Presentation about the intersection of two current major trends- inequality and online higher education.

1. CONSIDERING INEQUALITY AS
HIGHER EDUCATION GOES ONLINE
Laura Czerniewicz /@czernie
10 September 2015

2. THIS TALK
o The changing HE landscape
o Equality/inequality as a frame
o Key questions & implications at global,
institutional and course levels through
the inequality lens
o What should we do?

3. INTRODUCTION
The changing digitally – mediated
Higher Education Landscape

4. THE PROVISION LANDSCAPE
conventional flexible
FORMAL
SEMI-FORMAL
NON-FORMAL
Lectures
Tutorials
Course materials
Short courses
Summer school
Blended courses Online courses
Professional development
courses
Emergent
MOOC related
variants
Czerniewicz,L;Deacon,A;Small,J;Walji,S(2014)DevelopingWorldMOOCs:acurriculumviewoftheMOOClandscape

5. DISAGGREGATION & CHANGING MONETISATION
MODELS: From singular to differentiated
Traditional
Complete package
Emergent models
Individual elements
Fees Yes No/ maybe
Content May be free/included in fees/paid for May be paid
Support Free/included in fees May be paid
Assessment Free/included in fees May be paid
Certification Free/included in fees Paid
Quality
Assurance
Free/included in fees Paid
Platform May be licensed or free (student
does not pay)
May be licensed or free

6. Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0) Ron Mader https://www.flickr.com/photos/planeta/5438519605/

7. INCREASED DIVERSITY OF PLAYERS & INTERESTS
Olds and Robertson 2013
& telecommunications
companies
& publishers-become-education
providers
& digital media companies
& & &

8. 2015 – THE MAINSTREAM GOES ONLINE

9. GROWTH OF FORMAL, SEMI-FORMAL &
NON-FORMAL ONLINE LEARNING
o Traditional institutions & residential
institutions gaining ground on the for-profits
in online & DL (Allen & Seaman, 2015)
o Private sector dominance decreases
o MOOCs & MOOC type offerings continue
to grow & be provided by a range of
organisations with different agendas
around the world (ICEF 2014, Swope 2015)

10. ONLINE HAS A GLOBAL ORIENTATION
https://pixabay.com/en/hands-world-map-global-earth-600497/CC01.0Universal(CC01.0)

11. ALL HE LEARNING IS DIGITALLY-MEDIATED
Beetham 2015

12. AT THE SAME TIME

13. EQUALITY/ INEQUALITY

15. o Equality
• “capability to function fully as a human
being” (Therborn 2013)
o Inequalities are inherently unjust and
immoral, violation of human dignity
• “Inequalities are produced and sustained
socially by systemic arrangements and
processes, and by distributive action,
individual as well as collective. It is crucial to
pay systematic attention to both.” (Therborn 2013)
o Multidimensional
• Equality of opportunity and of outcome
• Dimensions of inequality

16. DECLARATIONS
“We hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal …”
American Declaration of Independence (1776)
“All men are equal by nature and
before the law”
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
(1793)

17. SOUTH AFRICAN CONSTITUTION
The Republic of South Africa is one
sovereign democratic state founded on
the following values:
(a) Human dignity, the achievement of
equality and the advancement of human
rights and freedoms.
1996

18. Increasing inequality is the number one
challenge facing North America

19. INEQUALITY
The Palma ratio = the ratio of the richest 10% of the population's share of gross national income divided by the poorest 40%'s share

20. SOUTH AFRICA
The wealth of Johann Rupert and Nicky Oppenheimer,
is equal to 26.5-million South Africans, poorest 50
percent .
Seery & Arendar 2014

21. NOT JUST THE GLOBAL SOUTH
https://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/scale-economic-inequality-uk
Income distribution OECD countries

22. NOT JUST THE
GLOBAL SOUTH
https://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/scale-economic-inequality-uk
Income distribution OECD countries
In the UK
the richest 10% of
households hold 44% of
all wealth.
The poorest 50% own
9.5% of the wealth.

