Antenna Is The Main Component Of Every Communication System

Antenna Is The Main Component Of Every Communication System
Antenna is the main component of every communication system. The design of UWB antennas is
one of the major factors affecting the progress of UWB technology. As a result, UWB antenna
design has been studied much in recent years. UWB antennas must be electrically small and
inexpensive without compromising on performance. Omni directional radiation pattern is desired in
order to be well suited for ad hoc networks with arbitrary azimuthally orientations. Gain ﬂaterns and
phase linearity, i.e., constant group delay, are also required for an UWB antenna in order to not
distort the waveform of an ultra narrow–on the order of nanoseconds–electromagnetic energy pulse.
In addition, the time domain impulse response is another important criterion of UWB antenna
performance. The antenna must transmit UWB signal with minimal dispersion effect. In this thesis
all the antennas have been simulated in ANSOFT HFSS–13. This chapter contains the ﬁnal design
of antennas, the parasitic study of antenna in term of impedance band width. The peak gain,
radiation efficiency, peak directivity has been calculated in whole operating band and radiation
pattern at some frequencies has been studied. The time domain analysis also has been done in this
chapter. The total design of antenna include the two parts– first is the designing on the software and
second one is hardware part where the testing of the antenna is done on the Vector Network
Analyzer (VNA).
5.1 About HFSS The simulation technique used to
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Wireless Access And The Transmission Bandwidth
Abstract– The demand for wireless access is permanently growing and the transmission bandwidth
is limited. Higher data rates and signal quality is always desired among the users; therefore a more
efficient use of the frequency resource is needed to fill the user capacity needs. Space Division
Multiple Access (SDMA) is used to increase the capacity given by regular multiple access
techniques (FDMA, TDMA and CDMA) using the user position information to provide access to the
best communication channel based on their spatial location. This paper presents Smart Antenna
techniques applied to SDMA systems as an efficient frequency usage technique.
Key Words – Base station, Beamforming, Code division multiple–access (CDMA), Dynamic
Channel ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The spectrum is limited, but multiple access techniques allow a large number of mobile users to
share the same allocated spectrum efficiently and use the same bandwidth at the same time without
degrading the existing quality of service.
Sending and receiving simultaneously information to and from the base station is desirable among
wireless communication systems. Equipping these base stations with smart antenna arrays enable
beam steering in contrast to sectorized single antenna systems. This make possible to Base Stations
to send data to specific users on the down–link or to receive directed data on the up–link by reusing
channels within a cell for Mobile Stations (MS), spatially separated by smart antenna arrays.
Cellular system divides the area into cells where mobile units are located and aims to increase the
capacity of the channel with an efficient level of quality of service. Channel access can be achieved
through: Frequency division multiple–access (FDMA), Time division multiple–access (TDMA),
Code division multiple–access (CDMA), and Space Division Multiple access (SDMA). In this paper
we will focus on SDMA systems.
SMART ANTENNAAND SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS HISTORY
Smart antennas were developed by the military but as the cellular phone users grew in the 1980s, the
commercial area became more interested in the field. SDMA idea was first introduced in 1947 by
Douglas H. Ring when he wrote about a new way to

Antenna Case Study
The Antenna that I will be profiling is being owned by a big Company called Crown Castle GT
Company LLC. The company owns around 40,000 towers in and they have 40 local offices
nationwide. From small businesses to government agencies are renting space on these towers every
day to benefit themselves with the services that these towers provide. Among the services provided
by this tower are data and voice services, from telephony to internet services. The tower is located in
Tampa and even though it is not taller than 200 feet above ground it has been registered. I wasn't
able to find out why but on the Federal Communication Commission website it is stated that "any
tower taller than 200 feet above ground level must be registered because it could interfere with the
flight path of airports located close to the antenna". While I was doing my research I found out that
even some 66 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The antennas on this tower are attached to a metal pole and structure themselves with an Antenna
Array as visible in the screenshot. This structure can usually carry from 3 to 18 antennas, depending
on the number of wireless carriers and volume of transmission. Also, by using the Antenna Array,
the antenna can increase the overall gain and cancel out interference from a particular set of
directions. Another benefit of the Antenna array is that it maximizes the Signal to Interference Plus
Noise Ratio The tower is located at 2716 46th Street Tampa, FL. It is composed of many
omnidirectional antennas that point on different views and angles. The current tower coordinates
point to Latitude 27.9677 and Longitude –82.4077. As I mentioned before, it is required by the
Federal Communications Commission that any antenna which height more than 200ft above ground
level will be registered to avoid interferences. I searched for this information in the Antenna
Structure Registration section of the Federal Communication Commission and below there is the

Literature Review Of Vast Rectenna
7
CHAPTER 2
AMBIENT RF ENERGY HARVESTING COMPONENTS AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 RECTENNA & ITS COMPONENT A rectenna is a rectifying antenna, a sort of antenna that is
used to convert microwave energy or radio frequency energy into direct current signal that can
power low sensor devices. They are modelled as a part of wireless power transmission systems that
transmit power through radio waves or electromagnetic waves. A basic rectenna, comprises of a
microstrip patch antenna with a RF diode. It is nonlinear rectifying element (for example Schottky
diode, Zener diode, IMPATT diode.... etc.). The diode rectifies the alternating current or
bidirectional current induced in the patch antenna by the RF waves, to generate DC or unidirectional
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2.1.2 RECTIFIER A rectifier is an electrical device that converts bi–directional current or
alternating current (AC), to unidirectional current or direct current (DC). This process is called
rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including high–voltage direct current power transmission
systems, in DC power supplies and in detection of radio signals. There are two types of rectifier, the
half wave rectifier and the full wave rectifier. In our case, given the need of matching as the less
number of components, half wave rectifier has been used.
2.1.2.1 Half Wave Rectifier The half wave rectifier rectifies only half cycle of the AC input
waveform. The half wave rectifier consists of a step down transformer, a diode connected to the
transformer and a load resistance connected to the cathode side of the diode.
2.1.2.2 Full Wave Rectifier The circuit of full wave rectifier uses two rectifier elements and the
transformer with secondary center tapped. One for the positive half cycle and other for the negative
half cycle. The output DC in full wave rectifier is twice that of half wave rectifier and the frequency
is twice that of the supply frequency.
2.1.3 IMPEDANCE MATCHING Impedance matching is one of the most eminent part of the RF
circuits. It is utilized for the purpose of transferring maximum

