1. y]clG ;'D d[d[Tt' Z
;'D:
;'D d[Kdfgfa[G nTylS xSjfblDaf ;fDglu[GFf]. cfTtlGpfI ofDa] of rluf]s-jf ;fDbfI
glIjfCafg-glG gft-nf tInV x[Ss]cfI cfafi] clt-plIxfCV xSjfblDaf ySjf g' clt-nf]xfC
;'F'Caf ;fKkfg-cf] rlc'i-d'Skf ;fKk] cf]ufK rf]s-dfcfI ;fKd[Nn[ ;'D kf]i-.
;'DdlG cfKmfn-n[;fI rf]s-o'Daf ySjf g' clt-nf] s[ofSkf kf]i-df kf]i-. v[G g' s'bI
;fKk]/k[GgfDdlGgfI tfSmfblDafV k]o[Daf clt-gld- g' sf]o[Daf jfgfDxfCg' s[P]i-;lDaf jfCd[G
o[s-kf jfC. x[Ss] kf]i-uq ;'DdlG rlc'i-d'Skf g' ;fDglu[Daf kf]i-.
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ rfxfaf ylD of s'uf]xfC:
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ df] s[aKkf s'uf] of ylDxfC glIjfC ;lufI o'Id[G o[s-kf jfC_
1 ;'D ;fKd[Nn[ sfSg' tulu ofDa] of yfdlIilG o[D nk-dfcfI clk-df kf]i-. x[Ss]cfI
cfTtlG ofDa] of yfdlI ;fDbfI ;'DdlG ;fK;lIn kT v[Nn[ s'a]clG s';lI glk-df g'
n[MdfF[G tD;lG rf]s-df kf]i-. clk-dfF t]Cd[Nn[ glIjfC ;lufI oFlS gf]gf]af kfg-xfC g'
;'TnfxfC d[bfM v[GxfC s[F[S ;fKdfF k]s-df kf]i-. yfdlI of ofDa]clG ofFlK kf]i-g' v[G
yfdlIilGg' gfCclG s[P];lDaf kfg-xfC sf]k-df kf]i-. ;fKkGxfC zSgld- rf]s-dfcfI of
cfafi]g' s[F[af s[glafxfC ;]g-bf]df;lcfI.
2 s[F[S ;'Dn[ ofDa] ;fDbfIaf of rfxfaf kfg-xfC ;'Ddf r't-g' ;fK;[ o'I;lDd[Nn[ g'C sF
;fKdfF k]s-d[Nn[ rfxfaf g' o[s-kf kfg-xfC ;'TnfxfCFT ;fKdf;l kf]i-. rfxfaf d[Gaf]i-dfgf
kfg-xfC vSdf;lF k]s-df kf]i-.
3 ;fKd[Nn[ ;'DdlG ;fKgft- ;fKgft-tf] ;[DdfF ;fKdf kf]i-. ;'Dn[ nS ;'D;l d[jfC: s'x]s;lIV s'aft-hlI g' s'h't-plI. s'x]s-;lIif] ;'DdlNn[ s'gl;'D kf]i-V s'a] mfi-df kf]i-.
;'DdlNn[ ;'D;l s'xfMcf] s'h't-plIilG s[F[Sg'n-n[ s]d-af g' oDaf kf]wSnf nf]. ;'D ;lufI
kfk-df s[jfCaf s[F[S kfg-xfC s'aft-plI nSsf] xSdf kf]i-. kf]wSdf s[jfCaf o[s-kf kfg-xfC
gf]FlSsfI nSnSsf] xfMdf;lcfI j]Cj] gft-nf gft-nfcf] glIjfCF[ s'wfKyfK xSdfF ;fKdf
kf]i-. s'aft-plIif] cfTtlG yfdlI of ofDa] ;fDbfI ;'DdlG ;fK;lI of xS;lIgfI jfC v[G
;fDbfI cfafi] ofDglIjfCaf kfg-xfCV ;'hf g' gf]af_m[Daf kfg-xfC xSdf kf]i-. sG nSsf]
;'DdlNn[ s';lx'KkfI r'Sd'Ssf] rf]s-df ;'St[T.

