Evolution Vs Macroevolution Research Paper

Evolution Vs Macroevolution Research Paper
Evolution is the scientific theory that all life forms came from ancient ancestors. Humans today
show a great amount of diversity such as natural selection, migration, and mutations.
Microevolution is a change in a living creature that happens within the same species, while
macroevolution is with living creatures evolving to a different form of species. Charles Darwin was
one of the first scientists to form some type of a theory on evolution. However, data sets such as; the
geological column, fossil record, and structural homology, all prove that evolution is just a theory.
The geological column is a classification system that is made up of creatures that over time
fossilized. In theory one can dig up a fossil and guess around what time it was alive. Exploring
Creation with Biology, says Charles Darwin believed that because he found more "complex"
lifeforms on the top of the geological column, that life was evolving like macroevolution states.
(272) There is no way to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The fossil record is a great example that disproves macroevolution. The fossil record, according to,
Biology–Online, "is the totality of fossilized artifacts and their placement within the earth's rock
strata. It provides information about the history of life on earth, for instance what the organisms look
like, where and when they live, how they evolved, etc." If creatures really did evolve over time we
would be able to see one creature, change into another by examining fossils. The fossils we examine
have intermediate links and transitional forms. These are the records in between the evolution of one
creature to another. Paleontologists discover fossils all around the world, but still cannot prove the
existence of evolution on creatures from the past, because of the missing links that are brought up
when comparing creatures for
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CRISPR/Cas9 System Analysis
The CRISPR/Cas9 system requires a proto–spacer adjacent motif (PAM) sequence. The PAM is
necessary for cleavage of target DNA by Cas9, allowing differentiation between invading viral
genome (in this case HIV) and the CRISPR locus in the host genome. One limitation of the
CRISPR/Cas9 system to disrupt HIV could be due to low altering specificity, as the target loci is
very small, so significant off target cleavage can occur (Wang et al.). CRISPR–Cas9 may create
non–specific mutations in areas of the genome with similar homology, outside of the HIV provirus
locus, which may cause cellular transformation (Larson et al., Tu et al.). Selection of Cas9 homologs
with a longer PAM may decrease the probability of non–specific gene target and Cas9 homologs

Homology Is A Central Concept Within The Field Of...
Homology is a central concept within the field of phylogenetics. It represents the idea of similarity
in structure or anatomical position between organisms, indicating a common origin. Homology is
traditionally contrasted with analogy; the similarity of function in two structures that have
contrasting origins. However, it is now more common for the concept to be contrasted against
homoplasy; a character shared by a set of species that their common ancestor does not possess.
The concept of homology was introduced in the early 19th century, before the Darwinian
evolutionary theory was formulated. Two main criteria were used until the first half of the 20th
century, in order to establish homologies between species.
1. The positional criterion.
This outlines that the relative configuration and position of homologous structures must be
maintained between the different species that possess them.
2. The embryological criterion.
This is the assumption that the identical developmental precursors are used to develop homologous
structures in individuals of different species.
Development in the phylogenetics field in the second half of the 20th century included the
introduction of molecular phylogeny and evolution. These additions strongly enhanced the concept
of homology. In addition, it was found that homologous structures can develop from non–
homologous development precursors. This caused the embryological criterion to fail, and so new
outlines needed to be established in order

The Pax Gene Family Encodes For Highly Conserved Dna...
Introduction The Pax gene family encodes for highly conserved DNA–binding transcription factors
that play a vital role in embryonic development. All Pax proteins have a paired–box, DNA–binding
domain of 128 amino acids located at the amino–terminal end, and is very highly conserved in
Drosophila melanogaster, human, and mouse genes (Mansouri et al. 1996). Each different
paralogous Pax gene has a crucial role in D. melanogaster and vertebrate development in terms of
morphogenesis, organogenesis, cell differentiation, and oncogenesis (Mansouri et al. 1996).
However, in this paper, the importance of Pax6's discovery, mutations, and signaling pathway will
be emphasized. It is worthy to note that Pax6 does not operate in a hierarchical linear signaling
pathway but instead, in a massive network with numerous feedback loops. It is impossible to cover
all possible feedback loops; therefore, the focus of the signaling pathway will be on the lens
placode. The Pax6 gene was originally found in D. melanogaster corresponding to the eyeless locus
(Mansouri et al. 1996). While Pax6 is most famous for its function eye development, it is also
prevalent in the pancreas and nervous system development. Since Pax6 encodes a transcription
factor that is involved in so many developmental pathways in the eye, pancreas, and nervous system,
there is a wide spectrum of defects (Davis et al. 2008). The most common defect is aniridia (absence
of the iris) which occurs due to a nonsense mutation

Dorsal Rat Adaptation Essay
This week we are studying adaptations and the theory of evolution. For this assignment we need to
choose an adaptive trait that is common to more than two species. I have decided to write about
dorsal fins, that both dolphins and sharks have.
What makes dorsal fins an adaptation? To answer this question we need to define what the
adaptation is. According to OpenStax College, an adaptation is "a heritable trait that helps the
survival and reproduction of an organism in its present environment is called an adaptation"
(OpenStax College, 2013). Dorsal fins are an adaptation because they help species to have stability
while swimming. Along with other traits, such as streamlined body, fins provide the way to catch the
prey in the water more efficiently. ("How do analogies evolve?", n.d.)
According to Sober, if the trait is considered to be an adaptation, it is a result of a natural selection
(Sober, 2014). So, I can assume, that dorsal fins have developed by survival of species that did have
dorsal fins, so the dorsal fins evolved as a result of natural selection.
Homologous traits are developed from the similar trait that a common ancestor have (OpenStax
College, 2013) and analogous traits are the ones that look similar and perform similar functions but
were not inherited from a common ancestor. Dorsal fins of dolphins and sharks are analogous
structures: both dolphins and sharks developed them because they live in ... Show more content on
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(2013). Biology. OpenStax College. Retrieved from http://cnx.org/content/col11448/latest/
How do analogies evolve? (n.d.). Retrieved October 25, 2017, from
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/similarity_ms_08
Sober, E. (2014). The Nature of Selection Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Scoville, H. (n.d.). What is the difference between analogy and homology in evolution? Retrieved
October 25, 2017, from

Pan1 And Genetic Domain Structures
In contrast to Sc, Ca, and Mo that share the Pan1–Las17/Bee1 endocytic pathway, Cn appears to
adopt a distinct Cin1–Wsp1 endocytic pathway for transport, growth, and virulence [22]. Both Cin1
and Wsp1 display domain structures similar, but not identical, to human ITSN1 and WASp than to
Sc/Ca Pan1 and Las17/Bee1 [23, 24]. These findings suggest a unique intracellular transport process
occurring in Cn and raise several important questions. As endocytic proteins function by interacting
with other partner proteins, what are the other binding partners of Cin1 in the pathway? Does Cin1–
mediated endocytic pathway contribute to specific virulence characteristics? We are uniquely
positioned to address these critical questions.
In terms of domain ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The intriguing finding that Cin1–S confers a CNS survival advantage provides a novel avenue to
probe the CNS propensity of Cn. Finally, given the importance of exRNA in intercellular cellular
communication, it is tempting to speculate that Cin1 regulates uptake and export of exRNA to play a
role in host–pathogen interactions and pathogenesis. Because of our recent advances, we believe we
may possess an unprecedented system to probe the mechanism of pathogenesis in Cn.
C. Approach Cn is a haploid budding yeast with a well–defined life cycle. It also has proven to be a
tractable research model in which classical and molecular approaches, as well as both in vitro and in
vivo models, are available for studying host–pathogen interactions and pathogenesis. In addition,
genomic and proteomic approaches including microarray, whole transcriptome shotgun sequencing
(RNA–Seq), and proteomics have all been employed to study pathogenesis of Cn [35–37]. This
well–established model organism and available research resources will be invaluable for us to
pursue our research goals.
In Cn, Cin1 is required for the endocytic transport of the lipophilic styryl dye FM4–64, normal
morphology, proper localization of a Lac1–DsRed fusion protein, mating, and the production of
capsule, urease, and phospholipases [22]. Cin1 also regulates the actin cytoskeleton upstream of the
WASp homolog Wsp1 and Cdc42 [23, 24]. This pleiotropic function is