Designing A Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna And L...
By using the advantages of the microstrip patch antenna and L–probe feeding technique, hexagonal
patch is etched on a square microstrip antenna to achieve broad bandwidth and improved gain. In
this Project, MSA is designed with dual substrates, one for L–probe & other for radiating patch.
4.1 Design Specifications
The three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna:
Frequency of operation (fo): The resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected appropriately.
The WLAN band uses the frequency range from 2.4 GHz to 5.28 GHZ. Hence the antenna designed
must be able to operate in this frequency range. The resonant frequency selected for design is 2.4
GHz.
Dielectric constant of the substrate (εr): The dielectric material selected for our design is FR4 which
has a dielectric constant of 4.4. A substrate with a high dielectric constant has been selected since it
reduces the dimensions of the antenna. Table 4.1: Design parameters of microstrip antenna Patch
Shape Square
Frequency 2.4 GHz
Dielectric constant of substrate 4.4
Height of substrate 1.6 Mm
Feeding method Microstrip Line
Polarization Linear
4.2 Theoretical design
4.2.1 Single element Antenna Design
Structure of single patch antenna with inset feed is shown in figure 1. The Antenna is composed of
patch, substrate, ground and feeding network. The performance of antenna generally depends on
dimensions of above components

Microstrip Antennas : An Analysis
The Microstrip patch antenna has a dielectric substrate with a radiating patch and the feed lines are
etched on one side and a ground plane on the other side. The shape of the patch is not constrained
(could be square, rectangular, circular, triangular or elliptical) and it is generally made of conducting
material such as copper or gold. These antennas are mostly used at microwave frequencies, the
fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane cause the microstrip patch antennas to
radiate. An individual microstrip antenna consists of a patch of metal of various shapes on the
surface of a PCB, with a metal ground plane on the other side of the board. Most microstrip
antennas consist of multiple patches in a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Further the consideration of space domain either with space diversity, smart antennas, and
nowadays, MIMO systems has also pushed the evolution of propagation modeling toward more
complex spatio–temporal considerations [1]. The MIMO antenna for wireless communications is
required to have a multiple bandwidth to cover the GSM, and ISM bands. On the other hand, it is
said that about 70% of the user demands and mobile flow for high–speed data services occur in
indoor environments [2–3]. In modern antenna design multiple–input multiple–output are employed
so that the multipath effects is taken as advantage to transmit multiple data stream. Designing
MIMO antennas have their own challenges such as mutual coupling because of electromagnetic
interaction between antenna elements [4–5].
2.1.2 APPLICATIONS OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA Microstrip patch antenna can be
used for Mobile and satellite communication, Global Positioning System, Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Radar,
Telemedicine, Rectenna and Medicinal. Mobile communication requires small, low profile and low–
cost antennas. Microstrip patch antennas are meet all requirements and various types of microstrip
antennas have been designed for use in mobile communication systems. In the case of satellite

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Antennas
Antennas – antennas serve as interfaces between transmitted/received signals and
transmitters/receivers. Depending on the type, shape, and size of the transmitter antenna, the
transmitted signal will have directionality and polarization properties. A receiver antenna is designed
to match this directionality and polarization so that the transmitted signal can be received. Earth–
facing antennas are usually designed to provide a coverage region with a particular contour shape.
Typically, horn antennas and parabolic reflector antennas are used for this purpose. In some
satellites, multiple transmit antennas (lens antennas and antenna arrays) are used to generate
multiple "spot beams" for higher signal directionality and gain. The coverage region and the spot
beams may be fixed or dynamically formed depending on the application. Some advanced
experimental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Most of today's satellites are GEO.In a relatively short span of time, satellite technology has
developed from the experimental (Sputnik in 1957) to the sophisticated and powerful. Future
communication satellites will have more onboard processing capabilities, more power, and larger–
aperture antennas that will enable satellites to handle more bandwidth. Further improvements in
satellites' propulsion and power systems will increase their service life to 20–30 years from the
current 10–15 years. In addition, other technical innovations such as low–cost reusable launch
vehicles are in development. With increasing video, voice, and data traffic requiring larger amounts
of bandwidth, there is no shortage of emerging applications that will drive demand for the satellite
services in the years to come. The demand for more bandwidth, coupled with the continuing
innovation and development of satellite technology, will ensure the long–term viability of the
commercial satellite industry well into the 21st