2. 4 ;'D ;fKd[Nn[ s'x]s-;lI g' s'h't-plIxfC gf]FlS glIjfC ;lufI o'IdfcfI ;fKdf kf]i-.
sG g[Tpl nSxfC rlc'i-d'Skf kf]i-uq ;'DdlNn[ s'gf] s'alC kf]i-ifI k]s-.
5 ;'D ;fKd[Nn[ ;'F'Caf ;'Tnf g' k[GplIxfC cf]ufK rf]s-d[G o[s-kf jfC. x[Ss] kf]i-ilNn[
x[Gglk-kf_x[Gglk-dfxfCF[ ;fFfIifI s';lI d[glt-t'F glk-df d[;'St'C. nTpf ;'Tnf g'
k[GplIilG o[Tn[I o[Tn[I cf]ufK rf]s-df d[g'Cg[G. x[Ss] kf]i-uq ;'DdlG xf]d-ofIofI
(weightless)kf]i-. x[Ss]cfI ;'DdlG ;];]af glk-df ;'Ss[b[Kkf x'S;fKcf] ;fKdf kf]i-.
6 ;'D ;fKn[Nn[ x'Kkfg-n[ oDaf g'gfd] g' s'o[s-of tfM. k[GplIxfCcf] tSk]F[G v[Gefc]
s'b[G g' s'o[s-of jfC. tSk]F[ cla'xfC glFlS t[GxfCcf] cf]ufK d[Daf]i-g[Guq ;'DdlG
v[Def s';lI s[ofSkf d[af]i-g[G. x[SsfOI k[GplIxfC sfDdf;lF k]s-d[Nn[ d'Skfg- g' kfgn'KxfC rfxfaf t[Ggf] sfDn ofSdf g' sfDdf ;'St[Tsq p[GgfI m'IgfDdf] gf]gfD of]C;lG.
7 ;'DdlG ofFlK kf]i- r't-g' glF[I_;'Dn[I glk-dfF s[a]d-af ;'TnfV zS;fV d'Skfg-V kfg-n'K
g' tSk]xfC gf]FlS kf]CdfF tf]d-df kf]i-.
8 ;'D d[Kdfgfa[G kbfIbfIaf g' ku]d- s]d-afcfI rf]s-df ;'S. sF gl;fD;f_c]F[
gl;fDxlDdf] of ofSmfcf] ;'D ;fKdf kf]i-uq ;'DdlG ;'Tnf ylaf]i- ylaf]i-af s'blFf ;'Daf]iilNn[ g'C. sF c[Ss]af ;'DuF cfSv[G ;fKdf;fI kf]i-.
9 ;'DxfC oFlS tIaf ySjfblDafV kf]wSslaf g' r[Id'Sslaf d[af]i-. sF cfSs] kFlSkf
;'D;fI yfdlI ;fDbfI t[Tgfd- d[TplI. v[Nn[ rf]u'Nn[ ;'D ;fKdfg'n-n[ tul df] s[aKkf kfg-xfC
glIjfC ;lufI o'Idf;l kf]i-.
;'Dn[ s'xfM of nSxfC:
;'DdlG nS ;'D;lcf] xfMdfC ;'St[T:
(1) s'x]s-;lI
(2) s'aft-plI g'
(3) s'h't-plI.
(1) s'x]s-;lI :
s'x]s-;lIilG ;'DdlNn[ s'x]s-df nSFf]. sGglG tSkfg- of ;'DdlNn[ s'gl;'DdfI d[d[Tt'. of
s'x]s-;lIilG cfTtlGpfI ;'DdlNn[ s'nfDw]s- mfi-df nSmfI kfk-df ;'St[Tnf]. sG nSsf]
cfTtlG yfdlI of ofDa];fDbfI ;'DdlG ;fK;lIn kTV v[GglNn[ s'x[GhlnfV s'a]efi- g' s'gl;'D

3. rf]s-df kf]i-. ;'DdlNn[ x[Gglk-kf/x[Gglk-dfxfCF[G glIjfC s[b[Daf g' s[c'i-af rf]s-dfF[ nful
s'x]s-;lI nSslNn[ oDaf g'gfd] rfk-df ofd-aS sTt'C.