The Relationship Between Grks And Arrestins
2.3.2 GRKs and –arrestins
GPCR desensitization is a deactivation of GPCR–elicited signaling following prolonged or repeated
agonist exposure. A major mechanism underlying desensitization is agonist–stimulated
phosphorylation and endocytosis of the receptor. The second messenger–dependent protein kinases
were originally regarded as the principal mediators of GPCR phosphorylation and desensitization.
However, following the discovery of G protein–coupled receptor kinases (GRKs, originally called
–adrenoceptor kinases), the GRKs have been shown to play a central role in the agonist–induced
desensitization of many GPCRs (Kelly 2008). The GRK family of serine/threonine kinases
comprises seven members. Based on sequence homology, vertebrate ... Show more content on
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For example, –arrestins can mediate sustained ERK phosphorylation or protective mGluR
signaling, which are G protein–independent processes (Emery 2010, Wang 2016). At the end of
GPCR cycles, a regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) acts as GTPase activating proteins (GAPs),
leading to GTP hydrolysis and reversing the receptor to an initial resting state (Sato 2015).
Different GRK subtypes combined with the action of –arrestins can contribute the endocytosis of
Group I mGluRs in an agonist–dependent manner; however, the results are inconsistent (reviewed in
Refs: Iacovelli 2013, Kim 2008). Both GRK2 and GRK4 induce the agonist–induced internalization
of mGluR1a, which appears to require GRK2–mediated phosphorylation of the S869–V893 region
of mGluR1a when expressed in HEK cells (Iacovelli 2003, Sallese 2000, Mundell 2003). These
agonist–induced internalization processes are –arrestin 1/2 and dynamin–dependent (Mundell
2001, 2002, 2003). –arrestin 1 appears to be important in mGluR1 endocytosis; however, the
agonist–stimulated internalization of mGluR1a is observed only when –arrestin 1 is co–expressed
with either GRK2 or GRK5 in HEK cells. GRK2, GRK5, –arrestin 1, or –arrestin2 individually
has no significant effect on the internalization of mGluR1a (Dale 2001). –arrestin 1, but not –
arrestin 2, selectively interacts with mGluR1a and is redistributed to the same

What Is Familiarization And Planning For Sanger Sequencing
Familiarization and Planning for Sanger Sequencing
In planning for Sanger Sequencing it is important to become familiar with a number of aspects of
the gene of interest as it relates to the disease(s) caused by mutations in that gene.
Identification of the reference sequence to be used for comparison of test sequence data. These
sequences are typically obtained from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI;
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ with the date of access). Many genes have alternative transcripts and
promoters that should be taken into consideration depending on the particular disease and tissue
expression patterns. Over ~8000 processed pseudogenes and ~4000 duplicated pseudogenes have
been identified, and these can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For recessive mutations, disease can be caused not only by pathogenic variants at the same location
on both chromosomes, but also by compound heterozygous mutations, two different pathogenic
heterozygous variants at different gene locations on different chromosomes. The human male has
only one X and one Y chromosome, and pathogenic variants on these chromosomes are hemizygous.
Sequence for the X and Y chromosomes in males have only one value at each base location, where
as the sequence for diploid chromosomes and the two X chromosome in females can be
homozygous or heterozygous. Pathogenic variants in the X chromosome usually cause disease
symptoms in males, but result in a wide range of disease symptoms and severity in females because
of random X inactivation.
Optimization following primer design. Once primers have been designed, the assay must be
optimized including similar melting temperatures for all of the primers to allow the primers to be
run in one thermal cycling protocol resulting in adequate amplification of all amplicons. Since a
good indication of success of sequencing reactions is the quality of the PCR template, data collected
in the validation process from argarose gels can be used to determine the percentage of time that an
amplicon amplifies without problems as illustrated in the example in Figure 11.
3.4 Primer Design
Once the reportable range has been defined, primers can be designed using available

Creation and Evolution, which do you believe? Essay
When thinking about the origin of life, there are two main points one can come to, Intelligent
Design or Natural Process (Ken Ham, 2008). "According to the former view, supernatural
intervention was essential for the creation of life; according to the latter, living organisms could
form spontaneously–for example, from the mud of the Nile" (Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006).
Creation can be defined as the original bringing into existence of the universe by God ("Creation",
n.d.). Intelligent design can be defined as "certain features" (Ken Ham, 2008). Intelligent Design can
also be explained by finding features of the earth and explaining them by an intelligent cause
("Intelligent Design", n.d.). Creationism usually starts with religious ... Show more content on
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Origin of Life Many Christians believe in the fact that there is an intelligent designer who created
the earth and the species that inhabit it (Patterson, R, n.d.). There are no true accounts or
eyewitnesses of the creation of origin of life (Patterson, R, n.d.). The Bible is one of the ways people
account for the creation of species, resulting from an intelligent designer (Patterson, R, n.d.). For a
Christian how life came to be is nothing to worry about, the bible clearly states that God called all
animals, plants, and human to be in his likeness. An example of natural selection that evolutionists
would use if is someone had a half eye, what is the use of a half eye? (Leone, B. 2002). How could
natural selection use an eye that is nowhere near to perfect, basically a flaw (Leone, B. 2002). This
would suggest of a perfect system, something that could not fault and would have no faults in it
(Leone, B. 2002). If there was such a complex and perfectly designed system against evolution if
would provide a huge problem (Leone, B. 2002). God gave breath to him and gave him life (Origin
of Life). Some could say that Adam, since he was created from the dust of ground would say that he
came from a non living organism as evolution would want someone to think. "For in six days the
LORD made the heavens and the earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but he rested on the seventh
day. Therefore the LORD blessed the Sabbath day and made it holy" (NIV

Differences Between Meiosis And Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes can reproduce in two ways, via mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is a process of cell division
where a single round of replication is followed by separation of sister chromatids to form 2 daughter
cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. On the other hand, during meiosis, a single
round of DNA replication is precedes two rounds of cell divisions leading to the formation of
haploid gamete from a diploid parent (Figure 1). Figure 1: In meiosis, the DNA replication occurs in
S phase followed by two rounds of replication. Homologs are segregated during meiosis I and sisters
during meiosis II.
Meiosis I is a reductional cell division, where sister chromatids are mono–oriented and homologous
chromosomes that are pulled to the opposite poles. The proper segregation of homologous
chromosome is mainly ensured by meiotic recombination that leads to the formation of a physical
link between them (Chiasmata). Meiotic recombination also leads to the exchange of genetic
material between the homologous chromosomes, leading to genetic variation. Meiosis II (like
mitosis) is an equational division, where the sister chromatids are segregated to form gametes with
half the genetic composition as the parents. The two gametes from different individuals so formed
then fuse via ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Three of these are subsequently degraded and one undergoes a round of mitosis. The conjugating
partners exchange one of the progeny MIC that fuses with the other to form a diploid MIC. The
zygotic MIC undergoes two more rounds of mitosis. 2 of these form the new MIC and 2 form a new
MAC and the parental MAC starts to degrade. For the formation of the new MACs from the zygotic
MAC, RNAi mediated DNA elimination and chromosome breakage sequence followed by telomere
addition leads to the formation of the mini–chromosomes with a reduced genome size (from 120Mb
to