Metamaterial Essay
Review of Micro strip patch antenna for Bandwidth Enhancement by using Metamaterial HOMA
AFROZ HUSAIN, PURAN GOUR
NIIST BHOPAL homaafroz22@gmail.com, erpurangour@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
We have Review different research paper. Accordingly it is used to achieve significant bandwidth
enhancement and analyze the matching and radiation properties of sub wavelength resonant patch
antenna filled with double–negative, double positive and single negative meta material block ,quasi
static equivalent circuit model for analysis and design of different types of artificial magnetic
resonator and the possibility of using an active internal matching element in several type of
metamaterial inspired electrically small antenna to overcome their ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Metamaterials offer the potential to create superlenses Such a lens could allow imaging below the
diffraction limit that is the minimum resolution that can be achieved by conventional glass lenses A
form of 'invisibility' was demonstrated using gradient index materials Acoustic and seismic
metamaterial
DUAL MODE MINITIARIZED ELLIPTICAL PATCH ANTENNA WITH µ NEGATIVE
METAMATERIAL
PAI YEN CHEN et al [1] It is used to achieve significant bandwidth enchancement, in principle
overcoming the Chu limit on bandwidth for single mode electrically small antenna.The antenna may
also be tailored to operate as a dual–band electrically small antenna and intriguing polasrization
properties may be envisioned by coupling the two orthogonal mode. The antenna consists of a
metallic patch loaded by a grounded
Inhomogeneous substrate with thickness consisting of a rectangular DPS dielectric shell with
permittivity and permeability and a magnetic material core. Metamaterial based antenna do not
explicitly depend on frequency, passivity and kramers– kronig relation imply that required negative
permeability varies with frequency.This in turn implies that these subwavelength device have
limited bandwidth consistent with general limit. DUAL–BAND OPERATION
PAI YEN CHEN et al[1] The possibility offered by the elliptical geometry to operate as a dual–band
antenna with resonance at design frequency fo=0.4 GHZ and fe=0.6GHZ,fo and fe

Essay On Patch Antenna
2 2 Microstrip Patch Antenna Array Fed by Substrate Integrated Waveguide
for Radar Applications
Chandan Baranwal, ME, BIT Mesra
Abstract–A 2 2 microstrip patch antenna array fed by a sub–strate integrated waveguide (SIW)
feeding network for 24–GHz radar applications is suggested in this paper. The microstrip patches are
aperture–coupled with the feeding network comprising of a perpendicular coax–to–SIW transition
and two Y–junction power dividers. The antenna design is performed in the ANSYS HFSS using
finite element method for EM solutions and the procured results have been verified by measurement
in Lab. At the frequency 24.4 GHz, the prototype has a gain of 9.28 dBi.
Index Terms–Antenna array, microstrip patch, power ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this paper, an AC–MPA element fed by an SIW is used as a building block for the design of a
small antenna array. The proposed antenna combines the benefits of microstrip patch antennas with
the advantages of SIW technology. SIW is utilized in order to minimize transmission losses in the
feeding part. In addition, an SIW– based feeding network does not radiate any spurious radiation
that could affect the radiation pattern of the antenna array. Therefore, any additional shielding of the
feeding part or the reflector is not required in comparison to the microstrip line feeding technique
for AC–MPAs. The antenna array design is carried out for a 24–GHz radar system. The paper
presents the simulated and experimental results of the proposed antenna array.
II. ANTENNAARRAY CONFIGURATION
The structure of the proposed antenna array is shown in Fig. 1. The antenna consists of 2 2 aperture–
coupled microstrip patch antennas fed by an SIW–based feeding network. The in –phase uniform
feeding for the array consists of three SIW–based power dividers. The antenna array is fed by a
coaxial connector.
The configuration of a single AC– MPA element used for the antenna array design is shown in Fig.
2. The rectangular microstrip patch of width and length is placed on

Essay On Wifa
In the second part of the thesis, the geometry of the antennas of each WiFi access point is changed to
URA in order to extend the searching area into 2–D search, the well–known subspace MUSIC
algorithm is used for the examination of the received spatial information, and then it estimates each
spatial spectrum in which the Azimuth Angle of Arrival (AOA) and Elevation Angle of Arrival
(EOA) of all the paths at each URA WiFi access point is located. After that, because our system is
considered under very low SNR, a set of spectra at some APs might be influenced, so, a fine–
grained fusion algorithm has been added, it computes the minimum errors between each location in
a known grid dimension and the estimated AOA and EOA at every URA array, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
A hence about the novel GBSA–MDL source number estimation algorithm and our contribution in
this thesis was set in the first part of the introduction.
In the second part, the wireless based indoor localization which are RSS, TOA, DOA, and TDOA
techniques have been introduced and the grammatical failure of these methods for indoor
localization under the effect of the high existence of multipath signals. Also, we gave a brief
explanation about data fusion multiple sensor techniques and several related works have been
introduced. We motivated our novel indoor positioning algorithm by showing the significant
addition of the multiple sensor data fusion with the recently mentioned wireless based indoor
techniques and the serious need of the 2–D array geometry in the next 5G. At the end, our
contribution in this dissertation has been included.
Chapter 2: Literature Review: In this part, several basic concepts are introduced. We start our
chapter by explaining the meaning of optimization and its two main categories which are local
optimization and global optimization, also the advantages of using the last mentioned category
compared to the first one is mentioned. Accordingly, the most know newly invented global
optimization algorithms based on nature behaviors like the GA, PSO and GBSA are introduced. In
addition of that, the galaxy based search algorithm is studied well and its

Cmos
CMOS DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ULTRA WIDE BAND RECEIVERS
ABSTRACT
Ultrawide band is a unique technology which is used for commercial communications. In this ,I will
explain about UWB and how to integrate it with CMOS technology.This is by designing a UWB
receiver using CMOS technology. Use Verilog to build behavioral model of LNA,mixer,bandpass
filter,integrator.Instante the components in Cadence and run simulation in time domain. In this paper
,I have specified the design considerations of ultra wideband (UWB) receiver architecture. Here, a
more power efficient architecture should undertake part of the signal processing in the analog–
domain. Next, the multiband UWB transceiver is studied and power–efficient circuits is designed for
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
RF SAW pre–filter, which removes out–of–band interferer, and a notch filter centered at 5
GHZ UNII band relaxes receiver dynamic range. Large bandwidth of the UWB signal rces use of
RF front–end with low gain compared to narrow band systems. As a result, baseband channel select
filter must have very small input–referred noise. Furthermore, baseband filter requires high
attenuation and a very accurate and steep roll–off to further limit interfering signal strength, which
limits dynamic range of the subsequent ADC.
Synthesizer implementation must limit spurious tones at the output of the synthesizer, which can
transform interferers into the wanted frequency band. The remainder of this section deals with more
detailed system specifications.
1. Sensitivity, Gain, NF: In MB–OFDM UWB, an UWB receiver operating in the first three bands
(Mode 1 only) needs to have a noise figure (NF) better than 6.6 dB. However, for the UWB device
operating in the first three band groups with nine bands, the required system NF can be 9 db taking
into account the coding gain. A margin of 3 dB is added to set the NF specification for the receiver
as 6 dB. This margin is set after system level simulation taking into account the following combined
non–idealities: 1) 5 degrees in phase and 1 dB in amplitude of
I/Q imbalance; 2) 5 bits of effective ADC quantization; 3) 9 dB of clipping in the signal peak–to–
average ratio (PAR); 4) a

