJECT 36
7. PHOTOGRAPHOF THE EXPERIMENTALSETUP 37
8. PISTON CROWN AND CYLINDER HEAD COATED WITH
Al2O3 37
9. VARIATION OF BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCYWITH

6. 6
POWER 39
10.VARIATION OF TORQUE WITH RESPECT TO POWER 40
11.VARIATION OF BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE
WITH RESPECT TO POWER 41
12.VARIATION OF SPECIFIC ENERGYCONSUMPTION WITH
RESPECTTO POWER 41
13.VARIATION OF CO WITH RESPECT TO POWER 42
14.VARIATION OF CO2 WITH RESPECT TO POWER 43
15. VARIATION OF HC WITH RESPECTTO POWER 44
16.VARIATION OF NOX WITH RESPECTTO POWER 45
17.VARIATION OF SMOKE WITH RESPECTTO POWER 45

7. 7
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED FOR ALTERNATIVE FUELS
The world is presently confronted with the crises of fossil fuel depletion and
environmental degradation. Indiscriminate extraction and excessive consumption of
fossilfuels have led to reduction in underground carbonresources (fossilfuels) [11].
The search for alternative fuels, which promise a harmonious conservation,
efficiency and environmental preservation, has become highly pronounced in the
present context. The fuels of bio-origin can provide a feasible solution to this
worldwide petroleum crisis. Gasoline and diesel-driven automobiles are the major
sources of green-house emissions. Scientists around the world have the potential to
quench the ever increasing energy thirst of today’s population. The other major
problem the world is facing now is global warming [11].
Energy comes from renewable sources of energy such as wood, bio mass, wind,
sunlight etc. It also comes fromnon-renewable sources ofenergy suchas fossilfuels.
The excessive use of these non-renewable fuels has caused pollution to air, water
and land. Two centuries of unprecedented industrialization, driven mainly by fossil
fuels, has changed the face of this planet. The present civilization cannot survive
without motor cars and electricity. This pollution and accelerating energy
consumption has affected the earths land mass, atmosphere and oceans [7].
Particularly, the more important is the loss of bio-diversity. Fortunately, the last 25
years has seen the growing awareness of some of these consequences.
In this century it is believed that the crude oil and the petroleum products could
becomescarceand more costly. Day-to-day the fuel economyis becoming improved
and it would continuously be improved. Another reason motivating the development

8. 8
of alternative fuels for IC engines is the concern over emission problems of gasoline
and diesel engines. Combined with other air polluting systems, large number of
automobiles is the major contributor of to the air quality problem of the world [4].
Quite a lot of improvements have been made in reducing the emissions from the
automobile engines. Lots of effort has gone into reducing the exhaust. However
more improvements are needed to bring down the ever-increasing air pollution due
to automobile pollution. Another reason for the alternative fuel development is the
fact that large percentage of crude oil is imported from other countries. This would
reduce the economic revenue of the country [4]. Use indigenous alternative fuels
would give a boost to the economic revenue of the country. The present energy
scenario has also stimulated active research in interest in non-petroleum, renewable
and non-polluting fuels. The world reserves of primary energy and raw materials
are, obviously, limited. According to an estimate the reserves of primary energy will
last for 218 for coal, 41 years for oil, and 63 years for natural gas, under a business
–as-usual scenario [8]. The enormous growth of world population, increased
technical development, and standard of living in industrial nations has led to this
intricate situation in the field of energy supply and demand. The prices of crude-oil
keep fluctuating and rising on a daily basis. This necessitates the developing and
commercializing fossil fuel alternatives from bio-origin. This may well be the main
reason behind the growing awareness and interest for unconventional bio energy
sources and fuels in various developing countries, which are striving hard to offset
the oil monopoly.
Various bio-fuel energy resources include biomass, biogas, primary alcohols,
vegetable oils, biodiesel etc. These alternative energy resources are largely
environmental friendly but they have to be evaluated for on case-to-case basis for
their advantages, disadvantages and specific applications [2]. Some of these fuels
can be used directly while the others need to be formulated to bring the relevant
properties closer to conventional fuels.

9. 9
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
K. Suresh Kumar , R.Velraj , R.Ganesan [1] was tested using diesel, pure biodiesel
and four different blends of diesel and biodiesel (B20, B40, B60, B80). For the
blends B20 and B40 the BSFC is lower than or equal to the diesel. As the
concentration of PPME increases in the blends the BSFC increases at all loads and
the percentage difference is higher at low loads. The CO emission is almost absent
for B40 and B60 at all operating conditions. The HC emission increases for diesel
for increase in load and is almost nil for all PPME blends except for B20. The NOX
emission follows an increasing trend with respect to load. From the experimental
investigations it can be seen that PPME with diesel up to 40% by volume (B40)
could replace diesel for diesel engine operations by giving better performance and
lesser emissions.
H.Raheman , A.G. Phadatare [2] The karanja methyl ester (biodiesel, B100) and its
blends (B20, B40, B60, B80) were used to test a single cylinder, four stroke, water
cooled diesel engine. The torque increased with increase in load. The torques
produced in case of B20 and B40 were 0.1-13% higher than diesel. In case of B60
to B100, it reduced by 4-23% from that ofdiesel. The BSFC decreased with increase
in load. B20 and B40 showed 0.8-7.4% lower than that of diesel. In case of B60-
B100, the BSFC consumption was 11-48% higher than that of diesel. The BTE was
found to increase with the increase in load. The maximum brake thermal efficiencies
26.79% and 26.19% for B20 and B40, which were higher than that of diesel
(24.62%).
Sanjib Kumar Karmee , Anju Chadha [3] Transesterification of the crude oil of
pongamia pinnata was done using KOH at two different temperatures (45°C and

10. 10
60°C) with two different molar ratios of oil to methanol (1:3 and 1:10).
Transesterification of crude pongamia oil was also done using solid acids catalyst
(Hβ-Zeolite, Montmorillonite K-10 or ZnO) with oil to molar ratio of1:10.At 45°C,
the maximum conversion of 80% was observed for molar ratio of 1:3 whereas the
conversion of 83% was observed with molar ratio of1:10 with an initial lag time. At
a molar ratio of 1:10 increasing the reaction temperature from 45°C to 60°C resulted
increase of conversion from 83% to 92%. When the transesterification reaction was
catalyzed by solid catalyst (Hβ-Zeolite, Montmorillonite K-10, orZnO) at 120°C the
conversion ratios were 83%, 59% and 47% for ZnO, Hβ-Zeolite and
Montmorillonite K-10 respectively. The transesterification of pongamia oil
increased to 95% at 60°C at a molar ratio of 1:10 with addition of THF
(Tetrahydrofuran).
Nagarhalli M.V, Nandedkar V.M, Mohite K.C [4] The test was carried on a single
cylinder, four stroke, constant speed engine using base diesel and diesel-biodiesel
blends (B20 and B40). At an injection pressure of 200 bar HC emissions decreased
by 12.8% for B20 and 3% for B40 at full load. NOX decreased by 39% for B20 and
28% for B40 at full load. BSEC increased by 7% for B20 and 1.9% for B40 at full
load. There was no significant change in efficiency in all the 3 cases.
R.K.Singh , Saraswath Rath [5] Karanja methyl ester was blended with diesel in
proportions of5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% and 100%. The test was carried
out in a four stroke, single cylinder DI diesel engine. The brake thermal efficiency
at all load conditions was higher for B100. Almost all blends show slightly better
BTE than diesel at higher-load conditions. The brake specific energy consumption
(BSEC) was found to be lower for B30 than diesel. The exhaust gas temperature was
found to be lowest for diesel fuel. The mechanical efficiency for B30 is better than
diesel fuel for no lower load conditions.
S.Sivalakshmi , Dr.T.Balusamy [6] The blends ofdi-ethyl ether in JOME was tested,
namely 5%(B-D5), 10%(B-D10), 15%(B-D15) and 20%(B-D20) by volume in
addition to base diesel and 100% JOME. The experiments were conducted on single
cylinder, four stroke, naturally aspirated direct injection diesel engine. The brake
thermal efficiency was found to be lowest for JOME at all loads when compared to
diesel fuel. The brake thermal efficiency increases with addition of DEE. However