(2) s'aft-plI :
;'D;lufI kfk-df s[jfCaf s[F[S kfg-xfC sG s'aft-plI nSsf] xSdf kf]i-. sG nSsf] kf]wSdf
s[jfCaf o[s-kf kfg-xfC gf]FlSsfI ;fKkfg-n[ clP]i-df;lF nSnSsf] xfMdf;lcfI j]Cj]C gft-nf
gft-nfcf] glIjfCF[ s'wfKyfK xSdfF ;fKdf kf]i-. ;'DdlNn[ ;'D;l s'xfMcf] sGglG s[F[Sg'n-n[
s]d-af g' oDaf kf]wSnf kf]i-.
(3) s'h't-plI:
sG s'h't-plIilG ;'DdlNn[ s'g'D nSFf]. sG nSsf] cfTtlG yfdlI of ofDa] ;fDbfI ;'DdlG
;fK;lI of xS;lIgfI jfC v[G ;fDbfI cfafi] ofDglIjfCaf kfg-xfCV ;'hf g' gf]af m[Daf kfg-xfC
xSdf kf]i-. sGgf] ;'DdlNn[ r'Sd'Ssf] s';lx'KkfI rf]s-df ;'St[T.
;'Dn[ kFlSxfC :
;'ofIa[Da[Kdf] (commomly) ;fDglafxfCF[ cfTtlGpfI ;'DdlG kFlS ;'D;lcf] ofSmfI;[G
(classification) d[hf]u'cfI jfCaf vfM]b[T (1) kf]wS ;'D (2) r[Id'S ;'D g' (3) ySjf ;'D.
sF ;'DdlNn[ kFlSslG cfSs]bIaf kf]i-;fI clt-pfKklNn[ ofIgld-jf (nature) ;fDbfI t[Tgfd(depend) d[TplI of kf]i-. x[Ss] kf]i-uq ;'DdlG
clt-rf]cljfaf (objective)
g'
ofDa]cljfaf (subjective)sG g[Tpl kFlSn[G kf]i-. clt-rf]cljfa[G ySjfblDafg'n-n[
;[SvfblDaf kf]i-. x[Ss]cfI ofDa]cljfa[G ;[SvfblDafg'n-n[ ySjfblDaf kf]i--.
clt-rf]cljfafF[ gfd-e]cf] ;'DdlG (1) kf]wSslaf (descriptive) g' (2) r[Id'Sslaf
(narrative) sG g[Tpl kFlSsf] xfMdf ;'St[T. sSs]bIaf ;'DdlG kFi-ufclaf of clI;'Ddlaf
(argumentive or informative) g' tIbf]af kf]wStljf (critical expository) x[Ss]cfI
d[Nn[Ihf]af (static) kf]i-.
x[Ss]FlSs] ;'DdlG ofDa]cljfafF[ gfd-e]cf]cfI
(1) clt-pIljfaf of ySjfblDaf
(thoughtful or imaginative)V
(2) cf]d-glclaf (observational) g' (3) yStf]jfaf
(personal) sG ;'D;l kFlSsf] ;'DdlG xfMdf ;'St[T. sSs]bIaf ;'DdlG n[K;fIulaf (selfcentered) x[Ss]cfI m[ufKclaf (dynamic) rf]s-.