Design Techniques For Microstrip Patch Antenna Design
Design techniques for Microstrip Patch Antenna
Miss Borhade M. V.(ME Signal Processing) 1 Prof. Mrs. Dhede V. M.(Ph.D. Registered) 2 JCEI'S
JCOE ,Kuran megh888@gmail.com vaishali_dhede@rediffmail.com
Abstract
The main aim of this paper is to give overview on Micro strip patch antenna design using different
defected ground structures for improving the performance parameters of the antenna such as Gain,
Directivity, and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. Return Loss. By giving proper patch length ,patch
width, substrate material such as FR4 with dielectric constant 4.4 and thickness 1.6mm,boundary
material such as Vacuum/air, most important the patch material such as nickel and by adding array
with DGS we can improve the performance of patch antenna.
Key Terms– Array antenna, Defected Ground Structure , HFSS , S–Parameter , VSWR ,Radiation
pattern
I. INTRODUCTION In today's generation of wireless communication system, the Micro strip patch
antenna plays very important role. There are different advantages of high performance Micro strip
patch antenna such as small size, light weight ,low cost, low volume and easy to fabricate .Like no
of advantages Micro strip Patch antenna has some drawbacks such as low gain, narrow bandwidth,
low efficiency. These drawbacks can be minimizing by changing the design parameters of patch
antenna or by

Smart Antenna System Essay
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Antenna Systems:
Depending on the number of antennas used in the transmitting and receiving sections, the systems
are divided into 4 types.
1.1.1 SINGLE INPUT SINGLE OUTPUT (SISO): Fig 1.1.1: SISO
In SISO, there will be only single transmitter and a single receiver. This is the general system which
we use. The simplest antenna technology is SISO. In some environments, this system is vulnerable
to problems caused by multipath effects. When an electromagnetic field (EM field) is met with
obstructions such as hills, buildings, utility wires, and canyons the wavefronts are scattered, and thus
it take multi paths to reach the destination. Fading, cut–out (cliff effect), and intermittent reception
(picket fencing) are the problems caused by late arrival of scattered portion of signals. In a digital
communications system, it cause a reduction of data speed and number of errors is increased.
In order to eliminate or minimize problems caused by multipath wave propagation, a new
technology has been introduced and it is Smart Antenna Technology. There are three forms of smart
antenna, known as SIMO (single input, multiple output), MISO (multiple input, single output), and
MIMO (multiple input, multiple output).
1.1.2 SINGLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUTPUT (SIMO) : Fig 1.1.2 : SIMO
In SIMO, there will be only single transmitter and many receivers.
1.1.3. MULTIPLE INPUT MULTIPLE OUTPUT ( MISO): Fig. 1.1.3 : MISO
In MISO there will be multiple transmitters and a

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Arrays
What is meant by array? An antenna is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater
directivity in a desired direction.
2. What is meant by uniform linear array.? An array is linear when the elements of the array
arespaced equally along the straight line. If the elements arefed with currents of equal magnitude
and having a uniform Progressive phase shift along the line, then it is calleduniform linear array .
3. What are the types of array?
a. Broad side array.
b. End fire array
c. Collinear array.
d. Parasitic array.
4. What is Broad side array? Broad side array is defined as an arrangement inwhich the principal
direction of radiation is perpendicularto the array axis and also the plane containing ... Show more
Tapering is done fromcenter to end.
19.What is a binomial array? It is an array in which the amplitudes of theantenna elements in the
array are arranged according to thecoefficients of the binomial series.
20.What are the advantages of binomial array? Advantage:
No minor lobes
Disadvantages:
Increased beam width
Maintaining the large ratio of current amplitude in large arrays is difficult
21. What is the difference between isotropic and nonisotropicsource
Isotropic source radiates energy in alldirections but non–isotropic source radiates energy only in
some desired direction.
Isotropic source is not physically realizablebut non–isotropic source is physically realizable.
22.Define Side Lobe Ratio Side Lobe Ratio is defined as the ratio ofpower density in the principal

or main lobe to the powerdensity of the longest minor lobe.
23. List the arrays used for array tapering
Binomial Array:Tapering follows thecoefficient of binomial

The Principle Of Reciprocity Between A Giver And A Receiver
"Many experts have studied persuasion and observed what works and what doesn't." (McLean,
2010, p.538) According to the social psychologist Robert Cialdini, there are six principles of
persuasion that are powerful and effective; i.e. reciprocity, scarcity, authority, commitment and
consistency, consensus, and liking. (McLean, 2010, p.538) The aim of this assignment is to define
and discuss the above principles, then provide and analyze an example which entails all of them.
The principle of reciprocity occurs between a giver and a receiver when there is a "mutual
expectation for exchange of value or service." (McLean, 2010, p.538) Used to build trust and
cement relationship with customers, courtesy and mannerism are typical examples of the principle
of reciprocity in a business context. The principle of scarcity refers to what is exclusive and rare, so
to what somebody is not able to have easily. The uniqueness of the object (or service) attracts people
making them willing to have exclusivity on it before it might disappear from the market (e.g. a flight
ticket or a hotel room during a high season period). According to the course book, "scarcity is the
perception of inadequate supply or a limited resource." (McLean, 2010, p.538–539) The principle of
authority occurs when the persuasive communicator "references experts and expertise" (McLean,
2010, p.539) to gain credibility. Typical of the sales environment the principle of authority applies
when a salesperson shows their