23. o “Digital access is becoming as much
an equity issue in our society
as access to water and electricity”
Mpho Park, Executive Mayor, 6 May 2015,
City of Johannesburg State of the City address 2015
la Rue, 2011, UN General Assembly Report
INEQUALITY & TECHNOLOGY

24. AND YET….
o No mention of inequality

25. CONTRASTING VIEWS ON CREATING
EQUALITY IN INFORMATION SOCIETIES
“Very simply, there are two prevailing social imaginaries
about digital technologies ..
The prevailing dominant imaginary in today’s information
societies is market-led. In contrast, alternative imaginaries
are best described as ‘open’ or commons-led.
…. It is this conflict that leads to major problems for
stakeholders in deciding which policies and strategies, or mix
of policies and strategies, is most likely to facilitate progress
towards more just and equitable information societies”.
Mansell, R (2013)

26. MARKET-LED TREND
Ed Tech Funding Hits $1.87 Billion in 2014
https://www.cbinsights.com/blog/ed-tech-funding-record-2014/ January 20, 2015

27. GEOGRAPHIES OF INVESTMENT
“With the opportunity for digital education
encompassing a global audience, over 50% of Ed
Tech deal activity in the last two years has been
investments in non-U.S. companies. These
countries are based in a diverse array of geos
ranging from the U.K. to China to India to
Russia”
https://www.cbinsights.com/blog/ed-tech-venture-capital-record/
http://vator.tv/news/2015-08-25-daily-funding-roundup-august-25-2015

28. THE COUNTER NARRATIVE
We are on the cusp of a global revolution
in teaching and learning. ..
These educators are creating a world where each
and every person on earth can access and contribute
to the sum of all human knowledge.
They are also planting the seeds of a new pedagogy
where educators and learners create, shape and
evolve knowledge together.
http://www.capetowndeclaration.org/

29. DECLINE OF GOV FINANCING OF HE
o Cuts cuts cuts
o Recent Oxfam report argues that
governments need to
• take back control of public policy
• agree to spending at least 20 % of government
budgets on education (Seery & Arendar 2014)
• (Between 2008 & 2012 more than half of
developing countries reduced spending on
education) (Seery & Arendar 2014 )
o “Transformation will not happen without a
recapitalization of our institutions of higher learning”
(Mbembe 2015)

30. How can a values-led hybrid ecology of
digitally-mediated educational provision
be shaped that strikes a strategic
balance between state support and
private sector provision to prioritise and
enable equality in higher education?

31. KINDS OF INEQUALITY

32. KINDS OF INEQUALITY (Therborn 2013)
Vital inequality
Resource
inequality
Existential
inequality

33. VITAL INEQUALITY
Life or death issues

34. VITAL INEQUALITY
o Link between life chances and education
• Poor people less likely to be educated (Seery & Caistor 2014)
• Educated people live longer (Meara at al, 2008)
• Parents of college graduates live longer (Friedman& Mare ‘14)
o Educational deprivation
• recognised as an important indicator in multiple
indices of deprivation, poverty & inequality
(Noble & Wright 2012)
Vitalinequality

35. IN SOUTH AFRICA
o Access and success
• 25% of students in South Africa graduate in regulation
time (e.g. 3years for a 3 yr degree, excl UNISA)
• More than half of students who enrol in universities in
South Africa never graduate (even taking into account
students who take longer than five years, or who return
after dropping out)
• White completion rates are on average 50% higher
than African rates
• About 5% of apartheid-category black and coloured
youth succeed in any form of higher education
Vitalinequality
Council for Higher Education 2013

36. IN THE EARLY DAYS
o New HE landscape imperative to solve
broader education & social problems
• MOOCs have a capacity for “incredible
democratisation of education”
Anant Agarwal (in Pailin, 2014)
• “…budding revolution in global online higher
education. Nothing has more potential to lift
more people out of poverty …”
Thomas Friedman (2013)
Vitalinequality

37. o MOOCs students
• predominantly highly educated & employed
• more men than women
• more educated than the general population
(esp in BRICS and other developing
countries)
• largely from developed countries
• those from developing countries older
(Christensen et al 2013, Palin 2014)
Vitalinequality