4. (1) kf]wSslaf:
y[df;fI rluf]s-jf of ofDa] of glofFfaf (blq;-;O) gldfgf of ;fDbfI kf]wSdfcfI ;fKd[Nn[
s[af]i-af ;'DdlG kf]wSslaf ;'D d[d[Tt'. kf]wS ;'Ddf] clt-pfKk[Nn[ kf]wSt'cfIi]
s'xSjfxfC xSt';lC. kf]wS ;'DdlG nS g[Tplcf] xfMdf ;'St[T: (s) c[Ss]af kf]wS;'D g'
(v) tfCwSslaf kf]wS ;'D. sG g[Tpl kFlSn[G kf]wS ;'DxfC xlGbl of g[k-kfn-nlcf] aUgftdS g' jljFgft-dS d[d[Tt';l. yS;f_k';fV ;lI_n'IV sf]xlt-_rIefIV gfi-hIV oIPIV jfFiju[FfxfCF[G glofFf ofDa] ;fDbfI ;fKdfgf ;'DdlG c[Ss]af kf]wS ;'Ddf] tfM. x[Ss]cfI o[DV
o[GV t[GV jgfDV t[TgfDV ySofDV nfDbls-V rluf]s-jf ju[FfxfCF[G glofFf of ofDa] ;fDbfI
;fKdfgf ;'DdlG tfCwSslaf kf]wS ;'Dcf] tfM. sF sG yfi- kf]wS s[af]i-af ofDa]xfCF[
;fDbfI ;'D ;fKd[Nn[ ;[SvfblIaf kfg-xfC g' s'bI ySjfblDaf kfg-xfC nft-sF ;'DdlG g[KdfhfI
kf]wSslaf ;'D g' ySjfblDaf ;'D kf]i-.
(2) r[Id'Sslaf:
xlIdGgf] d[af]i-af xlGwf]s-V m[Gwf]s- g' ;fDhlS d'Gw'DV ;fKd'Gw'DxfCcf] s[aKkf kfg-xfC
gfd-e] rf]s-dfgfcfI ;fKdfgf ;'DdlG r[id'Sslaf ;'D d[d[Tt'. sG ;'DdlG v[bfCclaf ;'DdfI
d[d[Tt'. x[SsfOI sG ;'Dcf] ;fKd'Gw'DV ;fDhlS d'Gw'DV r'Def]F[ kfg-V ySofDV yIV gfbIV
;fKkfg-V ;fKzSV ;fDof]V ;fSylDV nfi-V ;fDnf]V gl;fDxlDV nfh]CV kfIe]CV kfIh'DV kfIoSV
vf]s-tfIaf]V gl;fD ju[FfxfC d[bfM.
sF sG ;'DdlGgfI yfi- s[aKkf ofDa] ;fDbfI ;fKdfF k]s-d[Nn[ ;[SvfblIaf kfg-FT
d[g-gfI cfSv[G t[Ggf] ySjfblDaf kfg-xfC d[Fft-V sSv] kf]i-uq sG ;'DxfCcfI r[id'S ;'D g'
ySjf;'D kf]i-.
(3) clt-plIjfaf of ySjfblDaf:
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ cfafi] glIjfCF[ ySjf ;lufI clk-dfgf of jfd-dfgfcfI ;fKdfgf ;'DdlG ySjftlDaf
of clt-df]cljfaf ;'D d[d[Tt'. sG ySjf ;'D ;lufI ySjf dMf]dfF[G ;fi-alC ofSdf kf]i-.
x[Ss]cfI n'IdfCbls-kf kf]i-df kf]i-. n'IdfC t'S;lIdfF[ kfg-V n'I xft-plIdfF[ kfg-V zf]w'I
klC;lIdfF[ kfg-V dld-n[ kfg-V d]FlIn[ kfg-V gfhDn[ kfg-V ju[FfxfC ySjftlDaff of cltdf]cljfaf ;'Dn[ tIuKkf] d[bfM.

5. (4) cf]d-glclaf:
y];fI rluf]s-jf of glofFfaf (blq;-;O)xfC dlSslNn[ gl;'a[G gf]FlS cf]d-gl (observe) rf]sdfcfI v[G ofDa] ;fDbfI ;fKdfgf ;'DdlG cf]d-glclaf ;'D d[d[Tt'. sG ;'Ddf] clt-pfKk[Nn[
gl;'afV t'd'af ofDa]clG oFlS gfd-e] rf]u'cfI s'glIjfC ;lufIaf xSjfxfC xSt';lC. yS;fV
k';fV ;lIV n'IV sf]xlt-_rIefIV gfi-hIV oIPIV jfFi-V x[Ss]cfI o[DV o[GV t[GV jgfDV
t[TgfDV ySofDV nfDbls-V rluf]s-jfV ofIgld- glofFf ju[FfxfC cf]d-gl rf]s-dfcfI v[G ofDa]
;fDbfI ;fKd[Nn[ cf]d-glclaf ;'D kf]i-. sG ;'DdlG ;[SvfblIafg'n-n[ ySjfblDaf kf]i-.