Query Sequence And Analysis Of Verify3d
According to the model evaluation program Verify3D, 80.00% of the amino acid residues in this
homology model had an average 3D–1D score greater than 0.2, which qualifies it as a passing model
(Lüthy et al., 1992). However, between residues 44–66 on the Verify3D plot, the score dips below
the 0.2 threshold, falling as low as –0.04. This can be explained by the fact that when aligned
against each other, the query sequence and template sequence consist of different types of amino
acid residues in this range (Table 1). The query sequence consists of the residues
YTAEADGNTIFTKTIPSGITISA, while the template sequence 4IPU_A consists of the residues
KDWGKGLSIGVLASGSIAAPLRK. After analyzing these two aligned sequences, some stark
differences ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Moreover, based on ProSA's local plot, the model displays low energy scores (negative delta g)
throughout most of the plot in the template sequence, indicating a highly favorable model.
Additionally, as shown in figure 1, for this template model, ProQ3 shows a ProQ3D score of .659
(Uziela et al., 2017). Similarly, as shown in figure 2, for the experimentally determined structure of
this template (PDB ID: 4IPU), ProQ3 shows a ProQ3D score of .537. Since the template model
scored slightly higher than the known structure and is closer to 1, the model generated can be
deemed as acceptable. Overall, given the positive results of most of these these evaluation programs,
it can be concluded that the template model 4IPU_A is likely reliable and gives a highly accurate
alignment.
According to the model evaluation program Verify3D, 79.63% of the amino acid residues in this
homology model had an average 3D–1D score greater than 0.2, which qualifies it as a "warning"
model (Lüthy et al., 1992). This indicates that it may be a reliable model, but other evaluation
programs must be used in order to verify this. Between residues 19–32 and 65–71 on the Verify3D
plot, the score dips below the 0.2 threshold, falling as low as 0.04. This can be explained by the fact
that when aligned against each other, the query sequence and template sequence consist of different
types

CDKN1A
(#4) CDKN1A stands for Cyclin–Dependent Kinase Inhibitor 1A. Alternative names for CDKN1A
include the following abbreviations: CDKI, CIP1, SDI1, Waf1, CAP20, CDKN1, p21WAF, p21,
p21Clip1, Melanoma Differentiation–Associated Protein 6, also known as MDA–6, and many more.
(#2) CDKN1A is a protein coding gene. The purpose CDKN1A serves in the cell is that it works as
cell cycle regulator at the G1 checkpoint and is responsible for the cell cycle arrest at that
checkpoint. CDKN1A encodes a potential cyclin–dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor which then
prevents the phosphorylation of critical CDK substrates and blocks cell cycle progression, thus
functioning as a cell cycle regulator at the G1 checkpoint. CDKN1A, along with p53, are both
involved

Drosophila Protein Lab Report
Proteins are large complex molecules that are made of one or more chains of amino acids. They play
an important role in the cellular life as they are involved in human's physiology. Many diseases in
humans are caused by mutations in DNA coding. These mutations lead to defective proteins.
Investigating these diseases can be very challenging because using human subjects for research
involve many health risks and the long human' life span results in the lack of information about the
genomic aspect of these diseases. In order to overcome these constraints, researchers use non–
humans' models to study human diseases. Indeed, many studies have revealed proteins homology
among organisms. Proteins that share the same family and functions are categorized as protein
domains. These ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For this lab experiment, we used a cDNA library (complementary DNA library). A cDNA is the
synthesis of a double–stranded DNA from a single– stranded–RNA template via reverse
transcription (1). Therefore, a cDNA library represents all the cloned cDNA fragments. In this
experiment, we needed to determine cDNA sequences in Drosophila melanogaster that were related
to a homologous protein in human that caused the diseases. Carrying out this experiment lead us to
four research questions: what drosophila protein is identified via the DNA sequence in the cDNA
plasmid and what is the role of this protein in drosophila? What human proteins and/or protein
domains show homology with cDNA sequences prepared from a Drosophila melanogaster cDNA
library? What is the function of our proteins in humans? How might studying the function (or loss of
function via mutations) of these proteins in Drosophila contribute to our understanding of
mechanisms controlling human diseases involving this protein? (1) To do so, we used E. coli as a
host to store plasmid DNA containing Drosophila cDNA. The cDNA was sequenced and

To What Extent Does Evolution Exist?
Evolution is still a debated topic after many years of research and information gathered about it.
Evolutionary biology has presented some very strong evidence that evolution exists. There are many
examples such as fossils, similarities in early development, vestigial structures, and more that can be
used to prove the existence of evolution. Another thing that can be used to prove that evolution
exists are homologous structures.
Homologous structures are parts of the body that have a similar structure to comparative anatomy to
another species. These structures are similar in function as well (Scoville, n.d.). Homology does not
define a similarity between two structures, but it implies an ancestral connection (Paleontology Page
for Historical

Offender Profiling
Canter Profiling Research Paper
Over the entire research paper the hypothetical foundations for 'Offender Profiling' are identified
and the research that tested them is reviewed. 'Offender profiling' is an inferenced based idea of a
criminal based off of a criminal's crime scene and the things he or she does while committing the
crime. The radex model uses Multi–Dimensional Scaling to analyze important constituents of
criminal differentiation including, salience, models of differentiation, consistency, and inferences.
The implications of the research paper are for the results to eventually be of value to police and to
provide new insights into the psychology of crime. Psychological profiling is described as a method
of suspect identification ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The criminal investigative approach is what is used law enforcement and more specifically by the
Behavioral Analysis Unit with the FBI. The BAU assists law enforcement agencies by their review
and assessment of a criminal act, by interpreting the offender's behavior during the crime and the
interactions between the offender and the victim during the commission of the crime and as
expressed in the crime scene. The clinical practitioner approach focuses on looking at each case as
unique, making the approach very individualistic. One practitioner, Turco, believed that all violent
crimes were a result of the mother–child struggle where female victims represent the offender's
mother. This is also recognized as the psychodynamic approach. Also outlined are some principles
for profiling which include being custom made, interactive and reflexive. By following these
principles, the profile should include advice that is unique and not from a stereotype, should be easy
to understand for all levels of intelligence, and all elements in the profile should influence one
another. The Scientific approach relies heavily on the multivariate analysis of behaviors and any
other information from the crime scene that could lead to the offender's characteristics or
psychological processes. According to this approach, elements of the profile are developed by
comparing the results of the analysis to those of previously caught