Techniques Of Monopole Antenna
operation but also needs to have an appropriate proposed design. It employs two techniques to
improve the radiation pattern. These techniques are the use of an angled dipole and vertical copper
plates arranged on the ground plane for improvement in the radiation pattern of lower and upper
bands, respectively radiation profile in both bands, namely similar gain, wide beamwidth. One of the
popular techniques for broadening the patch antenna bandwidth is to incorporate a U–slot on its
surface. They have the ability to confine the power in certain directions instead of scattering the
power everywhere. As a result of less power loss toward unwanted directions, the multipath and
interference effects are reduced.
Using wideband circularly ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fundamental characteristics of this antenna such as the radiation directivity and the frequency
response are measured.
Figure shows a picture of the proposed antenna that has a shape of ―tears drop‖. Using Novel Ultra
Wideband Planar
Reflector Antenna a reflector antenna relies on reflection of energy from the reflector. Reflector
antennas tend to be good directional and high gain antennas [11]. There are some classes of ultra
wideband reflector antennas, such as planar, corner, and parabolic cylinder reflector antennas. In
these reflector antennas, the planar reflector antenna is the simplest and yet most practical design.
Principle of the planar reflector antenna is image theory. As shown in figure according to antenna
image theory, an image antenna can generate in the other side of the perfect electric conducting
plane. Using conducting plane as a back reflector, a more compact antenna structure may be
feasible. The conducting planar reflector serves to concentrate the radiation to the antenna side of
the planar reflector [12].
Fig.
A dual spiral antenna for Ultra wideband capsule endoscope system a dual spiral antenna for ultra
wideband capsule endoscope system is proposed. Since a capsule endoscope system which transmits
real time image data in the body should have ultra–wideband characteristic, an ultra wideband
antenna is suitable for this system. When an antenna is used as capsule endoscope system, a small
sized antenna is

Design Of An Antenna For Wireless Sensor Network
Design of an Antenna for Wireless sensor Network ZIA UDDIN Student ID: 1318104
BEng Telecommunications and Networks Engineering
Supervisor: Dr. Masood Ur Rehman
Undergraduate Project Final Report, Academic year 2014/2015 DISCLAIMER
This is the final report for the chosen undergraduate project in the area related to "BEng
Telecommunications and Networks Engineering" taught at University of Bedfordshire. It is hereby
confirmed that the work done in the report is all owned by the author leaving which is referenced in
text and at the end of the report.
This report is submitted for examination to internal and external examiners. The content of the
report is copyrighted and should not be used without permission or correct ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Conclusions are drawn at the end and future work is discussed.
DEDICATION
I am dedicating this project to my parents whom I love very much. Thank you for all the
encouragement, affection, prayers, and warmth, moral and financial support which you have given
me throughout my studies to make me overcome the challenges and achieve my target successfully.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge the support and guidance given by my supervisor Dr. Masood Ur Rehman throughout
my whole final year project and am really grateful to him for his thorough help in making my
project success possible in reality. There was no possibility to complete the project without your
guidance and supervision. I will be thankful to you always for this support, guidance and knowledge
that I gained from you throughout the project.
CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER iii
ABSTRACT iv
DEDICATION v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi
CONTENTS vii
FIGURES x
ACRONYMS
TABLES
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1–4

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Motivation 2
1.3 Objectives 2
1.4 Challenges 3
1.5 Organization of the report 3
Chapter 2: Literature Review 5–21
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Wireless Sensor Networks 5
2.3 Role of Antenna in WSNs 6
2.4 History of Antenna 8
2.5 Antenna 11

A Study On Antenna Hopping
antenna hopping. In a system using antenna hopping, two or more transmit antennas are used
interchangeably to achieve a diversity effect. Antenna hopping attracted attention from 1990s and
comparatively in expansive way of achieving a transmit diversity gain in system such as GSM.
The principle goal of MIMO technology is to improve either the quality (BER) or the data rate of
the communication by means of adequate signal processing techniques at both ends of the system.
The capacity can increase linearly with the number of antennas when using MIMO system. MIMO
can obtain both multiplexing gain and diversity gain thus significantly increasing the system
capacity as well as improving the reliability of the wireless link. Having high spectral ... Show more
STCs necessitate the transmission of multiple redundant copies of data so that there is possibility of
receiving some copies of data through some are lost due to deep fading to enhance reliability of the
data transmission. STCs are two types namely space–time trellis codes (STTCs) and space–time
block codes (STBCs). STTC has been inaugurated as a coding technique that promises full diversity
and considerable coding
5
gain but decoding complexity is very high. To avoid this, STBCs have been proposed by the effort
work of Alamouti for transmit diversity and later Vahid Tarokh, Hamid Jafarkhani and Robert
Calderbank made their contributions.[1–3]. This code gives better second order diversity when used
with a single receive antenna and fourth order diversity when used with two antennas at the receiver
side. But, it is only half rate, because it only transmits two symbols using the two time slots and two
transmit antenna.
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
[1]S. M. Alamouti, describes a simple two–branch transmit diversity scheme. Using two transmit
antenna and one receive antenna, the new transmit antenna provides the same diversity order as
maximal–ratio receiver combining (MRRC) with one transmit and two receive antennas. The
scheme easily be generated to two transmit antenna and M receive antenna to provide a diversity
order of 2M. This scheme does not require any bandwidth expansion any feedback from the receiver
to the