11. 11
addition of DEE above 15% causes decrease in thermal efficiency. The brake
specific fuel consumption was found to reducewith the increase in load for all blend
of fuels. It was found that the brake specific fuel consumption is improved about9%
with 15% DEE blend at maximum load. Addition of DEE made the lowest level of
smoke at no load and part load conditions and the highest level of smoke at higher
and full load conditions. At high loads, the exhaust CO emissions increases with
increase in DEE fraction in the blends. The hydrocarbon emission was found to be
higher with the increase of DEE fraction in the blends. Addition up to 15% DEE
made the lowest level of carbon di oxide at low and part loads whereas the highest
level was at high and full load.
K.Sureshkumar , R.Velra [7] The biodiesel was mixed with diesel in varying
proportions from 20% to 100% (B20, B40, B60, B80 and B100. The test was carried
on a single cylinder, four stroke, water-cooled and constant speed compression
ignition engine. The BSFC and BSEC for all fuel blends and diesel tested decrease
with the increase in load. For B20 blend the BSFC is lower than diesel for all loads.
For B40, the BSFC was almost the same as that of diesel. Forblends with biodiesel
concentration above 40%, the BSFC was observed to be greater than diesel. The
BSEC also increases than the diesel as the concentration of biodiesel in the blend
increases. The CO emission for diesel is more than all the biodiesel blends under all
the loading conditions. The CO concentration is totally absent for the blends of B40
and B60 and as the biodiesel concentration in the blend increases above 60% the
presence of CO observed. The CO2 emission increased with the increase in load for
all the blends. The blends B40 and B60 emit low CO2 emissions. The HC emission
decreases with the decrease in load except for B20 where some traces are seen at no
load and full load. The NOx emissions for all the fuel tested followed an increasing
trend with respect to load. The reduction was remarkable forB20 and B60.
Avinash Kumar Agarwal [8] Ethanol is one of the possible alternative fuels for the
partial replacement of mineral diesel in CI engines. The results indicate no power
reduction in the engine operation on diesel-ethanol blends (up to 20%) at a 5% level
of significance. BSFC increased by up to 9% (with ethanol up to 20%) in the blends.
The exhaust temperatures and exhaust emissions (CO and NOx) were lower on
operations on ethanol-diesel blends. The thermal efficiency of an engine operating
on biodiesel is generally better than operating on diesel. The brake specific energy

12. 12
consumption (BSEC) is a more reliable criterion compared to brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) for comparing fuels with different calorific values and
densities. The specific fuel consumption values of methyl esters were generally less
than thoseof raw vegetable oils. Higher thermal efficiency, lower BSFC and exhaust
temperature are reported for all blends of biodiesel compared to mineral diesel. The
carbondeposits forbiodiesel-fueled engine were found to besubstantially lower than
the diesel fueled engine.
Huseyin Aydin , Cumali Ilkilhc [9] Commercial diesel fuel, 20% biodiesel and 80%
diesel fuel, called here as B20 and 80% biodiesel and 20% ethanol, called here as
BE20, were used in a single cylinder, four stroke direct injection engine. Maximum
torque was obtained at 2000 rpm for both B20 and BE20 fuels but at 2500 rpm for
DF. The engine torque that obtained for BE20 was higher than both those obtained
for diesel and B20 fuels. Average increase of torque values for BE20 was 1.2% and
1.3% when compared to diesel fuel and B20, respectively. The obtained power for
DF and BE20 was almost similar. However the power that obtained from B20 was
lower than that of other fuels. BE20 fuel operation showed lower BSFC, than
expected, as especially at lower engine speeds. Higher BSFC was observed when
running the engine with B20 fuel. Average brake-specific fuel consumption for
usage ofB20 was 22.32% higher than that ofdiesel fuel and 20.13% higher than that
of BE20. It can be observed that brake thermal efficiency was 31.71% at 2500 rpm
for BE20 and those ofDF and B20 were 28.15% and 25.95% respectively. The brake
thermal efficiency of B20 blend was lower compared to DF and BE20. The exhaust
gas temperature with BE20 was higher when compared to those of diesel and B20
fuels. The CO emitted by B20 and BE20 biodiesel blends, is lower than the ones for
the corresponding diesel fuel case. The NOx emissions were found to be high, 102
and 129 ppm at 1000 rpm and 1500 engine speeds for the BE20 operated engine.
However, at 2000 rpm and higher speed engine operations, the NOx emission was
lower when compared with both diesel and B20 fuels. At 3000 rpm engine speed,
for BE20 operation NOx was found to be lower, 131 ppm compared to diesel of 245
ppm. CO2 emissions were found to be higher for diesel and BE20 fuels.
D.H.Qi , H.Chen , L.M. Geng , Y.Z.Bian [10] An experimental investigation is
conducted to evaluate the effects of using diethyl ether and ethanol as additives to

13. 13
biodiesel/diesel blends on the performance, emissions and combustion
characteristics of a direct injection diesel engine. The test fuels are denoted as B30
(30% biodiesel and 70% diesel in vol.), BE-1 (5% diethyl ether, 25% biodiesel and
70% diesel in vol.) and BE-2 (5% ethanol, 25% biodiesel and 70% diesel in vol.)
respectively. The results indicate that, compared with B30, there is slightly lower
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) for BE-1. Drastic reduction in smoke is
observed with BE-1 and BE-2 at higher engine loads. Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions are found slightly higher for BE-2. Hydrocarbon
(HC) emissions are slightly higher for BE-1 and BE-2, but carbon monoxide (CO)
are slightly lower. The peak pressure, peak pressure rise rate and peak heat release
rate of BE-1 are almost similar to those of B30, and higher than those of BE-2 at
lower engine loads. At higher engine loads the peak pressure, peak pressurerise rate
and peak heat release rate of BE-1 are the highest and those of B30 are the lowest.
BE-1 reflects better engine performance and combustion characteristics than BE-2
and B30.
Gvidonas Labeckas ,Stasys Slavinskas , Marius Mazeika , Kastytis Laurinaitis
[11] The tests were conducted on a four stroke, four cylinder, direct injection,
unmodified, naturally aspirated diesel engine operating onbaseline (DF) arctic class
2 diesel fuel (80 vol %), rapeseed methyl ester (5 vol %) and anhydrous (200 proof)
ethanol (15 vol %) blend (B5E15). The BSFC of a fully loaded engine operating on
ethanol-diesel-biodiesel blend B5E15 under BMEP 0.75, 0.76 and 0.68 MPa is
higher by 10.30 %, 10.71 % and 9.65 % because of both net heating value of biofuel
lower by 6.18 % comparing with diesel fuel and brake thermal efficiency lower by
5.56 %, 2.86 % and 2.86 % relative to that of neat diesel fuel at corresponding1400,
1800 and 2200 rpm speeds. The maximum NOx emissions emanating from blend
B5E15 are lower by 13.4 %, 18.0 % and 12.5 % and smoke opacity is diminished by
13.2 %, 1.5 % and 2.7 % throughout a whole speed range relative to their values
measured from neat diesel fuel. As a reasonable payoff for NOx related advantages,
CO amounts from oxygenated blend BE15 are lower by 6.0 % for low 1400 rpm
speed and they are bigger by 20.1 % and 28.2 % for a higher 1800 and 2200 rpm
speeds and emissions of HC are higher by35.1 %, 25.5 % and 34.9 % relative to that
measured from neat diesel fuel at corresponding 1400, 1800 and 2200 rpm speeds.
In the case of operating on blend B5E15 residual oxygen O2 content in the exhaust
manifold is lower by 5.0 %, 7.4 % and 4.3 % and carbondioxide CO2 emissions are
higher by 2.8 %, 3.4 % and 2.4 % relative to that obtained from diesel fuel at speeds
of 1400, 1800 and 2200 rpm.