A Study On Genetic Engineering
Zishan Bhatti
Bio 1101 Lecture 10 am
Professor Fuscaldo
5/1/2015
CRISPR Cas9 Genetic engineering is a feat that humans have been attempting to perfect for a very
long time. Genetic engineering is trying to change or modify an animal or organism's genetic
makeup or genome using biotechnology. There are a lot of technologies that have been invented
throughout the years that attempt to do this. One of the newest biomedical engineering
advancements is the CRISPR Cas9, it is a microbial nuclease system which can seriously benefit
science if it truly works properly. There has been countless amounts of genetic engineering
technologies invented, but a majority of them have some sort of defect or harmful side effect.
Though, there are genetic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genetic engineering is replacing, changing, or deleting certain hereditary traits from a cell, and there
are countless technologies that have been invented to do this such as, gene isolation, gene targeting,
and transformation. Emmanuelle Charpentie was initially researching how tracrRNA would function
inside the CRISPR. It was previously acknowledged that with this the bacteria's being tested would
not be able to be invaded by foreign virus. From the 1980s scientist have always believed that the
CRISPR was just a useless chunk of the DNA that had no worth. Though then with Emmanuelle's
studies scientist started to realize that the CRISPR might actually be a defense mechanism inside the
cells of bacteria. CRISPR can take viral information from a virus and then make itself immune to it.
The scientist worked on this and it can be used to cut and replace DNA. Now with the revolution of
CRISPR cas9 genetic engineering is a simple task to do, well much simpler than it was before. See
in the past it has been complicated to cut a piece of DNA out successfully and then replace it with
another strand of your choice without any sort of defect. The CRISPR cas9 not only cuts but can
replace as well on its own. The scientist who worked on the CRISPR such as Emmanuelle Chantie
and Doudna had no idea it was going to be able to be used for genetic engineering. Then after they
realized and other genetic researchers started looking into this a scientific

Evidence Of Evolution
Nora Lyang
AP Bio Pd. 3
2 January 2016
Evidence of Evolution The theory of evolution is the process how organisms on Earth change over
time by natural selection. The theory of evolution is so widely known that it is almost universally
accepted, except for a few people that think otherwise. For a theory to become so widely known and
established, there has to have been evidence to back it up. The most prominent pieces of evidence
for evolution are often cited as biogeography, homology, analogy, direct evidence, and paleontology.
Each of these pieces of evidence provide indication for evolution. Biogeography is the study of
where life is found and where their descendants were living in the past. Before Darwin, all scientists
believed in special ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Analogous structures have similar structures, but a different origin. They also have similar
functions. An example of analogy that supports the theory of evolution is speciation. Speciation is
defined as the biological change over time by which new species arrive. Some might wonder how
analogous structures come to be. Different species usually become more alike because of convergent
evolution. For example, two species can live in different but similar environments and need to fill
the same niche in different places on Earth. Because natural selection is the same around the world,
the species will go through similar styles of adaptations. Animals with advantageous adaptations
will be able to pass on their genes through reproduction. Reproduction continues until the
advantageous adaptation is the only one left. Occasionally, the favorable variation can change the
structure of the species. Limbs can be lost, gained, or changed, creating analogous structures in
diverse species that live in similar niches and surroundings, but don't live in the same places. A more
specific example is the similarity between the wings of birds and bats. A widespread adaptation for
many species, the wings of birds and bats are analogous as flight structures. The wings of both
animals have developed by different paths. In bats, the surface of the wing is a membrane without
feathers whereas birds have wings covered in feathers. Although both animals can fly and have
wings, they are different in many other places. Birds and bats just happen to fill the flying niche of
their

Does Gilbert's Essay: Do Organisms Have A Common Ancestor?
The highly controversial topic about whether organisms share common descent if they have a
common ancestor or they arise independently still remains to this day. Both Scott Gilbert and
Charles Darwin write pieces in effort to express the idea that organisms share a common ancestor.
However, both do so in a unique way. Gilbert tries to express his proposition by writing a parable
about a native from South America being brought to England to learn a new religion and spread it to
his homeland. In doing so, Gilbert bases his parable off of the question of if the three churches all
arose independently or if they each share a common ancestor. Darwin, on the other hand, uses
language to express how it has evolved and branched away from a common ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
In Darwin's article, he states, "We find in distinct languages striking homologies due to community
of descent..." Homologies are similarities due to common ancestry. An example of this in language
is comparing French syntax to English syntax. They share the same subject–verb–direct object
sentences. Another example is cognates. The two languages, in essence, are different because they
are derived from two different cultures, however they share similarities which make them appear to
be common ancestors. Much like a moth and a bat, both have wings that are similar structures and
function alike. Therefore, it is believed that they originated from a common ancestor. Homologies
can occur in different areas as well, such as religion. Stated previously, it is believed that the
Anglican Church, the American Episcopal Church, and the Roman Catholic Church all share a
common ancestor. Despite the differences, "The rites, liturgy, and even the language of the Anglican
Church is almost identical to that of the American Episcopal Church with only slight differences.
Thus, there are numerous homologies that would not be expected if the two religions had two
separate sets of founders." Even though these specific churches were built in different locations,
there is too many similarities for it to be believed that they did not all branch off of and form from a
common

An Essential Cellular Communication Process Of...
IIntracellular trafficking is an essential cellular communication process in which membrane vesicles
carrying lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are taken up and transported through endosomes to
lysosomes (termed endocytosis) and vesicles carrying macromolecules are delivered to the plasma
membrane and outside of the cell (exocytosis) [1]. Uptake of external particles through endocytosis
is required for prolific growth and differentiation. For example, uptake of transferrin provides iron
necessary for growth and parasitism of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum [2]. In contrast, the
synaptic release of neurotransmitters, including dopamine and serotonin exemplifies exocytosis. In
the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans (Ca), the secretion ... Show more content on
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Pan1 homologs were identified from Candida species and Magnaporthe oryzae (Mo), but not Cn,
indicating that Pan1–mediated endocytic trafficking is not universal among fungi ([13], ZG Zhang
and P Wang, unpublished data).
Cn is an encapsulated basidiomycetous fungus that infects both immunocompromised and healthy
individuals to cause life–threatening meningoencephalitis [14]. Cn produces virulence factors
including melanin, the polysaccharide capsule, and extracellular ureases and phospholipases [15–
17]. Previous studies showed that secretory transport is important for virulence [18] and that Cn has
proteins with conserved specific functions in exocytosis, such as Sav1, Sec6, and Sec14 [19–21].
Previously, we identified cryptococcal intersectin 1 (Cin1) as a novel endocytic adaptor protein that
is important not only in intracellular transport but also in growth and virulence [22]. Cin1 contains
multiple domains including one EH domain, one CC region, an actin monomer–binding WH2
domain, two SH3 motifs, and a RhoGEF–PH domain. Also, the Cin1 domain structure shares more
similarity with mammalian ITSN1 than Sc Pan1 (Fig. 1). Further studies suggested that Cin1
functions upstream of Wsp1, a GTPase–binding domain (GBD) containing Wiskott–Aldrich
Syndrome protein (WASp) homolog and a Rho family GTPase, Cdc42, to regulate actin

The Application of Algebraic Topology ot Data Analysis
The application of algebraic topology to data analysis is relatively new but promising. When
confronted with large volumes of high dimensional data we would like to identify significant
phenomena, and the persistence of topological features provides a new and potentially useful
measure of significance. A key promise of this method is the ability to identify features without a
model– truly unsupervised learning.
Unlike traditional statistical methods of data analysis which are primarily concerned parameter
estimation, topological data analysis regards the data as a sample from a manifold embedded in
euclidean space and attempts to recover topological features such as connectedness or the number of
holes. An advantage of considering topology is that it is stable under deformations, and can
therefore be said to be insensitive to errors introduced in the sampling [].
To see the utility of the topological approach, and in particular the utility of homology to
multidimensional data analysis, consider the following example, first describe by Scott (1992). Take
random samples in R3 from two different populations. Suppose that these sample points form data
clouds, similar to the shape of 2–dimensional spheres of with two different radii, with the smaller
one being from one population and the larger one from the other population. Moreover, the smaller
sphere sits inside the larger sphere.. Most multivariate and dimensionality reduction methods would
not be able to detect the