38. CHALLENGES FOR ONLINE LEARNERS
o Online works better for older, female
students with higher GPAs
“While all types of students in the study suffered
decrements in performance in online courses, some
struggled more than others to adapt:
males
younger students,
Black students
students with lower grade point averages”
Survey of 40 000 online students in nearly 500 000 courses
(Xu, D & Jagger, S 2014)
Xu, D & Jaggar, S. 2014.
Vitalinequality

39. Most universities and most academics in Africa
do not have the luxury to invest time and
resources into anything, simply on the basis
that it is ‘a good thing to do’ …
If [it] will ‘solve’ an existing problem, then it
becomes a no-brainer.
Catherine Ngugi, Director, OER Africa
Vitalinequality

40. o Need to bring back the focus to how
the new landscape can address the
needs of the disadvantaged and
enable social inclusion
• The answer to the question “how can online
education (including MOOCs) help less
privileged people to learn and / or get an
acknowledged education?” has not been
found yet
See Yanez, 2014
Vitalinequality

41. o Need to grow the small body of
relevant research
• Eg Dillahunt et al 2014; Yanez, 2014; de Waard et al 2014; Moser-Mercer
2014; Nkuyubwatsi 2014; Liyanagunawardena et al 2013; Nyoni 2013, de Boer
et al 2013
o Need to draw policy attention at
institutional and government level to
social (rather than commercial)
possibilities of online education
Vitalinequality

42. Which forms of blended and online
education can best serve the social
and economic interests of developing
countries and of the disadvantaged
in unequal societies?

43. RESOURCE INEQUALITY

44. RESOURCE INEQUALITY
o Access to resources
• Economic, material, infrastructural
• Cultural capital
• Institutional (qualifications)
• Embodied (abilities, disposition)
• Social capital
o Contestations, power
• Who has access to which resources?
• Configurations of resources
Resourceinequality

45. http://www.masterresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/earth_night.jpg
ELECTRICITYResourceinequality

47. INTERNET ACCESS THE EXCEPTION,
NOT THE RULE
Income is key
Location is key
o North America – 84%
connected
o Sub Saharan Africa- 13%
connected
o In US
• 99% of US adults with
incomes over $75k
• 77% of adults with
incomes less than $30k
Internet.org, 2014
Resourceinequality

48. MOBILE DRIVER
Resourceinequality
Internet.org, 2014

49. IT’S THE DATA, NOT THE DEVICE:
AFFORDABILITY
o Affordability (5% monthly income)
• Entry level -100MB; maturing – 500MB;
connected -2GB
• In Sub-Saharan Africa, 53% could afford access of
only 20 MB, (enough for SMS & email)
Resourceinequality
Internet.org,2014

50. DIFFERING PURPOSES
o People in developing countries tended to
use connectivity for personal advancement,
more so than people in developed
countries, who used it for convenience.
• 40% of respondents in emerging markets
said connectivity had “improved their
earning power,” compared with just 17% in
developed markets.
• •39% of respondents in developing nations
experienced a “significant transformation
in their access to education” because of
connectivity”
Juniper Networks,
Global Bandwidth Index f Dec 2014, a survey of
5,500 adults from 9 countries
Resourceinequality

51. o More diversity of student populations
than ever before
o Greater diversity of delivery models
than before
o Differentiation of cultural capital
Resourceinequality

52. DIVERSE STUDENT POPULATIONS
o Flexible learning
• comes into the mainstream, becoming
mainstream?
o Literature shows that flexible, part-time
and non-traditional learners poorly
supported by universities
• See Chikoko 2010, Adesoye & Amusa 2011 and others
• 50 % + student population within HE in
South Africa part time (Buchler et al 2007)
Resourceinequality

53. RETHINKING STUDENT LITERACIES
Resourceinequality

54. STUDENT LITERACIES
The online learner
has a strong academic self-
concept;
is competent in the use of online
learning technologies
particularly communication and
collaborative technologies;
understands & engages in social
interaction & collaborative
learning
possesses strong interpersonal &
communication skills
and is self-directed
Resourceinequality
Dabbagh 2007
elite