14. 14
M.Mohamedmusthafa, S.Sivapirakasam,M.Udayakumar,K.Balasubramanian [12]
The compression ignition engine used for the study was Kirloskar TV-I, single
cylinder, four stroke, constant speed, vertical, water cooled and direct injection
diesel engine. In the first phase, engine combustion chamber elements (cylinder
head, cylinder liner, valves, and piston crown face) were coated with 200 µm
thickness nano-ceramic material of Al2O3 by using plasma spray-coating method. In
second phase, experiments were carried out on Al2O3- coated engine by using
pongamia methyl ester (PME), PME blends of 20 and 40% by volume with diesel
and pure diesel. The test run was repeated on uncoated engine and the results were
compared. The increase in thermal efficiency was 1.6% for pure diesel, 0.8% for
PME40 and 7.8% for PME20 in the coated engine when compared to the uncoated
engine. It was observed that the specific fuel consumption (SFC) of the test fuel
decreased with the increase in load. The decrease in SFC was observed to be 2% for
pure diesel, 4% for PME 100, 5.8% for PME40 and 7.8% for PME20 in the coated
engine when compared to the uncoated engine. The decrease in smoke density for
100% power output in the coated engine when compared with the uncoated engine
are 24.4% for diesel, 27.2% for PME100, 32.2% for PME40 and 20% for PME20.
NOx emission increases with the increase in engine load. Increase in NOx emission
in the coated engine, compared with the uncoated engine are 44.2% fordiesel, 12.8%
for PME100, 30.9% for PME40 and 32.6% forPME20. There was an increase in the
temperature of exhaust gas in the caseof the coated engine for all test fuels than that
of the uncoated engine.
Murat Ciniviz [13] The test was carried out on a Mercedes benz OM 364A direct
injection turbo diesel four cylinder engine. The cylinder heads, valves and pistons
with yttria stabilized zirconia layer with a thickness of 0.35 mm nickel-chromium-
aluminium bond coat, as well as the atmospheric plasma spray coating method with
a thickness of 0.15 mm. The pure diesel fuel was tested on both the coated (LHR)
and the uncoated engine (SDE). A sole blend ofdiesel and ethanol (10% ethanol and
90% diesel) was tested in the coated engine (LHReth) alone. All comparisons are
made according to the SDE diesel conditions. The engine power increases by 2% at
all speeds in LHR diesel engine condition. In LHReth condition, the engine power
decreases by 22.5% at all speeds. Theengine torque increases by 2.5% at all engine
speeds in the LHR diesel engine condition. In the LHReth condition, the engine
torque decreases by 23% at all engine speeds. The brake power increased with the
increase in speed in the LHReth condition. The specific fule consumption was lower
than by 1% during all operating range of the SDE in the case of the use of LHR.

15. 15
Similarly, the specific fuel consumption increases approximately to 54% during all
operating range of the SDE engine in case of the use of LHReth. According to the
SDE, LHR shows an increment of average 1% depending on the engine speed at full
load in effective efficiency. LHReth shows a decrement of average 35% depending
on engine speed at full load in effective efficiency.
Danepudi Jagadish, Puli Ravi Kumar, K. Madhu Murthy [14] The effect of
supercharging on performance of a DI diesel engine using ethanol and diesel blends
as fuel and using palm-stearin methyl ester as additive is studied. The performance
of the engine is evaluated in terms of BSFC, thermal efficiency, exhaust gas
temperature, unburnt hydrocarbons, carbonmonoxide, nitrogen oxide emissions and
smoke opacity. The investigation results showed that the output and torque
performance of the engine with supercharging was improved in comparison of a
naturally aspirated engine. It is observed that the thermal efficiency of diesel ethanol
blends were higher than that of diesel. With supercharging brake thermal efficiency
is further increased. BSFC of ethanol, ester and diesel blends are lower compared to
diesel at full loads. Further reduction in BSFC was noted by supercharging. NOx
emission seems to decrease and HC, CO emissions are more with diesel-ethanol-
ester mixtures.
K.Muralidharan, P.Govindarajan [15] In this paper, effect of fuel injection timing on
engine performance and emission characteristics of a single cylinder DI engine has
been experimentally investigated using pongamia pinnata methyl ester and its
blends with diesel from 0% to 30% with an increment of 50% at varying
loads(20%,40%,60%,80%). The tests were conducted at three different injection
timings (19, 23 and 27 CA). The experimental work reveals that increasing the
concentration of methyl ester in diesel increases DSFC and emissions of NOx and
CO2 while BTE and emissions of CO and HC showed a decreasing trend. Better
performance, HC and CO was observed during advanced injection timing for blend
B10. Retarted injection timing showed improvements over NOx and CO for blend of
B10.

16. 16
CHAPTER 3
AN OVERVIEW OF BIODIESEL, ETHANOL, DI ETHYL
ETHER AND THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS
3.1 PRIMARY ALCOHOLS AS FUELS FOR ENGINES
Avinash Kumar [8] explained that ethanol has been known as fuel for many
decades. Indeed, when henry Ford designed the Model T, it was his expectation that
ethanol, made from renewable biological materials would be a major automobile
fuel. However, gasoline emerged as the dominant transportation fuel in the early
twentieth century because of the ease of operation of gasoline engines with the
materials then available for engine construction, and a growing supply of cheaper
petroleum from oil field discoveries. But gasoline had many disadvantages as an
automotive fuel. The ‘new’ fuel had a lower octane rating than ethanol, was much
more toxic, was generally more dangerous, and emitted harmful air pollutants.
Gasoline was more likely to explode and burn accidently, gum would form on
storage surfaces, and carbon deposits would form in the combustion chamber.
Pipelines were needed for distribution from ‘area found’ to ‘area needed’. Petroleum
was much more physically and chemically diverse than ethanol, necessitating
complex refining procedures to ensure the manufacture of consistent ‘gasoline’
product. Because of its lower octane rating relative to ethanol, the use of gasoline
meant the use of lower compression engines and larger cooling systems. Diesel
engine technology, which developed soon after the emergence of gasoline as the
dominant transportation fuel, also resulted in the generation of large quantities of
pollutants. However, despite these environmental flaws, fuels made from petroleum
have dominated automobile transportation for the past three quarters of the century.
There are two reasons: cost per kilometer has been virtually the sole selection
criteria. Second, thelarge investments made bythe oil and auto industries in physical
capital, human skills and technology make the entry of a new cost competitive
industry difficult. Until very recently, environmental concerns have been largely
ignored.