(5) yStf]jfaf:
cfTtlGpfI ofDa] ;fDbfI cfafi] ofDglIjfCaf kfg-V clt-gld-V clt-df]V rf]dlSV ySjfxfC xSdfF
;fKd[Nn[ ;'DdlG yStf]jfaf ;'D kf]i-. sG ;'DdlG ;fKd[Nn[ ySjfblDaf kfg-xfC oFlS nft-.
x[Ss]cfI sG ;'Ddf] clt-df]cljfaf of ySjfblDaf g' cf]d-glclaf ;'DxfCg' tI. ;[SvfblDafg'nn[ ySjfblDaf kfg-xfC g' yStf]jfaf ofDglIjfC kfg-xfC oFlS sG ;'Ddf] d[xS;lG. sF sG
;'Dcf] ;fKd'Gw'DV ;fDhlS d'Gw'DV r'Def]F[ kfg-V ySofDV yIV gfbIV ;fKkfg-V ;fKzSV
;fDof]V ;fSylDV nfi-V ;fDnf]V gl;fDxlDV nfh]CV kfIe]CV kfIh'DV kfIoSV vf]s-tfIaf]V gl;fD
ju[Ff ofDa]xfC v[Daf tfMdf d[Gp'Sg[G. y]cfIa]a[Nn[ sG ofDa]xfC ;fDbfI ;[SvfblIaf
(authentic or fact) kfg-xfC sfKofIaf (applicable) d[jfC v[Nn[ rf]u'Nn[ ySjfF[ kfg-xfC v[Def
d[GbfMg[G.
s'ef ;'DxfCF[ kFlSslG ;'D s[;fKkf clt-pfk-k[Nn[ cfSs] kFlSn[ ;'DdlG tf]g-a]jf
(presentation) rf]u' v[G ;fDbfI t[Tgfd- kf]i-. ;'D s[;fKkf clt-pfk-k[Nn[ ;'DdlG ;fKt'Nn[
;[SvfblDaf d[g-gfI ySjfblDa[Kdf] tf]g-a]jf rf]u'cfI clt-nf]jfF[ v]s-v'F ;fKt'uq v[GglG
ySjfblGaf ;'D kf]i-. o[Ddf] ;'D s[;fKkf clt-pfk-k[Nn[ ;'DdlG ;fKt'Nn[ ;[SvfblDaf kfg-xfC
oFlS xSt'cfI ySjf g' clt-nf]F[ kfg-xfC v[Def cf]ufK d[hf]u'Guq kf]wSslaf ;'D of
r[Id'Sslaf ;'D kf]i-. v[Nn[ rf]u'Nn[ kf]wSslaf ;'D of r[Id'Sslaf ;'DxfC clt-rf]cljfaf rf]s;lC x[Ss]cfI ySjblDaff ;'DdlG ofDa]cljfaf rf]s--.