Modeling Of Fractal Antenna Using Artificial Neural Network
1. Title:– Modeling of fractal antenna using Artificial Neural Network.
2.Introduction:– In high–performance spacecraft, aircraft, missile and satellite applications, where
size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profile are constraints, low
profile antennas may be required. Presently, there are many other government and commercial
applications, such as mobile radio and wireless communications that have similar specifications. To
meet these requirements, micro strip antennas can be used [1,2].
The expensive growth of wireless system and booming demand for variety of new wireless
application,it is important to design an antenna whose size,shape,weight and cost will be less. If it is
possible that a single antenna can work on more than one frequency then it is good for us. So
generally fractal antenna is used as multiband antenna.
The fractal geometry concept can be used to reduce antenna size. So fractal shaped antennas are
good choice to reduce antenna size and get multiband behavior.
The fractal antenna can be classified on the basis of iteration as 0 iteration,1st iteration,2nd iteration
etc.
For fulfilling all the requirement introduced above fractal microstrip patch antennas are designed.As
the number of iteration increases the time consume for solving matrix generated in simulator based
on method of moment(IE3D) increases. Due to this reason we are designing an artificial neural
network for microstrip fractal antenna.
2.1 Fractal

Micro Strip Patch Antenna Design
A B S T R A C T
The main aim of this paper is to give overview on Micro strip patch antenna design using different
defected ground structures for improving the performance parameters of the antenna such as Gain,
Directivity, and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. Return Loss. By giving proper patch length ,patch
width, substrate material such as FR4 with dielectric constant 4.4 and thickness 1.6mm,boundary
material such as Vacuum/air, most important the patch material such as nickel and by adding array
with DGS we can improve the performance of patch antenna.
Index Term:– Array antenna, Defected Ground Structure, HFSS, S–Parameter, VSWR , Radiation
pattern
________________________________________
I. INTRODUCTION In today's generation of wireless communication system, the Micro strip patch
antenna plays very important role. There are different advantages of high performance Micro strip
patch antenna such as small size, light weight ,low cost, low volume and easy to fabricate .Like no
of advantages Micro strip Patch antenna has some drawbacks such as low gain, narrow bandwidth,
low efficiency. These drawbacks can be minimizing by changing the design parameters of patch
antenna or by applying array structure with improved DGS structure in it. Recently there has been
increasing demand in the use of Defected Ground Structure for performance improvement of Micro
strip patch antenna and array antenna. There are basically two important type of structures used in
designing of high

A Study On Microstrip Antenna
Chapter 3
Overview of Microstrip Antenna
3.1 Microstrip Antenna A microstrip antenna consists of conducting patch and a ground plane
separated by dielectric substrate. This concept was undeveloped until the revolution in electronic
circuit miniaturization and large–scale integration in 1970. The early work of Munson on microstrip
antennas for use as a low profile flush mounted antennas on rockets and missiles showed that this
was a practical concept for use in many antenna system problems. Various mathematical models
were developed for this antenna and its applications were extended to many other fields. The
number of papers, articles published in the journals for the last ten years. The microstrip antennas
are the present day antenna designer,s choice. Low dielectric constant substrates are generally
preferred for maximum radiation. The conducting patch can take any shape but rectangular and
circular configurations are the most commonly used configuration. A microstrip antenna is
characterized by its length, width, input impedance, gain and radiation patterns. Various parameters,
related calculation and feeding technique will be discussed further through this chapter. The length
of the antenna is about half wavelength of its operational frequency. The length of the patch is very
critical and important that result to the frequency radiated. Antennas are key components of any
wireless communication system and it

Design And Analysis Of Uwb Funnel Shape Monopole Antenna
Design and Analysis of UWB Funnel Shape Monopole Antenna
By
Dr. Muhammed N. , Dr. Jamal K. Al–Rudaini, Muhammed H.
Abstract: A Funnel Shape antenna for use in an ultra–wideband UWB media is proposed. The
proposed antenna consists of Funnel antenna with monopole bridge antenna and partial ground
plane. The Funnel antenna with monopole bridge antenna are etched on the same sides of the
antenna substrate, a dielectric layer of FR4 microfiber. The overall dimension of the proposed
antenna is 50 mm × 50 mm × 1.6 mm. The antenna operates in the frequency range from 2–20 GHz
covering UWB band. Moreover, the proposed antenna provides good radiation patterns across the
whole working bands and a relatively good gain over the entire frequency band.
RF and microwave inte– grated techniques and energy harvesting
RF and microwave inte– grated techniques and energy harvesting
1) INTRODUCTION
UWB antenna are used in a wide frequency range in on–air and ground telecommunication systems
[1, 2]. RF and Microwave energy harvesting techniques, UWB antenna design is attracted by Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) and Galileo satellite navigation systems [3, 4]. Micro strip
patch antenna has various applications in UWB due to its important behavior. Design and analysis of
a model of square–shaped wideband monopole antenna is proposed in the Reference [5]. Recently,
flat monopoles are proposed and used for wideband schemes [6–9] but their radiation patternis not
wholly directional due to