17. 17
Ethanol is one ofthe possible fuels for diesel replacement in compressionignition
(CI) engines also. The application of ethanol as a supplementary CI engine fuel may
reduce environmental pollution, strengthen the agricultural economy, create job
opportunities, reduce diesel fuel requirements, and thus contribute in conserving a
major commercial energy source. Ethanol was first suggested as an automotive fuel
in USA in the 1930s, but was widely used only after 1970. Nowadays, ethanol is
used as fuel, mainly in Brazil, and as a gasoline additive for octane number
enhancement and improved combustion in USA, Canada and India. As gasoline
prices increase and emission regulations become more stringent, ethanol could be
given more attention as a renewable fuel or gasoline additive.
Alcohol is made from renewable resources like biomass from locally grown crops
and even waste products suchas waste paper, grass and tree trimmings etc. Alcohol
is an alternative transportation fuel since it has properties, which would allow its use
in existing engines with minor hardware modifications. Alcohols have higher octane
number than gasoline. A fuel with higher octane number can endure higher
compression ratios before engine starts knocking, thus giving engine an ability to
deliver more power efficiently and economically, produce less CO, HC and oxides
of nitrogen. Alcohol has higher heat of vaporization, therefore, it reduces the peak
temperature inside the combustion chamber leading to lower NOx emissions and
increased engine power. However, the aldehyde emissions go up significantly.
Aldehydes play an important role in the formation of photochemical smog.
Methanol is a simple compound. It does not contain sulfur or complex organic
compounds. The organic emissions from methanol combustion will have lower
reactivity than gasoline than gasoline fuels hence lower ozone forming potential. If
pure methanol is used then the emission of benzene, Methanol, gives higher
efficiency and is less flammable than gasoline but the range of methanol fueled
vehicle is as much as half less because of lower density and calorific value, so larger
fuel tank is required. M100 has invisible flames and it is explosive in enclosed tanks.
The cost of methanol is higher than gasoline. Methanol is toxic, and has corrosive
characteristics, emits ozone creative formaldehyde. Methanol poses an
environmental hazard in case of spill, as it is totally miscible with water. Ethanol is
similar to methanol, but it is considerably cleaner, less toxic and less corrosive. It
gives greater engine efficiency. Ethanol is grain alcohol and can be produced from

18. 18
agricultural crops e.g. sugarcane, corn etc. Ethanol is more expensive to produce,
has lower range, poses cold starting problems and large harvest of these crops.
Higher energy input is required in ethanol production compared to other energy
crops and it leads to environmental degradation problems such as soil degradation
[8].
3.2 PROPERTIES
Ethanol is isomeric with di-methyl ether (DME). The oxygen atom in the ethanol
possibly induces three hydrogen bonds. Although, they may have the same physical
formula, the thermodynamic behavior of ethanol differs significantly from that of
DME on account of stronger molecular association via hydrogen bonds in ethanol.
Alcohol fuels, methanol and ethanol have similar physical properties and emission
characteristics as that of petroleum fuels. Alcohol’s production is cheaper, simple
and eco -friendly. This way, alcohol would be a lot cheaper than gasoline fuel.
Alcohol can be produced locally, cutting down the transportation costs. Alcohol
fuels can be successfully used as IC engine fuels wither directly or preparing
biodiesel. Transesterification process utilizes methanol or ethanol and vegetable oils
as the process inputs. This route if utilizing alcohol as a diesel engine fuel is
definitely a superior route as the toxic emissions are drastically reduced. The
problem of corrosion of various engine parts utilizing alcohol as fuel is also solved
by way of transesterification. Alcohols have been attracting worldwide. Consumer
wants a cleaner fuel that can risk of harm to environment and health. Governments
aim to reduce reliance on imported energy and promote domestic renewable energy
programs, which could utilize domestic resources and create new economic
activities. Though biofuels remain relatively small in use compared to more
traditional forms, the scenario is changing rapidly. When factors are coupled with
vast agricultural resources, new technologies that reduceabatement and a strongwill
from government and private entrepreneurs, the markets for biofuels are slowly but
surely gaining momentum. The fuel ‘ethanolisation’ of the world alcohol industry is
set to continue [8].

19. 19
3.3 VEGETABLE OILS AS ENGINE FUELS
Dr. Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine to run ona hostof fuels including
coal dustsuspended in water, heavy mineral oil, vegetable oils. Dr. Diesel’s first
engine experiments were catastrophic failures, but by the time he showed his
engine at the world exhibition in Paris in 1900, his engine was running on 100%
peanut oil. Dr. Diesel was a visionary. In 1911 he stated “The diesel engine can
be fed with vegetable oils and would help considerably in the development of
agriculture in countries, which use it”. In 1912, Diesel said, “Theuseof vegetable
oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today. But such oils may become as
important as petroleum and the coal tars of the present time” [8]. Since Dr.
Diesel’s untimely death in 1913, his engine has been modified to run on the
polluting petroleum fuel, now known as “diesel”. Nevertheless, his ideas on
agriculture and his invention provided the foundation for a society fueled with
clean, renewable, locally grown fuel.
In the 1930s and 1940s, vegetable oils were used as diesel substitutes from
time to time, but usually in emergency situations. Recently, because of increase
in crude oil prices, limited resources of fossil fuel and environmental concerns,
there has been a renewed focus on vegetable oils and animal fats to make
biodiesel. Continued and increasing use of petroleum will intensify local air
pollution and magnify the global warming problems caused by carbon di oxide.
In a particular case, such as the emission of pollutants in the closed environment
ofunderground mines, biodiesel has the potential to reducethe level of pollutants
and the level of potential for probable carcinogens.
The advantages of using vegetable oils as fuels are:
1. Vegetable oils are liquid fuels from renewable sources.
2. They do not over-burden the environment with emissions.
3. Vegetable oils have potential for making marginal land productive by the
property of nitrogen fixation in the soil.
4. Vegetable oil’s production requires lesser energy input in production.

20. 20
5. Vegetable oils have higher energy content than other energy crops like
alcohols. Vegetable oils have 90% of the heat content of diesel and they have
a favorable output/input ratio of about 2-4:1 for un-irrigated crop production.
6. The current process ofthe vegetable oils in world are nearly competitive with
petroleum fuel price.
7. Simpler processing technology
8. These are not economically feasible yet.
9. Need further R&D work for development of on farm processing technology.
Due to the rapid decline in crude oil reserves, the use ofvegetable oils as diesel
fuels is again promoted in many countries. Depending upon climate and soil
conditions, different nations are looking into different vegetable oils for diesel
fuels. An acceptable alternative fuel for engine has to fulfill the environmental
and energy security needs without sacrificing the operating performance.
Vegetable oils can be successfully used in CI engines through engine
modifications and fuel modifications. Engine modifications include dual
fuelling, injection system modifications, heated fuel lines etc. fuel modifications
include blending of vegetable oils with diesel, transesterification,
cracking/pyrolysis, micro-emulsions, and hydrogenation to reduce
polymerization and viscosity [8].
1. Micro-emulsions:
To solve the problem of high viscosity of vegetable oils, micro-emulsions with
solvents such as methanol, ethanol, 1-butanol have been investigated. A micro-
emulsion is defined as a colloidal equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropic
fluid microstructures with dimension generally in the 1-150 nm range, formed
spontaneously form two normally immiscible liquids. They can improve the
spray characteristics by explosive vaporization of the low boiling constituents in
the micelles. Short term performance of micro-emulsions of aqueous ethanol in
soybean oil was nearly as good as that of no.2 diesel, inspite of the lower cetane
number and energy content.
2. Pyrolysis (Thermal cracking):

21. 21
Pyrolysis is the conversion of one substanceinto another by mean sof heat or by
heat in presence of a catalyst. The paralyzed material can be vegetable oils,
animal fats, natural fatty acids or methyl esters of fatty acids. The pyrolysis of
fats has been investigated for more than 100 years, especially in those areas of
the world that lack deposits of petroleum. Many investigators have studied the
pyrolysis of triglyceride to obtain products suitable for diesel engines. Thermal
decomposition of triglycerides produces alkanes, alkenes, alkadines, aromatics
and carboxylic acids.
3. Transesterification:
In organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the alkoxy
group of an ester compound byanother alcohol. Thereactions are often catalyzed
by an acid or a base. Transesterification is crucial for producing biodiesel from
bilipids. The transesterification process is the reaction of a triglyceride (fat/oil)
with a bio-alcohol to form esters and glycerol.
3.4 BIODIESEL AS ENGINE FUEL
The best way to use vegetable oil as a fuel is to convert it in to biodiesel.
Biodiesel is the name ofa clean burning mono-alkyl ester-based oxygenated fuel
made from natural, renewable sources such as new/used vegetable oils and
animal fats. The resulting biodiesel is quite similar to conventional diesel in its
main characteristics. Biodiesel contains no petroleum products, but it is
compatible with conventional diesel and can blended in any proportion with
mineral diesel to create stable biodiesel blend. The level of blending with
petroleum diesel is referred to as Bxx, where xx indicates the amount of biodiesel
in the blend (i.e. B10 blend is 10% biodiesel and 90% diesel. It can be used in CI
engine with no major modification in the engine hardware) [8].
3.5 TRANSESTERIFICATION
Vegetable oils have to undergo the process of transesterification to be usable
in internal combustion engines. Biodiesel is the product of the process of
transesterification. Biodiesel is biodegradable, non-toxic and essentially free
from sulfur, it is renewable and can be produced from agricultural and plant
resources. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel, which has correlation with sustainable