55. RESEARCH ON STUDENTS’
DIGITAL PRACTICES
“Learners' engagement w digital world is v
differentiated
Learners’ digital skills shallower than we
tend to think
‘Digital natives' story hides many
contradictions
Active knowledge creation & sharing a
minority
Activities typically introduced by educators
Consumer practices & populist values
dominate in digital space - many feel
excluded or worse”
Beetham 2015
Resourceinequality

56. INSTITUTIONAL CAPITAL
o Certification as an equity issue
• Forms
• Legitimacy
• Value
• Stigma
Resourceinequality

57. Around 70
percent of
students with a
Coursera
credential list it on
their LinkedIn
profiles
Daphne Koller 2014

58. INSTITUTIONAL CAPITAL: CERTIFICATION
“Free online courses are not going to change
education in Africa, not because of access or
sophistication issues or even context issues… but
rather because education in Africa and South
Africa is a means to an end – the qualification
helps to get you a job which puts food on the table.
Until we can get verifiable accreditation right for
free online courses, I don’t think there will be
much traction”
Kerry de Hart, Office of the VC, UNISA
Resourceinequality

59. EXISTENTIAL INEQUALITY

60. EXISTENTIAL INEQUALITY

61. EXISTENTIAL INEQUALITY
o Therborn - this is the most neglected
type of inequality
• Self development
• Autonomy
• Freedom
• Dignity
• Respect
Existentialinequality

62. EXISTENTIAL INEQUALITY IN HE
o Issues of power and agency
• for academics and for students
o At different levels
• across the HE sector
• across disciplines
• within and across institutions
• within qualifications, curricula & courses
o Who decides? Which are the primary
drivers?
Existentialinequality

63. CRITIQUES OF THE SECTOR
The rescaling of the university is meant to achieve
one single goal – to turn it into a springboard for
global markets.
The brutality of this competition is such that it has
opened a new era of global Apartheid in higher
education.
In this new era, winners will graduate to the status
of “world class” universities and losers will be
relegated and confined to the category of global
bush colleges.
Mbembe 2015
Existentialinequality

64. CRITIQUES OF MOOCS
o Critiques include
• Money, power & condescending attitudes
• Practices ingrained in local social realities
and epistemological world views left out
• Questions regarding who really benefits
“evangelical arguments and self-appointed saviors of the less
civilized rule the airwaves on the global front”
Shyam Sharma 2013
Existentialinequality

65. CRITIQUES OF GLOBALISING
KNOWLEDGE
o Dangers of a flattened “Coca-colonisation”
of knowledge (Gregson et al 2015)
“The world of a Eurocentric model is presumed to be
universal and now being reproduced almost
everywhere thanks to commercial internationalism.
To decolonize the university is therefore to create
pluriversalism, via a horizontal strategy of openness
to dialogue among different epistemic traditions”
Mbembe , 2015
Existentialinequality

66. http://flickr.com/photo/12915821@N00/358781984DanievanderMerwePublicDomain
http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/jun/18/oxford-uni-must-decolonise-its-campus-and-curriculum-say-students

67. RESHAPING NETWORKS
o Redrawing provider and recipient relationships
Existentialinequality

68. RESHAPING RELATIONSHIPS
o Shift from broadcast model
o Address the digital production gap
• The read- write web for whom?
• Consumption culture
See Brake 2014, Schroeder 2011
o Access must equal participation
Existentialinequality

69. Existentialinequality
MOOCS ABOUT AFRICA

70. FOSTERING PARTNERSHIPS
The course is a joint initiative of TU Delft,
the international BE-Basic consortium
and University of Campinas, Brazil.
Course materials CC-BY-NC-SA
Existentialinequality

71. MUTUALITY & RECIPROCITY
“To recognise digital learning as the practice that
networks small higher education institutions to
global circuits of influence and profit, we need to think
about …this strategic withholding of reciprocity...
What are the obligations for care that should
accompany the power to impose curriculum from one
place on learners at another?
What are the implications for longer term sustainability
of research-led teaching in smaller institutions around
the world?”
Bowles, 2015
Existentialinequality
http://musicfordeckchairs.com/blog/2015/05/16/stones-only/