What Is Frequency Selectiveive Firners
Frequency selective surfaces (FSSs) have been used in a
23 number of different applications including reflector antenna
24 design,1,2 radomes,3 spatial filters,4 electromagnetic shield–
25 ing,5 design of RF absorbers,6 high–power–capable and
26 harmonic–suppressed spatial filters,7,8 and aberration–free
27 microwave lenses and reflect array antennas.9–13 FSSs are
28 also used as spectral filters at terahertz and infrared frequen–
29 cies.14–16 As frequency increases, designing multi–layer,
30 free–standing FSSs becomes very challenging. This is partic–
31 ularly the case in the far infrared range and above (e.g.,
32 wavelengths shorter than 100 lm). To design a multi–layer,
33 free–standing FSS at these frequencies, numerous thin dielec– ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Such metasurfaces use arrays 56 of antennas or other metallic and/or dielectric inclusions to 57
locally manipulate an electromagnetic wave front and obtain 58 desired properties such as
absorption on a sub–wavelength 59 scale 60 29 or anomalous reflection or refraction of an EM
wave. 61 30–34 However, using the concept of anomalous reflec– AQ2 tion to develop spectral and
spatial filters has not received 62 significant attention. In this paper, we present a solution to 63 the
problem of designing simple, low–cost, reflective–type 64 quasi–optical filters by using a
reflective–type metasurface 65 designed to act as a quasi–optical spatial and spectral filter. 66
The proposed filter uses a single–layer metasurface fabricated 67 on a thin, ground–plane–backed
dielectric substrate. The device is designed to anomalously reflect an incident wave 69
(from a given, known direction) towards a desired direction 70 over a desired frequency band of
operation. Outside of this 71 band, the device will act as a normal reflector, reflecting the 72
incident wave in the specular reflection direction thereby 73 missing the intended receiver. The net
effect of this concept 74 is that in the intended path between a given transmitter and 75 receiver, the
device will act as a spectral filter. Since the 76 device has only a single metallic layer, its fabrication
process 77 is very simple and requires only a single lithography step. 78
Moreover, the bandwidth of this filter

The Antenna Structure X 4 Mimo 8x8 Mimo.
802.11n 802.11ac The antenna structure 4 x 4 MIMO 8x8 MIMO Channel width 20&40MHz
20,40,80+80 ,& 160MHz channel frequency 2.4 or 5GHz 5GHz single–stream data transfer rate
150Mbps(40MHz) 433Mbps(80MHz),867Mbps(160MHz) Multi–stream data transfer
polymerization rated 600Mbps(40MHz) 1.73Gbps(80MHz),347Gbps(160MHz) Modulation scheme
OFDM OFDM A comparison of the feature between 802.11n and 802.11ac 4.1 Work in the 5GHz
band 802.11ac only works in the 5GHz band, which means that any equipment want to work in
802.11ac must support 5GHz frequency band. Furthermore, 802.11ac's chipset also supports 2.4GHz
band, to supports 802.11a/b/g/n WLAN and other previous standard, to provide backward
compatibility. 4.1.1 Why 802.11ac is 5 GHz only? As we all know 5GHz frequency are poor
performance on long–distance transmission and through, we may want to ask why they remove
2.4GHz from 802.11ac. We now commonly used Wi–Fi basically work in 2.4G wireless frequency
band, using 802.11b / g protocol. But as more and more equipment is added to the 2.4GHz, the
channel became very crowded between 2.4 to 2.485GHz, because too many electronic devices are
working in this band (e.g. wireless keyboard, wireless mouse, Bluetooth and other). The crowded
channel will make the equipment to seize resources. For example, we are all connected to same
wireless router, everyone's computers and routers must communicate, if only one computer, it is
very simple, it can take 'dialogue' with router, because there

Limitations Of Wireless Communication
INTRODUCTION
There are lots of challenges occurs for reliable wireless communication which occurs due to
physical limitations of the wireless medium. There has been massive growth occurs in wireless
communication which is due to the techniques that improves spectral efficiency and mitigate various
channel impairments such as fading and interference. Moreover there is always demand for high
speed wireless internet and technologies which are capable of providing higher capacities and link
reliabilities. Multiple–input–multiple–output (MIMO) is based on communication system which is
able to fulfil these objectives. MIMO is an expansion of smart antennas systems. There were
traditional smart antennas which occupy multiple antennas at receiver, whereas In MIMO system
multiple antennas are engaged at both sides at transmitter as well as receiver side. The multiple
antennas at the transmitter and the receiver side provide a major advantage over traditional smart
antenna systems–in terms of capacity and diversity advantage. The multipath propagation by MIMO
system is a remarkably advantage over other antennas system. Moreover it is able to provide
independent fading channels between every pair of transmitter and receiver antennas.
The rapid improvement in communication system with high data rates and improved channel
capacity has pondered towards the study of both theoretical and practical in wireless communication
systems. Wireless communication system has made great effort to

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Mimo Formatss
There is a number of different MIMO configurations or formats that can be used. These are termed
SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO. These different MIMO formats offer different advantages and
disadvantages – these can be balanced to provide the optimum solution for any given application.
The different MIMO formats – SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO require different numbers of
antennas as well as having different levels of complexity. Also dependent upon the format,
processing may be needed at one end of the link or the other – this can have an impact on any
decisions made.
SISO, SIMO, MISO, MIMO terminology
The different forms of antenna technology refer to single or multiple inputs and outputs. These are
related to the radio link. In this way the input is the transmitter as it transmits into the link or signal
path, and the output is the receiver. It is at the output of the wireless link.
therefore the different forms of single / multiple antenna ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The use of SIMO may be quite acceptable in many applications, but where the receiver is located in
a mobile device such as a cellphone handset, the levels of processing may be limited by size, cost
and battery drain.
There are two forms of SIMO that can be used:
Switched diversity SIMO: This form of SIMO looks for the strongest signal and switches to that
antenna.
Maximum ratio combining SIMO: This form of SIMO takes both signals and sums them to give the
a combination. In this way, the signals from both antennas contribute to the overall signal.
MIMO – MISO
MISO is also termed transmit diversity. In this case, the same data is transmitted redundantly from
the two transmitter antennas. The receiver is then able to receive the optimum signal which it can
then use to receive extract the required data.
MISO – Multiple Input Single