22. 22
development, energy conservation, management, efficiency and environmental
preservation [8].
Transesterification is the reaction of a fat or oil with alcohol to form esters
and glycerol. Alcohol combines with the triglyerides to form glycerol and esters.
A catalyst is usually used to improve the reaction rate and yield. Since the
reaction is reversible, excess alcohol is required to shift the equilibrium to the
product side. Among the alcohols that can be usd in transesterification process
are ethanol, methanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol. Alkali-catalyzed
transesterification is much faster than acid-catalyzed transesterification and is
most often used commercially. The process if transesterification brings a drastic
change in the viscosity of the vegetable oils. The biodiesel thus produced bythis
process is totally miscible with mineral diesel in any proportion. Biodiesel
viscosity comes very closeto that of handling system. Flash point ofthe biodiesel
gets lowered after esterification and the cetane number gets improved. Even
lower concentrations of biodiesel act as cetane improver for biodiesel blend.
Calorific value of biodiesel is also found to be very closeto mineral diesel. Some
typical observations from the engine tests suggested that the thermal efficiency
of the engine generally improves, cooling losses and exhaust gas temperature
increases, smoke opacity generally gets lower for biodiesel blends. Possible
reason may be additional lubricity properties of the biodiesel; hence reduced
frictional losses (FHP). The energy thus saved increases thermal efficiency,
cooling losses and exhaust losses from the engine. The thermal efficiency starts
reducing after a concentration of biodiesel. Flash point, density, pour point,
cetane number, calorific value of biodiesel come in very close to that of the
mineral diesel range [8].
Diesel engine can perform satisfactory for long run on biodiesel without any
hardware modifications. 20% of biodiesel is the optimum concentration for
biodiesel blend for improved performance. Increase in exhaust temperature
however leads to increased NOx emissions from the engine. While short term
tests are almost positive, longterm use of neat vegetable oils or their blends with
diesel leads to various engine problems such as, injector coking, ring sticking,
injector deposits etc. High viscosity, low volatility and a tendency for
polymerization in cylinder are root causes of many problems associated with

23. 23
direct use ofthese oils as fuels. The process oftransesterification yields vegetable
oil ester, which has shown promises as alternative diesel fuel as a result of
improved viscosity and volatility. Several researchers investigate the different
vegetable oil esters and find esters comparable with that of diesel. The yield of
biodiesel in the process of transesterification is affected by several parameters
[3]. The most important variables affecting are:
1. Reaction temperature
2. Molar ratio of alcohol and oil
3. Catalyst
4. Reaction time
5. Presence of moisture and free fatty acids
3.5 THERMAL BARRIER COATINGS
Clarke and phillphot [16] said that somewhat surprisingly, the experimental
investigation of thermal conductivity at very high temperatures has been a largely
neglected field since the work of Kingery and colleagues in the 1950s. They
measured the thermal conductivity of many oxides as a function of temperature and
studied the effects of porosity and of mixing two different oxides. They also
demonstrated that, after correction for the temperature dependence of thermal
expansion, the thermal conductivity of almost all oxides decreases as 1/T, in accord
with thermal conductivity being controlled bythe Umklapp inelastic phonon-phonon
scattering process. Themajority of their measurements (Fig 2) do not extend to the
temperatures of interest for future TBCs, but they did find that three fluorite oxides,
YSZ, UO2-x, and Th0.7U0.3O2+x, exhibit temperature-independent thermal
conductivity at high temperatures, quite different from other crystalline oxides but
very similar to that of fused silica. The absence of the characteristic 1/T dependence
was ascribed to the fact that both YSZ and UO2-x contain very high concentrations
of point defects that scatter phonons.

24. 24
Fig 1. Minimum thermal conductivities of some materials [16]
Fig 2. Variation of Thermal conductivity with Temperature for various materials
[16]

25. 25
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of heat flow in a temperature
gradient. In the first successful model for thermal conductivity, Debye used an
analogy with the kinetic theory of gases to derive an expression of the thermal
conductivity:
κ = CVνmΛ/3
where,
Cv is the specific heat, νm is the speed of sound, and Λ is the phonon mean free
path.
Both Kittel in 1949 and Kingery in 1955 suggested that the minimum value of
the thermal conductivity at high temperatures was that given by the above equation
with the phonon mean free path equal to the interatomic spacing. This simple
approach works quite well because, at temperatures in excess of the Debye
temperature T > ΘD, the specific heat is close to its asymptotic, temperature-
independent value ofCv → 3kB per atom, as predicted bythe Dulong-Petit equation.
Other, more sophisticated approaches also assume that the major contribution to
thermal conductivity in the high-temperature regime is caused by phonons whose
mean free path is the interatomic spacing. In a similar way, the low temperature-
independent thermal conductivity of fused silica and other glasses has been
attributed to their random structure precluding any long-wavelength phonon modes,
with the dominant phonon contributions being limited by the size of the tetrahedral
unit of the glass. The minimum thermal conductivity for more complex,
multicomponent materials also has a similar form and can be expressed as:
κmin = kBνmΛmin → 0.87kBΩa
-2/3
(E/ρ)1/2
where,
Λmin is the minimum phonon mean free path, Ωa = M/(mρNA) is the average
volume per atom, E is the elastic modulus, and ρ is the density.
The data for a variety of materials is plotted in Fig. 1, illustrating that materials
with low thermal conductivity tend to have large volumes per atom and low specific
elastic modulus E/ρ. A particularly important feature of the minimum thermal
conductivity is that, in contrast to conductivity at lower temperatures, it is
independent of the presence of defects such as dislocations, individual vacancies,
and long-range strain fields associated with inclusions and dislocations. This is
largely because these defects affect phonon transport over length scales much larger
than the interatomic spacing. This also means that measurements at low and
intermediate temperatures can be a poor guide to the thermal conductivity at high
temperatures

26. 26
3.6 DI ETHYL ETHER
As a compressionignition fuel, DEE has several favorable properties, including
an outstanding cetane number and reasonable energy density for onboard storage.
Based on measurement of ignition delay in combustion bomb compared to known
reference fuels, cetane number of DEE is higher than 125 [17]. DEE is liquid at
ambient conditions, which makes it attractive for fuel handling and infrastructure
requirements. Storage stability of DEE and blends of DEE are of concern because
of tendency to oxidize, forming peroxides in storage. Flammability limits of DEE
are broaderthan most ofthe fuels[17]. DEE is widely known as an anesthetic, which
may be ofconcern fordirect human health impacts. DEE’s lubrication properties are
unknown, but these probably pose less problem than expected for dimethyl ether.
DEE is fit to use for diesel engines mixed with vegetable oils and/or diesel fuel and
presents a caseforBrazil using alcoholin diesel engine instead ofOtto cycle engines.
The main advantages of DEE are; for example; it is the simplest way to transform
alcohol to any other derivative. This transformation could be achieved by
dehydration with solid fixed bed catalysts instead of standard process using sulfuric
acid. DEE’s advantages over ethanol includes its non corrosivenature and its greater
heating value [17].