x[Ss]cfI o[Ddf] ;'Dn[ kFlSslG ;'D_clt-pfKk[Nn[ cfSs]af ;fKkfg- ;fKk] of k[GgfDxfC
(wrtting style) ;fKt'Nn[ cf]ufK rf]u'C v[G ;fDbfIifI mfFf kf]i-. ;fKk]a[Nn[ ;'D_cltpfKk[Nn[ s'ySjfV s'clt-nf] g' s';fKkfg-glG s';lI glk-df kf]i-. s'ef ;'D_clt-pfKkfxfCF[
;[SvfblIaf kfg-gf]cfI oFlS ySjf g' clt-nf]xfC d[of]CF'cfI d[;fKt'. x[Ss] kf]i-uq
kf]wSslaf ;'D g' r[Id'Sslaf ;'D g[KdfI ySjfblDaf ;'D kf]i-;l. s';lI :_ ;'DdlG ;'SvlD

6. vfDP' ;fDbfI ;fKdf kf]i-ifI ;fD_clt-pfKk[Nn[ ;[SvfblIaf kfg-xfCFS oFlS xSt'uq v[GglG
r[Id'Sslaf of kf]wSslaf ;'D kf]i-. sF ;'D_clt-pfKk[Nn[ s'ySjf g' s'clt-nf]xfCFC oFlS
cf]ufK rf]u'F xSt'uq v[GglG ySjfblDaf ;'DnC kf]i-. sG kFlSn[G r[Id'Sslaf ;'D g'
kf]wSslaf ;'DxfCcfI ySjfblDaff ;'D kf]i-;lC. v[Nn[ rf]u'Nn[ ;'DxfC ofSmfI;[G rf]s-dfF[ nful
of ;'Dn[G kFlS s';lI glk-dfF[ nful ;'DxfC zSgld- rf]s-dfcfI v[GxfCF[G ofIgld-jf (nature),
tf]g-a]jf (presentation) g' k[GgfD/;fKk] (style) clGgfI s';lI glk-d[G o[s-kf jfC.
;'Dn[ o[s-kf d'S;l/;fi-alCxfC:
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ rfxf s[hf]s-kf of o[s-kf ;'D;l d'S;lxfC d[jfC_
(1) yfdlI/rluf]s-jf/ofDa]:
cfTtlGpfI ;'D ;fKd[Nn[ yfdlI ;]s-d[G of cfTtlG rluf]s-jfclNn[ ;fDbfI ;'D ;fK;lIn kT
v[Nn[ s'yfdlI ;]s-dfcfI ofFlK rf]s-df ;'Sd[b[Tg[Guq v[G ;'D ;fKd[G gf];fIuf]af kf]i-df
d[;'Sg[G. x[Ss]cfI o[Ddf] yfdlI cfTtlG s';fDbfI ;'D ;fKdfF[ nful ofFlK kf]i- v[G;fDbfI
zSgld- rf]s-df g' clt-gld- jfCd[G ;fFlSs] o[s-kf jfC. d[g-uF ;fKkfg- g' x'Kkfg-xfC cfSv[G
gf]af jfC;fI ;'DdlG tfSmfblDaf g' rlc'i-d'Skf kf]i-df d[;'Sg[G.
(2) ;fKk]/k[GgfD:
k[GgfD/;fKk]clG ;'DdlNn[ nTylS o[s-kf d'S;lFf]. sG d'S;lclG cfTtlGpfI clt-pfKk[Nn[
;'D ;fKt'Nn[ gf]FlSsfI cf]ufK rf]u'uq ;'DdlG yfi-;'a[DafV glIo'Skf g' rlc'i-d'Skf kf]i-.
s'P[D;lI s[ofSkf g' tfSmffblDaf kf]i-.
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ k[GplI ;lufI k]ofSkf ;'TnfxfC cf]ufK kf]i-uqV k[GplIn[ s'hf]s- g' gftnfF[ s';[G gf]FlS tIuqV rfxf s[hf]s-kf t[G g' k[GplI ;lufI s'ht-tfF d'Skfg-V kfg-n'K g'
;fDglafxfCF[ d[aft-t'af kfg-jf (quotation/saying) xfC cf]uK rf]s-df ;'St[Tsq ;'DdlG p[GgfI
gf]af g' tfSmfblDaf kf]i-.
(3) ;fKkfg-:
;'D ;fKd[Nn[ ;fKkfg-n[ s'o[s-of g' s'g'gfd]clG sfSg' tulc] tf. yfdlIilG g' ;fKk]clG
cfSv[G gf]af jfC;fI ;fKkfg-glG glFlSkf g' s';lI ;fFfIifI glt-s[b[Kkf xf]k-sq ;'DdlNn[
s';lI d[Fg-g[G. kft-t'D yfdlIilG g' ;fKk]clG ySnSF[G o[k-kf g' g[S;fC;luq ;fKkfg-glG
dfSvlC x[Ss]Ff].