Phylogeny: Evolutionary Forensic Study
Today phylogeny is used all around the world in fields of all nature such as biology, history, and
even forensic studies. It is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. With that being said,
term phylogenetics refers to the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms based
on genetic similarities as well as the history and relationships among these organisms (Losos, 2013).
This is extremely important in science because it allows scientists to study and determine the
relatedness of organisms well before we were in existence along with even helping predict what the
future may bring.
Phylogenetic trees are what are used to visually express the evolutionary relatedness. They show the
ancestral descendant relationships among populations or species (Dynamic Books, 2011). These
trees are constructed based off data from morphology, genetic characteristics, or even both (Losos,
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Similar characteristics due to relatedness from a common ancestor are known as homologies or
homoplastic/homologous traits. Homologies can be revealed by comparing the anatomies of
different living things, looking at cellular similarities and differences, studying embryological
development, and studying vestigial structures within individual organisms (Understanding
Evolution, 2008). Homologous traits are traits that are derived by evolution from a common
ancestor. Homologous proteins might share a common ancestor, however they may not have the
exact same function for the trait. Although organisms may have homologous traits, the use of these
traits may differ due to evolution. This leads into biochemical homologies. These are metabolic
pathways and/or genetic mechanisms that may have been present in a single celled ancestor and
have evolved into similar structures on a bigger scale in a common ancestor down the road
(Southan,

Evolution: How Species Changes Due To Natural Selection
Evolution is how a species changes over time due to natural selection. There are many pieces of
evidence proving evolution and that we all came from a common descendant. One piece of evidence
of evolution is fossil records. Fossil records are remains of live fossilized in rocks, wood, bones, or
frozen in ice or trapped in plant resin. Fossil records show evidence of evolution because some
fossil recrods look reallt similar to some animals alive today, which means that they slighly evolved
to survive in the new enviroments that mother nature introduced them.
Another peice of evidence of evolution is comparative anatomy. Comparative anatomy is the studdy
of similarities and differences in the sstructure of different species, The similar body

Lysosomal Porage Diseases Case Study
ABSTRACT
Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs) are a group of genetic disorders, resulting from deficiencies of
lysosomal enzyme. Genotype–phenotype correlation is essential for timely and proper treatment
allocation. Recently, by integrating prediction outcomes of 7 bioinformatics tools, we developed a
SAAMP algorithm to predict amino acid substitutions. To optimize this approach, we evaluated the
performance of these bioinformatics tools in a broad array of genes. PolyPhen and PROVEAN had
the best performances, while SNP&GOs, PANTHER and I–Mutant had the worst performances.
Therefore, SAAMP 2.0 was developed by excluding 3 tools with worst performance, yielding a
sensitivity of 94% and a specificity of 90%. To generalize the guideline to ... Show more content on
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It depends on the degree of protein function affected by specific mutations, the biochemistry of the
storage materials, as well as the cell types where storage occurs.
Diagnosis of LSDs is an often long and burdensome odyssey [4], which usually includes
quantification of macromolecules excreted in urine, enzyme assay with leukocytes (or cultured skin
fibroblasts), mutation analysis and symptoms–based judgment. An alternative approach is newborn
screening (NBS) program, which shortens the diagnostic process. Early detection by NBS allows for
early initiation of disease modifying treatment which is essential for optimal treatment efficacy.
However, NBS usually leads to the identification of individuals with low enzyme activity with
previously unreported genetic variants of unknown significance [5]. Therefore, decisions on
treatment initiation can be complicated in pre–symptomatic patients, and a robust phenotypic
prediction is essential.
To this end, we utilized the bioinformatics tools to analyze mutations in the IDUA gene and
established a guideline for predicting genotype–phenotype correlation [6]. As shown in Figure 1, a
step–by–step guideline for phenotype prediction of MPS I disease was established. When a mutation
is identified, 1) if it is a known disease–causing mutation, refer to previous literature for deducing
phenotype severity; 2) if not, conduct in silico analyses. More

The Characteristics Of Adaptation In Honey Bees
Introduction Adaptation is an evolutionary process in which the organism (or species) adapts itself
to external conditions and other factors that are in the area of its occurrence. Thanks to the
adaptation enabled by natural selection, there are useful (but not purposeful) properties. Thus,
biological evolution differs greatly from other forms of evolution. Natural selection is "able" to
choose from those randomly generated mutations those that are convenient and useful. Adaptation is
often thought of as adopting new evolutionary strategies and passing through genetic mutations into
new forms. Honey Bees are flying insects who live on nectar and pollen. According to Honeybee
center (n.d.); "Bees have a long, straw–like tongue called a probiscus that allows them to drink the
nectar form deep within blossoms" (para. 2). Hummingbirds are visually distinct in size, the smallest
representative of the whole family, the smallest calypte, is also the smallest bird of the world, the
largest representative is the big hummingbird. Mostly they are strikingly colored, slender birds with
small limbs. With the exception of insects, hummingbirds have the fastest metabolism of all animal
species. The reason is especially fast and very heavy wearing of wings for the body. They live
mainly in the nectar of plants, which is helped by their long beak, which is often different in
different species and specialized for a certain kind of flower. In food, it completely rejects nectar
with a lower

Crime Scene Investigation Essay
At a crime scene, insects can provide important pieces of information to criminal investigators,
including estimating the post–mortem interval (PMI) and determining where the crime took place.
This is only possible, however, if the local insect fauna is known, thereby facilitating the need for
local insect population surveys at both the morphological and gene levels. Although flies (order
Diptera) are one of the first and most prevalent necrophagic insect species found associated with a
corpse, beetles (order Coleoptera) are also a forensically relevant insect that can play a significant
role in crime scene investigations.
In this study, the objective was to survey the Coleoptera population in Lyon County, Kansas during
the early spring. Insects were collected using light traps during the evening hours and DNA was
isolated from each collected specimen followed by amplification of the cytochrome oxidase I (COI)
gene. The cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene is known to be as a standard barcode gene. (CBOL,
2010) This barcode gene is a 648 base pair mostly found in all animals including flies, ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DNA Isolation was done using ZR Tissue & Insect DNA Miniprep™ kit (Zymo Reseach, Irvine,
CA). The instruction manual provided by Zymo Research, titled as ZR Tissue and Insect DNA Mini
Prep ™, Catalog No. D6016 was used in order to perform the DNA isolation. (Zymo, 1913) ZR
Tissue and Insect DNA Mini Prep ™, Catalog No. D6016, provides a detailed procedure including
what materials to use, centrifugation timing, extraction, and in between others. (Zymo, 1913) This
can be found in room 44 and on the Zymo Research website. Afterward DNA extraction, the
concentration and purity of each DNA sample was measured in a Implen Nano–photometer, Serial
No: 6293. The specimens needed to have a concentration equal or bigger than 4 ng/μl in order to be
used in to the next