27. 27
CHAPTER 4
COMPARISON OF FUEL PROPERTIES
4.1 FUEL PROPERTIES:
The comparison of the different properties of the Diesel, Pongamia
Biodiesel, Ethanol and Diethyl ether are shown in the following table
PROPERTY DIESEL PONGAMIA
BIODIESEL
ETHANOL DIETHYL
ETHER
Calorific value
(KJ/Kg)
42500 36050 25500 31875
Flash point
(°C)
52 147 16.6 -45
Fire point (°C) 61 153 25 -48
Cloud point
(°C)
7 19 -25 >5
Pour point
(°C)
-3 14 -113 >5
Specific
gravity
0.840 0.886 0.750 0.714
Cetane
number
40-48 54 8 >125
Stoichiometric
A/F ratio
15:1 13.8:1 9:1 11.1:1
Self ignition
temperature
(°C)
240-250 368 422 175

28. 28
4.2 EVALUATION OF THE FUEL PROPERTIESOF DIESEL, BIODIESEL
AND BLENDS
Fig (4.1). Comparison of Flash and Fire points of Diesel, Biodiesel and its Blends
Fig (4.2) Comparison of viscosities of Diesel, Biodiesel and its Blends
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
D B DB DBE DBD
FLASH POINT(°C)
FIRE POINT(°C)
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
D B DB DBE DBD
VISCOSITY (Cst)
VISCOSITY (Cst)

29. 29
Fig (4.3) Comparison of Cloud and Pour points of Diesel, Biodiesel and its Blends
The viscosities of the various fuels are tested using the Redwood viscometer
shown in (Fig 4.2). It was found that Pongamia biodiesel (B) had the highest
viscosity of 8.8 Cst. The least viscosity was found to be for DBD fuel. The value is
7.54 Cst. This reduction in viscosity as due to the addition of Diethyl ether to the
fuel. The viscosity if this blend is similar to that of the diesel fuel. The viscosities of
DB and DBE are also found to be similar. The viscosities of all fuels were of
permissible range and are suited for use in diesel engines.
The Flash and Fire points of the various fuels were found out using the Flash and
Fire point apparatus shown in (Fig 4.1). The Flash and Fire points of DBD and DBE
are found to be lower than diesel fuel but within the safer range. The highest values
were out be for Pongamia biodiesel (B). The Flash and Fire point of DB was also
higher but less than B. The values indicate the fact that all these fuels are safer to
handle.
The Cloud and Pour points of the various fuels were found out using the Cloud
and Pour point apparatus shown in (Fig 4.3). The Cloud and Pour point was out to
be least for diesel fuel (D). It is interesting to note that the Cloud point for B, DB,
DBE and DBD were similar with a variation of 1°C. The Pour point of DBD was
found to be lower among the blends (-3°C). It was due to the addition of Diethyl
ether. Diethyl ether gives the fuel better cold weather starting conditions.
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
D B DB DBE DBD
CLOUD POINT(°C)
POUR POINT(°C)

30. 30
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP DETAILS
5.1 ENGINE SPECIFICATION(KIRLOSKAR ENGINE):
ENGINE:The engine is a stationary four stroke single cylinder CI water cooled as
shown in fig (5.1) the brief technical specification of the engine is given in table.
Fig (5.1)
DESCRIPTION SINGLE CYLINDER,FOUR STROKE
COMPRESSION IGNITION,WATER
COOLED
POWER 5.9KW/8 BHP
SPEED 1800 rpm
BORE DIAMETER 87.5 mm
STROKE LENGTH 110 mm
CUBIC CAPACITY 661 cc
FUEL INJECTION PRESSURE 210 bar
INJECTION TIMING 23 deg BTDC

31. 31
5.2 INSTUMENTS USED:
The list of various equipments used in the study are
1. Eddy current dynamometer
2. AVL smokemeter
3. AVL-Five gas analyzer
5.2.1 EDDYCURRENT DYNAMOMETER
The engine is coupled with a BENZ make eddy current dynamometer is used, An
eddycurrent dynamometer used in the experimental setup is controlled by a monitor
which has knob adjustments on the control panel. It consists ofa stator on which are
fitted on a number of electromagnets and rotor disc made of copper or steel are
coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates eddy current are
produced in the stator due to the magnetic flux set up by the passage of field current
in the Electromagnets. The eddy currents opposethe rotor motion, thus loading the
engine. The eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so that this type of
dynamometer also requires some cooling arrangements. The torque is measured
exactly as in other types of absorption dynamometers i.e. with the help of
momentum. The load is controlled by regulating the current in the electromagnets
5.2.2 AVL 437 SMOKEMETER SPECIFICATIONS
Continuous flow smoke meter for measuring smoke level ofdiesel engines, based
on the Hartridge principle with the following features,
1. Capable of measuring opacity level during steady speed and free acceleration
2. Self inbuilt calibration for linearity check and calibration when the equipment
is switched ON
3. Measurement range:
a. Absorption: 0-99.9 per meter
b. Opacity:0-100%
4. Resolution:0.01 per meter
5. Accuracy:0.1 per meter
6. Measurement length: 430 mm

32. 32
7. Operating temperature range:5.50°C
8. Oil temperature range:0-120°C and resolution 1°C
9. Should work on both AC and DC (both 12V and 24V battery)
10. Standard RS 232 serial port for data logging with computer
11. Certified by: ARAI, Pune
12. The temperature of the exhaust gas in the chamber should lie between the
minimum temperature of 70°C
13. The exhaust gas pressure should not be more than atmospheric pressure in
the measurement chamber.
5.2.3 FIVE GAS ANALYZER
AVL Five gas analyzer and smoke meter
The five gases HC, CO, CO2, NO 𝑥, O2 are measured by using this five gas analyzer.
HC, CO, 𝐶O2 are measured by the principle of NDIR and O2, 𝑁𝑂𝑥 by the
chemiluminescent analyzer (CLA).

33. 33
a.) NDIR PRINCIPLE
In the Non-Dispersive Infra-Red Analyzer the exhaust gas species being measured
is used to detect itself. This is done by selective absorption. The infrared energy of
a particular wavelength is peculiar to acertain species will absorb theinfrared energy
of this wavelength and transmit the infrared energy of other wavelengths.
b.) CHEMILUMINESCENT ANALYZER PRINCIPLE
The method of chemiluminescent utilizes the reaction of NO with the ozone to
produce 𝑁𝑂2 at an excited state. The excited molecule spontaneously relaxes the
unexcited state with the release ofa discrete quantity ofphoto energy. Measurements
of this energy provide a measure of the 𝑁𝑂2 and the NO involved in the reaction.
5.2.4 AVL GAS ANALYZER SPECIFICATIONS
Continuous five gas analyzer for diesel engine exhaust capable ofmeasuring HC,
CO, CO2, NO 𝑥, O2 with the following features. The measurement ranges ofAVL gas
analyzer for these five emissions are given
a. Measuring range and resolution
b. Basic analyzer principle
HC, CO, CO2 - Infrared
NO 𝑥 , O2 - Electrochemical cell
c. Type of measurement -continuous
d. Operating temperature range - 5-45°C
e. Provision for E calculation
f. In built prnter with interface for external PC printer
g. Period of calibration: 1 year
h. Should work on both AC and DC (12 V)

34. 34
i. The pressure of the exhaust gas should be maintained 0.4 to 0.6 bar in the
instrument. If the pressure is too high, it will cause damage to te analyzing
instrument.
S No. Gas Capable of
measuring in the
range of
Resolution
1 CO 0-10% Vol 0.01% Vol
2 CO2 0-20% Vol 0.1%Vol
3 HC 0-20000 ppm Vol 1 ppm
4 NO 𝑥 0-5000 ppm Vol 1 ppm
5 O2 0-23% Vol 0.01% Vol
5.2.5 AVL SMOKEMETER
The principle of the smoke meter is that it work on the light extinction principle.
It essentially consists of two optically identical tubes, one containing clean air and
the other moving sample of smoke. The clean air tube is used as the reference. A
light sourceand a photoelectric cell are mounted, facing each other from one tube to
another. Connected to the photoelectric cell is the LED display with a scale
calibrated 0-100% which is equal to the Hartridge unit, indicating the light absorbed
by the smoke in %.
CHAPTER 6
METHODOLOGY