72. LANGUAGE
o Language
• about 80% of all content online is in one of
10 languages: English, Chinese, Spanish,
Japanese, Portuguese, German, Arabic,
French, Russian or Korean.
o In order to make the internet relevant
to 80% of the world, it would require
content in at least 92 languages
Existentialinequality
Internet.org 2014

73. CULTURAL & LANGUAGE COMMUNITIES
o Need new forms of research into user
cultural and language behaviour
online
• Eg User-centric Ethnological Mapping of
WWW to identify and characterize Regional
Cultures on ethnological Maps of WWWs the
world Wu and Taneja ( 2015, under review),
Existentialinequality

74. Identifying online regional cultures
Existentialinequality
Wu and Taneja ( 2015)

75. COMPLETE RANGE OF ONLINE CONTENT
o Online content dominated by US and
developed countries (Flick, 2011)
• Includes open content, MOOCs (Olds)
o Online representation matters
• For knowledge formation
• For learning (Bruno, Piaget)
• For existential equality
Existentialinequality

76. Existentialinequality
ALL KNOWLEDGE NEEDS TO BE
DISCOVERABLE
thehaguedeclaration.com/
• Dangers of open access policies
drowning out southern research

77. LEGALLY ENABLING TWO-WAY
ENGAGEMENT
o Open licences – remix & adapt essential
o Eliciting and respect for user experiences
• Ownership of user-generated content
Existentialinequality
DavidBlackwell.https://farm5.staticflickr.com/4011/4179063482_9aa8513a93_o.jpg

78. LEARNING DESIGN FOR DIVERSITY
o Global online courses increasingly diverse
• ITO backgrounds, culture, ethnicity etc
o Good/ bad diversity
o Designing for diversity increasing - needs
more attention
• Review principles of cultural inclusion
(Marrone et al 2013)
• Leverage research into designing for large scale
instances (see Klemmer 2015, Kulkarni et al 2013 2014, 2015)
Existentialinequality

79. ACCESS
o The emergence of new online business
models increasing opportunities of
access
• Global access, new forms of certification
• Increased access & new forms of
opportunities for some groups
• Not trivial in a rapidly changing world- value
for teacher education, professional
development, lifelong learning

80. DIGNITY: OPPORTUNITIES TO SUCCEED
We have to distinguish between equity of access,
and equity of opportunity and outcomes. …
equity of opportunity and outcomes depend
crucially on supportive institutional
environments and cultures, appropriate curricula
and learning and teaching strategies and effective
induction, and mentoring.
Badat, S 2015
Existentialinequality

81. SUCCESS
o The challenges of success in online and
distance education provision remain
significant
• The value of fully online courses as part of full
qualifications unproven
o Success online requires resources,
scaffolding, flexibility
• The role and extent of blended forms unproven
o Care costs

82. CONCLUSION

84. o How do we ensure values-based
pedagogically-shaped online learning
in an austerity environment and a
hybrid higher education ecology?

85. WE NEED
o Critical research
o Inequality-framed experimentation
o Policy & advocacy

86. CRITICAL RESEARCH
o Critical in all senses
• Difficult argumentative questions
• Important
• Surfacing power
o Theorised scholarship

87. INEQUALITY-FRAMED EXPERIMENTATION
o Business models for the commons
o Innovating with emergent forms of
provision
o Exploiting the affordances of the
technology to support the needs of
disadvantage

88. POLICY & ADVOCACY
o Policy matters
• The allocation of goals, values &
resources (Codd 1988)
o Advocacy reminds, explains,
challenges

89. THE LAST WORD
If issues of inequality and inclusion are
accepted as crucial issues and critical
absences in the global online higher
education landscape,
we must foster communities of policy,
research and practice to find shared solutions
amongst a range of parties from different
parts of the world

90. THANK YOU
Image: Stacey Stent
References
With thanks to Paul Prinsloo
and my colleagues in CILT

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