Taking a Look at Influenza A Virus
Around 5 million people worldwide are affected annually by the influenza A virus (IAV), with
infection resulting in severe morbidity and sometimes death. Although effective IAV vaccines exist,
annual influenza epidemics occur due to its ability to quickly evolve new strains. Therefore, IAV
remains a serious public health threat as evidenced by the recent pandemics involving swine H1N1
and avian H7N9. Thus, there is a vital need to develop more effective vaccines against influenza.
Normally, vaccines function by priming the immune system to recognize a pathogen so that the
body can more easily identify and eliminate it upon a second encounter. This protective immunity
relies on receptors in the innate immune system such as the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)
Toll–like receptors (TLRs) and retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIG–I). In contrast, Nod–like
receptors (NLRs) sense cellular damage as a result of infection and engage the inflammasome.
Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that stimulate the secretion of inflammatory cytokines.
Recent work by Pang et al. examined the relevance of host recognition of viral PAMPs versus virus–
inflicted damage in linking innate recognition of IAV to adaptive immunity. Mediation of adaptive
immunity to IAV is attributed to production of interleukin–1α (IL–1α) and IL–1β, cleavage products
of the inflammatory cytokine IL–1. Pang et al. provided evidence that induction of an adaptive
CD8+ T cell response did not depend on PRRs

The Phenotypic Effects Observed With Either Mutant Alleles...
Question 3
Based on the phenotypic effects observed with either mutant alleles (forward genetic screen) or
knockdown effects (e.g. RNAi or morpholino), you determine that you would like to generate a
conditional knockout animal (in this case, in a mouse model).
(3A) What is the procedure to generate a conditional knockout mouse and how would you use it?
1.Create targeting construct using recombinant DNA technology. The construct must contain the
transgene DNA sequence and the promoter necessary for gene expression. The taransgene has to be
flanked by long segments of DNA homologous to endogenous mouse genome. The targeting
construct must also contain positive selection gene between the homology arms and a negative
selection gene outside of the homology arms.
To create a conditional KO mouse carrying a null gene identified in answer A, I would use a Cre/lox
binary expression system. I would have to generate two mouse lines, TH–Cre mouse and mouse
with a floxed gene (same orientation) of interest, and then cross these mice to produce a mouse
which has a knock out of gene identified in answer A in DA neurons only (Cre expressing neurons).
I could also generate an additional KO animal in which Cre expression is limited to E11.5–E18 by
injection of tamoxifen in Cre–ER fusion paradigm to investigate the effect of gene knock out during
the time frame in which DA projections develop (although, tamoxifen exposure of the fetus might
affect other developmental processes).
2.

History Of Opitz Syndrome : A Disease Characterized By A...
Opitz syndrome is a disease characterized by a defect along the ventral midline of the human body.
Some of these abnormalities include a cleft lip, heart defects, wide–spaced eyes (hypertelerism),
laryngeal cleft, agenesis of the corpus callosum, and hypospadias. An important irregularity in
patients is the effect disrupted proteins have on the corpus colloseum. The corpus colloseum is a
neuronal component that separates the two halves of the brain. This protein is imperative because it
controls MID–1 or the midline. The MID–1 protein also forms homodimers, which associate with
microtubules in the cytoplasm, especially during fetal development. Therefore, MID–1 is involved
in formation of multiprotein structures, acting as anchor points to ... Show more content on
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I found this topic interesting and informative because it defined the multiple ways that a protein
could be affected in the body and lead to a disease. While some people find biochemistry as a whole
intimidating, I find it fascinating that pathways and complexes can interconnect and link.
Interconnections can cause more than one result. This concept helped me understand how a disease,
such as Opitz syndrome, is so challenging to cure. Curing the effects of B–box 1 or 2 may or may
not lead to realignment of microtubules. There could be downstream effects that take place in other
areas. As a result, hard work and a plethora of experimentation is necessary to be able to isolate
pathways and cure this troubling disease.
Question 2: (29 pts) In the article, "Effect of an Ala81His Mutation on the Met80 Loop Dynamics of
Iso–1–cytochrome c," figure 1 includes a portion of the protein sequence.
a. (5 pts) What is the difference between using the terms, identity and homology, when comparing
protein sequences.
In terms of comparing protein sequences, "identity" means that the protein sequences have identical
amino acids in their sequence. The percent of identical amino acids indicates the percent of
"identity" between amino acids.
In terms of comparing protein sequences, "homologous" means similarity between protein
sequences. The proteins may be even more homologous because of similar – but not identical –
residues. Often, homology is

Pdb Enzyme Lab
The crystal structure of enzyme Plasmodium falciparum enzyme farnesyltransferase was not found
available in Protein Data Bank (PDB) archive, therefore the structure was built using homology
modeling method. In order to predict the structure of enzyme (PfFT), the sequence of enzyme IDs
PF3D7_1242600 [alpha– subunit] and PF3D7_1147500 [beta subunit] were obtained from the web
services (www.gene db.org), protein sequence data bank in swiss prot or uniprock KB (Q8IHP6),
NCBI (AAW78025). The only sequence of the active site (beta–subunit) was taken for homology
modeling. Phyre2 V 2.0 at server available online
(http://www.sbg.bio.ic.ac.uk/phyre2/html/page.cgi?id=index). The X–ray crystallographic structure
of farnesyltransferase from aspergillus fumigatus protein ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Atomic charges were assigned to the receptor using AMBER7 FF99 force field. The protein
complex was minimized using AMBER7 FF99 force field. Finally the 3D structure of the prepared
protein was saved as PDB file.
3.4.2. Protomol generation
The protomol is a representation of the enzyme's binding cavity in which putative ligands are
aligned. The complexed ligand from the crystal structure was used to construct the protomol, which
was then stored as MOL2 file. Ligands were docked directly from molecular database or mol2 files.
3.5. Ligands Sources
Compounds used in and docking screening were downloaded as mol2 files from the web–based
databases zinc docking org. (www. zinc.docking.org) The ligand geometries were optimized with
the Powel method using the Tripos force field and Gasteiger–Hückel charges for all atoms, until a
gradient 0.01 kcal/mol/Å was

What Are The Potential Allergenicity Of Genetically...
Evaluating potential allergenicity of genetically modified (GM) food crops Preface Genetically
modified food crops developed by recombinant DNA technology aims at improving food quantity
and quality. Transgenic proteins expressed by GM crops improve crop characteristics like nutritional
value, taste, texture and endow the plant with resistance against fungus, pests and insects. With the
advancements in the field of agricultural biotechnology, the number of GM varieties ready for
commercialization is increasing in proportion with the area under GM crop cultivation and the
number of countries consuming GM crops. However, prior to release of a GM crop in the market it
must pass through a rigorous safety evaluation tests to ensure its ... Show more content on
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Genetic manipulations have the capacity to alter the genetic composition of the host plant and may
also interfere with the already present natural allergens2,3. Therefore, prior to the release of GM
varieties in market it is essential to conduct allergenicity and toxicity assessments for the safety of
the consumers4. Along with this GM food labeling should also be made mandatory for all new and
existing varieties. Food allergy is defined as an adverse health effect arising from a hypersensitivity
reaction induced upon exposure to a particular food allergen that occurs reproducibly on subsequent
exposures. IgE–mediated food allergic reactions are characterized by excessive activation of mast
cells and basophils, resulting in extreme inflammatory responses like eczema, hives, allergic rhinitis,
asthma and gastrointestinal tract allergies. Food allergies affect 6% of young children and 3–4% of
adults in Western countries5. In general population – self reported prevalence of food allergy range
from 5% in Korea, 3.5% in France and 22.2% in Australia6. The incidence of food allergy–related
anaphylaxis is rising particularly in children younger than 5 years of age7. Over 90% of food allergy
results from exposure to egg, milk, peanut, tree nut, fish, shellfish, soy and wheat8. The prevalence
of food allergy is influenced by age, culture and dietary habits. Regulatory guidelines for