35. 35
6.1 FUELS USED
The engine was tested under two different conditions. The following are the
testing conditions and blends:
1. Normal engine:
a. Base diesel
b. Diesel (50%) and pongamia biodiesel (50%) blend
c. Diesel (50%), pongamia biodiesel (40%) and Diethyl ether (10%)
d. Diesel (50%), pongamia biodiesel (40%) and ethanol
2. Thermal barrier coated engine:
a. Diesel (50%), pongamia biodiesel (40%) and diethyl ether (10%)
b. Diesel (50%), pongamia biodiesel (40%) and ethanol (10%)
The different fuel blends were tested in the CI engine under these two different
conditions and the results were calculated. The coating was doneon the piston crown
and cylinder head for a thickness of about 0.3 mm. The coating was done by a
process called Plasma spray coating. Plasma spray coating has the advantage to
produce value added to products, and also deposit ceramics, metals and coatings
with a desired microstructure of the substrate. The nano ceramic material of Al2O3
was deposited using this method. The substrates of piston crown are made ready for
coating deposition by sand blasting to produce a surface roughness of 4 -6 µm.
Plasma sprayed coatings are deposited with a non-transferred arc plasma torch
operating at various power levels ranging from 10 to 20 KW DC. Al2O3 powder is
fed at the rate of about 10L/min. The torch to base distance is kept at 100 mm. The
grit blast substrates were ultrasonically cleaned using anhydrous ethylene alcohol
and dried in cold air prior to coating deposition. In this way the coating of 0.3 mm
was done on the piston crown and cylinder head.
6.2 TEST PROCEDURE FOR ENGINE

36. 36
1. Before starting the engine various blends that are to be used for testing are
readily mixed and emulsified.
2. The coolant water circulation for the dynamometer and engine are checked.
3. The fuel connection and the level of fuel are checked.
4. The engine is started and made to run at no load condition for 15 minutes as
warm-up phase.
5. The engine is made to run with diesel fuel.
6. The readings are taken with various loads.
7. The time taken for 50cc fuel consumption using gravity flow burette and
temperature at various positions is noted down.
8. The emissions such as HC, CO, CO2, NO 𝑥 are measured using the five gas
analyzer; the smoke is measured using AVL smoke meter.
9. All the emulsions that are prepared should be in appropriate volume.
10. The engine is then made to run with different emulsions.
11. All the results are tabulated and the discussions are made upon the result
obtained.
6.3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Fig(5.1)

37. 37
Fig (5.2). Experimental set up for the project
The Kirloskar engine was connected to the eddy current dynamometer. The load
is to be given with the help of eddy current dynamometer. A fuel tank is connected
to a burette to measure the time taken for 50 cc of fuel to be consumed. The exhaust
gas pipe is connected to the AVL five gas analyzer and AVL smokemeter for the
purposeofmeasuring the five gases (HC, CO, CO2, NO 𝑥, O2)and the smoke opacity.
The engine is cranked and the load is given and the readings are noted down.
Fig (5.3) Piston crown and cylinder head coated with Al2O3.
CHAPTER 7

38. 38
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
CONFIGURATION OF ENGINE
The different fuel blends are denoted as follows:
FUEL COMPOSITION NAME
1. BASE DIESEL D
2. PONGAMIA BIODIESEL B
3. DIESEL(50% by Vol) and
PONGAMIA BIODIESEL(50%
by Vol)
DB
4. DIESEL(50% by Vol),
PONGAMIA BIODIESEL(40%
by Vol) and ETHANOL(10% by
Vol)
DBE
5. DIESEL(50% by Vol),
PONGAMIA BIODIESEL(40%
by Vol) and DIETHYL
ETHER(10% by Vol)
DBD
6. DIESEL(50% by Vol),
PONGAMIA BIODIESEL(40%
by Vol) and ETHANOL(10% by
Vol) in Thermal barrier coated
engine
TDBE
7. DIESEL(50% Vol), PONGAMIA
BIODIESEL(40% by Vol) and
DIETHYL ETHER(10% by Vol)
TDBD
7.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

39. 39
The different values like load, time and speed of the engine were taken down
during the testing of the engine. The various constants were incorporated in to the
formulae and the different performance parameters corresponding to the load were
calculated. The smoke was measured using the AVL smokemeter. The smoke os
measured in terms of Hartridge Units (HU). The CO, CO2,, NOx and HC were
measured using the AVL five gas analyzer and tabulated.
7.1.1 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Fig (7.1) Variation of Brake Thermal Efficiency with Power
The variation of Brake Thermal Efficiency with respectto Power is shown in Fig
7.1 The maximum thermal efficiency is obtained to be for TDBD (34.15%) and the
least efficiency is obtained for D (29.24%) at higher load. Addition of Biodiesel
increases the thermal efficiency since it has better lubricity compared to diesel. This
results in the lessening offrictional losses and thereby thermal efficiency is increased
[8]. Addition of Diethyl ether and Ethanol to blends will decrease the viscosity of
blends and leads to fine spray pattern and atomization and thus leading to complete
combustion[14]. Also presence of oxygen in Biodiesel, Ethanol and Diethyl ether
leads to complete combustion leading to higher efficiency [1]. Thermal barrier
coated engine shows higher efficiency as the coating reduces the heat loss to the
surrounding leading to increase in the efficiency [12]. The maximum efficiency of
DBD, DBE, DB and TDBE are 32.35%, 30.62%, 31.95% and 32.18% respectively.

40. 40
7.1.2 TORQUE
The variation of Torquewith respect to Power is shown in Fig. 7.2 The variation
of torque is constant for all blends of fuel. This is due to the reason that torque is a
function ofengine speed and power. Since the test engine is a constant speed engine
and the power produced also being constant irrespective of the fuel at the
corresponding loads, the torque is also constant.
Fig 7.2 Variation of Torque with respect to Power
7.1.3 BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PREESURE
The variation of Brake mean effective pressure with respect to Power is shown
in Fig. 7.3 The Brake mean effective pressure is also same irrespective of the fuel
used. This is due to the reason that the BMEP is a function of Torque and thereby
follows a similar trend as Torque.

41. 41
Fig 7.3 Variation of BMEP with Power
7.1.4 SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION (SEC):
Fig.7.4 Variation of Specific energy conversion with Power
The variation of Specific energy consumption with respect to Power is shown in
Fig 7.4 The variation of SEC is more significant at lower loads but at higher loads
the SEC is similar to that of D. The SEC of DB, DBE and DBD are lower or equal
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
BMEP(.KN/m2)
POWER(KW)
BMEP vs POWER
DB
DBD
DBE
TDBD
TDBE
D

42. 42
to D. This is due to the presence of higher amounts of oxygen that leads to better
combustion and hence lower SEC [5]. The SEC of TDBD and TDBE are higher
initially and they are almost equal to D at higher loads. This may due to higher
amount of energy required to raise the cylinder temperature initially and then the
heat transfer is maintained by the thermal barrier so there is decrease in SEC
substantially [12].
7.2 EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
7.2.1 CO EMISSION
Fig 7.5 Variation of CO with Power
The emission of CO with respect to Power is shown in Fig.7.5 The variation of
CO follows an irregular trend. At high loads DBE and TDBD show highest CO
emissions. The CO emission is higher for D up to part loads when compared to other
blends. CO emission for DBE, DBD and also TDBD, TDBE are lower initially and
at part loads. This may be due to the reason that addition of Ethanol and Diethyl
ether causes lowering of viscosity thereby better combustion [14]. Moreover,
thermal barriers lead to lesser heat loss and thereby complete combustionis possible
[12]. DB causes high CO initially due to its high viscosity [1].

43. 43
7.2.2 CO2 EMISSION
The variation of Carbon-di-oxide with respect to power is shown in Fig 7.6 The
percentage of Carbon-di-oxide increases with increase in load for all the fuels. The
variation is not that significant initially and at part loads but it is somewhat
significant at higher loads. DB causes higher Carbon-di-oxide due to its complete
combustion due to presence higher amount of oxygen as explained in [15]. At part
loads, the higher viscosity leads to lower Carbon-di-oxide emissions for DB. Similar
is the case of DBD and DBE at higher loads [6]. Thermal barrier coated engine
causes better combustion and hence lesser Carbon-di-oxides at higher loads [13].
Fig 7.6 Variation of CO2 with Power
7.2.3 HC EMISSION
The variation of HC emission with respect to Power is shown in Fig. 7.7The HC
emission increases with the increase in load for all the fuel blends. The HC emission
is least for DB as it exhibits a shorter delay period and results in better combustion
leading to low HC emissions [1]. The cetane number of ester based fuel DB is also
higher than D. The HC emission of DBE and DBD are almost similar. The higher
latent heat of vaporization of both Ethanol and Diethyl ether leads to incomplete
combustion and hence the HC emission is higher for them at full loads [14]. TDBD

44. 44
and TDBE show emission at an intermediate range due better combustion compared
to DBE and DBD.
Fig 7.7 Variation of HC with Power
7.2.4 NOX EMISSION
The variation NOx of with respect to Power is shown in Fig 7.8 The variation of
NOx follows an increasing trend with respectto load. TDBD and TDBE show higher
oxides of nitrogen due to the increae in combustion temperature as the heat loss is
minimized in the engine [12].DBE shows higher oxide of nitrogen as ethanol leads
to longer ignition delay and thereby increasing the cylinder temperature [9]. DBD
due to presence of Diethyl ether has shorter ignition delay and thereby lower oxide
ofnitrogen [6]. The trend ofDBD is similar to D. The reduction ofoxides ofnitrogen
for DB could be due complete combustion when compared to D. The prime factors
for the formation of NOx are higher cylinder tempertures and residence time. Both
these contribute to higher NOx emissions. Obviously thermal barrier coated engines
would emit higher NOx due to the less amount of heat loss and thereby increasing
the cylinder temperature.

45. 45
Fig 7.8 Variation of NOx with Power
7.2.5 SMOKE
Fig 7.9 Variation of Smoke with respect to Power
The variation of smoke with respect to power is shown in Fig 7.9 The smoke
emission is less in initial and lower loads but it increases at higher loads. The smoke
emission of TDBD and TDBE are higher at lower loads but it is lesser at higher

46. 46
loads. This may bedue to complete combustiondue to oxygen molecules and higher
cylinder temperature due to thermal barrier coating [12]. The smoke emissions of
DBD, DBE and DB are also less as the blend is overall “leaner” due to presence of
oxygenated fuel compared to D [10].

47. 47
CHAPTER 8
MATLAB PROGRAM AND SIMULINK MODEL
8.1 MATLAB AND SIMULINK
A MATLAB is a software for solving almost all types of mathematical models
and calculations. It has several in built sub-softwares that can serve for numerous
engineering and scientific applications. SIMULINK is a simulation window of the
MATLAB. Mathematical formulae and equations can be modeled in there and the
outputs can be got [18].
A MATLAB program and SIMULINK model are created based upon the
performance calculation equations. The MATLAB programs would the inputs like
load, engine capacity, time, calorific value, speed etc. and give the output like TFC,
SFC, thermal efficiency, BMEP, Torque, SEC etc. It would also plot graphs of the
various performance curves with respect to load. The SIMULINK model is also
created for calculating the performance parameters alone. A look-up table is used to
give input to the model.

48. 48
8.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT OF THE MATLAB PROGRAM

49. 49
8.3 GRAPHS PLOTTED BYTHE MATLAB PROGRAM
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
figure1
Load,Kg
BrakeHorsePower,KW
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
figure2
Load,Kg
Torque,Nm

50. 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
figure3
Load,Kg
Brakemeaneffectivepressure,Bar
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
figure4
Load,Kg
Totalfuelconsumption,Kg/hr
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
figure5
Load,Kg
Efficiency,%

51. 51
8.4 SIMULINK MODELFOR FINDING PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
1. MATLAB PROGRAM
1. %Developed by SIDDHARTH and TEAM
2. %PROGRAM FOR FINDING AND PLOTTING THE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
3. %FINAL YEAR PROJECT
4. %Prompt for input
5. CV=input('Enter the value of calorific value(kJ/kg):');
6. K=input('Enter the value Density(Kg/m^3):');

52. 52
7. CC=input('Enter the value of engine capacity(liters):');
8. L=input('Enter the values of load(kg):');
9. N=input('Enter the values of speed(rpm):');
10. T=input('Enter the values of time(s):');
11. %Compute values
12. BHP=((L.*N)*(0.746/2000));
13. To=((BHP./N)*955.41);
14. TFC=(0.18./T)*K;
15. SFC=(TFC./BHP);
16. SEC=(SFC*CV);
17. E=((360000./SFC)*(1/CV));
18. BMEP=((To./CC)*12.58);
19. %Display values
20. disp('values of BHP(KW):'),disp(BHP);
21. disp('values of torque(Nm):'),disp(To);
22. disp('values of BMEP(KN/cm^2):'),disp(BMEP);
23. disp('values of TFC(Kg/hr):'),disp(TFC);
24. disp('values of Efficiency(%):'),disp(E);
25. disp('values of SFC(Kg/hr/KW):'),disp(SFC);
26. disp('values of SEC(KJ/hr):'),disp(SEC);
27. %Plotting the values
28. plot(L,BHP);
29. title('figure1')
30. xlabel('Load,Kg')
31. ylabel('Brake Horse Power,KW')
32. figure
33. plot(L,To);
34. title('figure2')
35. xlabel('Load,Kg')
36. ylabel('Torque,Nm')
37. figure
38. plot(L,BMEP);
39. title('figure3')
40. xlabel('Load,Kg')
41. ylabel('Brake mean effective pressure,Bar')
42. figure
43. plot(L,TFC);
44. title('figure4')
45. xlabel('Load,Kg')
46. ylabel('Total fuel consumption,Kg/hr')
47. figure
48. plot(L,E);
49. title('figure5')
50. xlabel('Load,Kg')
51. ylabel('Efficiency,%')

53. 53
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are obtained based upon the experimental results
1. The Brake thermal efficiency is 5% increased for TDBD compared to the
base diesel at higher load.
2. The Torquewas found out to be constant irrespective of the fuel blends
used.
3. The Brake mean effective pressure was also out be constant irrespective of
the fuel blends used.
4. DBD was found to have lowest Specific energy consumption at initial loads.
The Specific fuel consumption of all the fuels were found to be similar at
higher loads.
5. TDBE had lowest CO emissions among all fuels used.
6. TDBE was also found have lower CO2 at higher loads.
7. DB had the lowest HC emissions at all loads.
8. TDBE and TDBD had higher NOx almost (100 ppm ) more than the diesel
engine, because peak temperature of the combustion is increased.
9. TDBE and TDBD had higher smoke emissions at initial loads but eventually
had 30 % reduced smoke emissions at higher loads due to higher
combustion temperature.

54. 54
APPENDIX
FORMULAE USED:
1. BRAKE POWER:B.P=(W*N*0.746)/2000 KW
2. TORQUE: T=(B.P*6000)/(2*3.14*N) Nm
3. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION: TFC=(50*3600*ρ*10-6)/(t) Kg/KW
4. SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION: SFC=(TFC/B.P)Kg/KW-hr
5. SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION: SEC = (SFC*Cv)KJ/KW-hr
6. THERMAL EFFICIENCY: η=(3600*100)/(SEC) %
7. BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE:BMEP=(T/D)*12.58 KN/m2
Where,
W – Load in Kg
N – Speed in rpm
t - Time in seconds

55. 55
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