Genome Manipulation Essay
Targeted genome–editing technology is an area of great attention for biomedical research fields, as it
has potential in clinical applications to cure or improve some genetic diseases. In particular, the case
of genome manipulation has been revolutionized by the development of the CRISPR/Cas 9 system.
Despite recent advances in editing targeted genes inside of cultured cells, in vivo targeted transgene
integrations are still out of reach, because of current tools. Principally, this applies to nondividing
cells, which are made up of adult tissues, including the brain, eyes, ears, and pancreas, and halts the
development of treatments for a broad range of genetic disorders. Now, scientists have discovered a
new approach that not only works in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They improved the NHEJ machinery to collaborate with the CRISPR system, allowing DNA to be
inserted at precise locations in the genome, and then inserted "an inert virus to deliver HITI's
package of genetic instructions to neurons derived from human embryonic stem cells" (...). The
innovation allows the cells to glue the ends of cut targeted DNA back together, with the extra
addition of the DNA template in–between the cut targeted DNA, via NHEJ. In the case of the cell
re–joining without the added insertion or mutation, the CRISPR system would reform and repeat the
process. Likewise, donor DNA was designed to recreate the cut site, for the situation of the insertion
gluing back together in the wrong orientation.
(CDB, 2017, Scheme of HITI method)
Before HITI, recent techniques in the area of gene–editing were focused on using a natural DNA
repair pathway, called homology–directed repair (HDR). These systems are targeted at dividing
cells, such as the skin, but has been proven to be ineffective in nondividing cells, and therefore
inefficient to provide solutions to genetic disorders in adult tissue. However, the non–homologous
end–joining (NHEJ) pathway is an additional natural DNA repair pathway, which is typically
unused in gene insertion, as studies have shown that NHEJ is "error prone when used to turn off
targeted genes" (...). Yet, when used in insertion of DNA sequences in a gene, NHEJ is highly
precise, and more

What Is The Alternative Lengthening Of Telomeres?
DNA replication results in the gradual shortening of telomeres over time, leading to the activation of
senescence or apoptosis. Therefore, telomere length is a key biological signal to limit the indefinite
proliferation of somatic cells (Roumelioti, et al., 2016). However, cancer cells can overcome
telomere shortening by synthesising a new telomeric DNA from an RNA template through the
expression of telomerase (Roumelioti, et al., 2016). Alternatively, 10–15% of human cancers utilise
a DNA template in a homology–directed synthesis mechanism called alternative lengthening of
telomeres (ALT) (Cesare & Reddel, 2010). However, the process by which DNA damage such as
telomeric shortening results in the execution of homology–directed synthesis, ... Show more content
However, ATR, Rad51 and Hop2 were not required for break–induced telomere synthesis in ALT
cells and in fact, knockdown of each gene increased the levels of nascent telomeres. To further
support their findings, Dilley and colleagues studied VA13 HOP2 CRISPR clones lacking Hop2
protein expression and found that no telomere shortening took place. From these findings, the
authors could therefore propose that break–induced telomere synthesis and ALT telomere
maintenance can occur independently of Rad51–Hop2 and ATR.
Dilley and co–workers subsequently determined that the replicative DNA polymerase Pol ,
including POLD3, POLD4 and POLD1 subunits, were instead required for break–induced telomere
synthesis. Whereas Pol , Pol –primase and MCM2–7 replicative helicase were found to be
nonessential and were recruited at far lower levels. The POLD3 subunit is also part of the Pol ζ
complex involved in translesion synthesis. However, the REV3L catalytic subunit of Pol ζ was not
required for break–induced telomere synthesis, suggesting POLD3 primarily acts through Pol . This
major role of POLD3 has been supported in studies that revealed POLD3 depletion resulted in
decreased frequency of replicated ALT telomeres (Roumelioti, et al., 2016). Overall, the results by
Dilley et al led to the suggestion that an alternative replisome is required for ALT telomere
synthesis.
Having proven that Pol is dominantly recruited to TRF1–FokI damage sites, Dilley et al set out

Evolution And Evolution Of Evolution
Evolution is something that can be taken into different meanings, from the way you live. Some
people can accept evolution and some can't. The meaning of evolution is the way a different animal
or species came to be, and how they are linked to a different of species that all share a common
ancestor (an introduction to evolution). There is a lot of evidence to shows that evolution is can be
proven like DNA Sequences, Fossil Records, Cladograms, and analogous/homologous structures,
because there are so many ways to prove that there is evidence for evolution, but I 'm only going to
discuss four of them. One evidence that can back up evolution is DNA Sequences. DNA Sequences
can show the similarities that two different species share (genetic similarities: Wilson). You can look
at DNA sequences from different animals to see if there is a common link between the two. DNA
sequences play a very important role in evolution. It gives a large amount of evidence of evolution
by showing that living species share something in common with the basic hereditary (evolution of
DNA). With us being able to see that some species share a common link with an ancestor, we can
pair them up with species that have the most common links together to the ones that only have a few
links in common (evolution of DNA). Ever since we discovered DNA it has helped supported the
theory of evolution, it also has helped scientist predict where evolution will happen in the future.

Adaptation of Arctic Fish Essay
Introduction
Arctic fish display a remarkable case of adaptation, living in in low temperatures around 0˚C with
areas of ice that can be –1.9˚C (DeVries, 1971). The ability for Arctic fish to thrive in such a low
temperature environment is made possible by a class of proteins called Antifreeze proteins.
Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) and Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) are polypeptides that are
biosynthesized in animals, plants and fungi that prevent ice crystal formation (Griffith & Ewart,
1995). The most widely accepted mechanism for the prevention of ice formation by AFPs and
AFGPs is called the adsorption–inhibition mechanism, which describes that the protein binds to
water molecules and separates water molecules at a certain distance. ... Show more content on
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As information unfolds, the evidence for each AFP or AFGP can be overwhelming to say the least,
as is why sections are used to clearly separate the varied ideas expressed.
The following figure will be useful for locating mentioned species throughout the paper, it
documents the 4 AFPs and AFGP and what species they are found in. Figure 1. Adapted from Cheng
et al., 1998.
AFPs: Type I
AFPs display a striking amount of diversity in shape, size and the fish they reside in. Type I proteins
display a distinct linear α–helix protein shape, small molecular weight, and high Alanine
concentration, where types II, III, IV and AFGPs have more complex structures and higher
molecular weights (Yang et al., 1988; Hobbs et al., 2011). Type I AFPs are found in certain species
of polar Flounders, Lipiards and Cunner (Fletcher et al., 2001). The AFPs found in each species
raised questions of convergent evolution, and homoplasy is still a valid argument because of several
weak congruities (Fletcher). However, the preferred explanation for Type I evolution stands for
common ancestry. Primary structure and overall amino acid homology is seen between flounder and
sculpin, suggesting evidence for a synapomorphic trait. This is evident from a similar beginning N–
terminus amino acid sequence in both species – across the sculpin's blood serum proteins and
flounder skin AFPs: Met–Asp–Ala–Pro–Ala (Fletcher; Gong et al., 1996).

Essay On Intracellular Trafficking
Research Strategy
A. Significance
Intracellular trafficking is an essential cellular communication process in which membrane vesicles
carrying lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are taken up and transported through endosomes to
lysosomes (termed endocytosis) and vesicles carrying macromolecules are delivered to the plasma
membrane and outside of the cell (exocytosis) {Oka, 2005 #5437}. Uptake of external particles
through endocytosis is required for prolific growth and differentiation. For example, uptake of
transferrin provides iron necessary for growth and parasitism of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum
{Rodriguez, 1986 #5445}. In contrast, the synaptic release of neurotransmitters, including dopamine
and serotonin exemplifies ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
By sharing only the N–terminal EH domains and CC region with ITSN1 plus a proline–rich (PR)
region, Pan1 has a role in endocytosis and the organization of cortical actin through interactions
with additional partner proteins, including EH proteins Ede1 and End3 {Wendland, 1998
#5492;Huang, 2007 #5510;Miliaras, 2004 #5491}. Pan1 homologs were identified from Candida
species and Magnaporthe oryzae (Mo), but not Cn, indicating that Pan1–mediated endocytic
trafficking is not universal among fungi ({Martin, 2007 #5481}, ZG Zhang and P Wang,
unpublished data).
Cn is an encapsulated basidiomycetous fungus infecting both immunocompromised and healthy
individuals causing life–threatening meningoencephalitis {Mitchell, 1995 #878}. It produces
virulence factors including melanin, the polysaccharide capsule, and extracellular ureases and
phospholipases {Kozel, 1995 #1696;Buchanan, 1998 #2608;engeler, 2000 #3148}. Previous studies
showed that secretory transport is important in virulence {Rodrigues, 2009 #5368;Jesus, 2009
#5368} and that Cn contains proteins with a conserved function in exocytosis, such as Sav1, Sec6,
and Sec14 {Yoneda, 2006 #5408;Panepinto, 2009 #5385;Chayakulkeeree, 2011 #5686}. We
identified cryptococcal intersectin 1 (Cin1) as a novel endocytic adaptor protein that is important not
only in intracellular transport but also in growth and virulence

Essay about Evolution Fight Club
Arctic tundra is found across northern Alaska, Canada, and Siberia. This biome has long cold
winters and short cool summers. The Arctic Tundra containtains many life forms, such as, the Arctic
Hare. The Arctic Hare is a one of the largest hares. It has a white coat during the winter and a
brownish coat during the summer. The thick fur that provides plenty of warmth during the winter
and camouflage from predators. There large hind feet allow them to travel forty miles–per–hour
across the snow. The Hare is twenty to twenty–six inches long and weighs eight to fourteen pounds.
The Arctic Hare lives in forage shelters in the snow to help them survive extreme cold temperatures
and is a herbivore. Its predators are the Canada Lynx, Snow Owl, ... Show more content on
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They also scavenge for food together and provide for each other. They are herbivores so there food
source are buds, berries, twigs, mosses, woody plants, etcetera. Because it has revolutionized so
much that, the Arctic Leveret is able to survive in many ways and is one of the fewest animals to die
from getting killed than any other Arctic Tundra animal. The Arctic Leveret has many enhanced
features that allow them to survive in their new habitat. Its size has decreased to being between
fifteen inches to twenty inches long, ten inches tall and will weigh five to ten pounds. It still has a
white fur coat during the winter and a brown one during the summer. It survives the dangerous cold
winter because of its fur coat. It has huge hind legs that are longer than their whole body. They have
claws that can help them dig through snow. The Arctic Leveret also has very long ears. Because of
all its all new special structure its attack and defensive mechanism have enhanced. For attacking, the
Arctic Leveret has new claws that are five inches long. They were intended for scavenging food but
they can also use them to injure and attacking a predator. A chemical change, that is also a defencive
resource, is that chemicals in the Arctic Leverett's body enhanced so, on the bottom of its hind legs
feet, has a waxy, plastic type of skin that makes it easier to travel on snow. For camouflage its white
fur is a huge part of its survival. When being hunted

Three Foundational Assumptions Of Criminal Profiling
The three foundational assumptions of criminal profiling are homology assumption, behavioral
consistency, and behavioral differentiation. These theories are connected to each other and work
together. The homology assumption is the assumption that criminal behavior that is similar means
offenders will have similar characteristics as well. Behavioral consistency means that an offender's
behavior when committing crimes will be consistent. Behavioral differentiation means that the
behavior between offenders is distinguishable from other offenders. The homology assumption is
the primary theory, and the others work with this theory. Although there is very little research that
has been done to support the homology assumption, the little research done

Neil Degrasse Tyson 's Theory Of Evolution
Neil DeGrasse Tyson once said "The theory of evolution, like the theory of gravity, is a scientific
fact". Neil DeGrasse Tyson is an acclaimed astrophysicist, cosmologist, and science communicator
and has influence in the scientific world we live in today. "Biological evolution, simply put, is
descent with modification" ("An Introduction to..."). "This definition encompasses small–scale
evolution and large–scale evolution (the descent of different species from a common ancestor over
many generations)" ("An Introduction to..."). There is now enough evidence for the theory of
evolution that many consider it a fact and as such are turning away from the idea of creationism as a
whole. Because of evolution you can trace just about every living thing on the Earth back to its
ancestry billions of years ago. Darwin believed that all life on Earth descended from one primordial
form (Naff 61). Darwin didn't discover evolution or come up with the concept, but he was the
frontrunner in research and a public endorser of the theory. The theory of evolution is correct
because of homology, progressions of species changing over time, and natural selection.
The first and quite possibly the best evidence for evolution is Homology. Homology is when species
share similarities that are signs of common ancestry such as homologous structures. Homologous
structures are ones that derive from a common ancestral structure ("Evidence of Evolution...").
These can prove to be very solid reasoning when arguing

Ragweed Research Paper
Pollen allergens from ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) cause type I respiratory allergic reactions,
such as hay fever and allergic rhinitis [1–5]. Ragweed is native to North America. Climate change is
associated with an increased length of the pollen season as well as the amount of pollen [6–9]. In
Europe, ragweed migrates as a neophyte and has become an increasing problem [10–14].
Furthermore, models predict an enlarged and northward shift as well as an increase in the pollen
production of ragweed [15–17]. Due to the late flowering period in Europe, ragweed is a primary
cause of allergenic reactions from late summer to autumn [18, 19]. In addition, a long–distance
transport of ragweed pollen has also been taken into consideration [20–24]. ... Show more content
The major allergen of ragweed is Amb a 1, an acidic 38–kDa protein that belongs to the pectate
lyase protein family [5, 25, 26]. Amb a 3 and Amb a 7 belong to the plastocyanin family and were
classified as minor allergens [5, 25]. Amb a 4 has a defensin–like domain with high homology to the
major mugwort allergen Art v 1 [27]. Amb a 5 is a small minor allergen with unknown biological
function [5, 25]. Amb a 6 is a member of the non–specific lipid transfer proteins and is considered to
be a minor allergen [3, 5, 25]. Amb a 8, a ragweed profilin, belongs to the actin–binding proteins
and has a high homology to the mugwort profilin Art v 4 [5, 25], and Amb a 8 might have use as a
marker allergen for profilin sensitization. Amb a 9/10 are panallergens belonging to the EF–hand
calcium–binding proteins and have been identified as minor allergens [25]. Amb a CPI, a cystatin
proteinase inhibitor, was identified by Rogers et al., [28] and, recently, the novel major allergen
Amb a 11, a cysteine protease, was described by Bouley et al [29]. Interestingly, there is evidence of
an individual IgE immunoblot pattern of sera from patients allergic to ragweed pollen [3, 30] that
indicated proteins distinct from known allergens, similarly to that described for tomato seed
allergens

Evolution Vs Macroevolution Research Paper

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Evolution Vs Macroevolution Research Paper