Advantages And Disadvantages Of FDMA
Abstract: In this paper, we propose a design for multiple antenna full–duplex (FD) eNodeB (eNB)
and user equipment (UE) transceiver, based on recent progress in the area of self–interference
cancellation (SIC). For FD communication, .i.e., simultaneous in–band uplink and downlink
operation, same subcarriers are allocated to UE in both uplink and downlink. Hence, contrary to
traditional LTE, we propose using single–carrier frequency division multiple accesses (SC–FDMA)
for downlink along with the conventional method of using it for uplink. Taking advantage of
channel reciprocity in the case of FD communication and multiple antennas at eNB, use of singular
value decomposition (SVD) in the downlink allows multiple user (MU) to operate ... Show more
This signal is then converted to the frequency domain by taking the N–point DFT, which is given

A Method For Efficiency Enhancement And Size Miniaturization
A Method for Efficiency Enhancement and Size Miniaturization in the design of UWB Planar
Antennas
Laxman Pillalamarri
Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Radio Frequency and Microwave Laboratory,
Nalla Malla Reddy Engineering College (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad),
Hyderabad, Telanagana–State, India.
Corresponding Author: laxmanpillalamarri85@gmail.com
Abstract
The printed antenna is one of the most preferred antenna structures for low cost and compact design
of wireless communication systems. In this paper we have investigated a new approach for
improving the radiation efficiency and performance of the antennas with the size miniaturization, in
particular we have simulated two types of UWB printed monopole antennas for proving this
approach with results: circular patch and Compact Miniaturized Semi–Circular patch UWB
monopole antennas and in detail investigation was presented on size miniaturization in order to
achieve very compactness and high radiation efficiency with out degradation of the functional
parameters and overall performance. Simple rectangular microstrip lines are used for feeding the
printed monopole antennas. This UWB monopole antenna designed works well for the whole UWB
frequency band 3.1–10.6GHz.
Key Words: UWB, Semicircular, Miniaturization printed monopole antennas, Microstrip lines.
I INTRODUCTION
Ultra–Wideband (UWB) commonly refers to signal or system that

The Problem Of Using Microstrip Patch Antenna Has...
2.6.2 Radiation Pattern
Microstrip Patch Antenna has radiation patterns that can be simply calculated. The source of the
radiation of the electric field at the gap of the edge of the Microstrip element and the ground plane is
main factor to the accurate calculation of the pattern for the patch antenna.
Simply it can be said that the power radiated or received by the antenna is the function of angular
position and radial distribution from the antenna [24]. In the fig.24 [9] below we can see the side
view of the rectangular Microstrip element associated with source, and also the radiating of E fields.
The radiation pattern of a common dimensional antenna can be seen below, which has side lobe,
black lobes which are undesirable as they represent the energy that is wasted for transmitting
Antennas and noise sources at the receiving end.
2.6.3 Gain & Directivity
The gain of the antenna defines the performance of the antenna or the capability to concentrate
energy through a direction which give a better picture of the radiation pattern. It is expressed in dB,
in a simple way we can say that this refers to the direction of the maximum radiation [24].
The expression for the maximum gain of an antenna is as follows:–
G=ηxD –––––––––––––––––––– Eq. (2.29)
η – The efficiency of the antenna.
D– Directivity.
In order to receive or transmit the power it can be chosen to maximize

Essay on Introducing SMART Antennas to Improve Throughput
1. Purpose and scope of the system In the current wireless networking standards, omni–directional
antennas are used to establish connection between the base station and the user. The radiation
emitted from this antenna is spread uniformly in a horizontal manner. These antennas are employed
because the base station is not aware of the location of the user. Hence most of the radiated beam is
lost or dispersed. Furthermore radiation from neighboring base stations with the same frequency will
cause interference. If it is possible to concentrate the beam/radiation only the user and introduce
nulls in the area of the interference, most of the radiated power can be made useful and gives users
with extended range. Introducing SMART antennas ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Phased array antennas are to be used, whose array elements in a pattern (linear, circular, planar)
collectively give a directional pattern and by changing the phase of the current to these elements the
radiation pattern can be steered. Algorithms that is needed to achieve this is – DOA (Direction of
Arrival) and Adaptive Beamforming algorithm.
Many algorithms are developed:
Direction of Arrival Algorithms:
MUSIC – Multiple Signal Classification It is a subspace based DoA algorithm. Subspace algorithms
provide high resolution and are more accurate. The physical size of the array aperture is not a
concern. MUSIC algorithm is widely preferred. It involves extensive search through all possible
steering vectors. [1][2]
ESPRIT – Estimation of Signal Parameters via Rotational Invariance Techniques The algorithm is
robust than MUSIC algorithm. Complexity and storage requirements are lower than for MUSIC
algorithm. It explorers the rotational invariance property in the signal subspace created by two
subarrays derived from original array with a translation invariance structure.[2]
Root–MUSIC Polynomial version of MUSIC algorithm.
MVDR – Minimum Variance Distortion–less Response algorithm Aim of this algorithm is to
minimize the power contributed by noise and any signals coming from the interferer.
Beamforming Algorithms
There are two types of beamforming techniques. They are switched beam and adaptive array system.
Switched beam techniques use

Research in the Area of Sinuous Antennas
We conducted a literature review as a part of our study, of recent research in the area of sinuous
antennas. From the review, it is clear that sinuous antennas are very useful due to their wideband
ability and dual polarized application. Hence, we can find a number of applications where these
antennas are being used. Waldschmidt et al.1 have conducted a study and evaluated the use of the
sinuous antenna for wideband multiple–input multiple–output (MIMO) and diversity applications.
They found that in addition to being extremely broadband the sinuous antennas are also very
compact. In fact, they found that when placing dipoles on the same space required by the sinuous
antennas, that the sinuous would reach much greater capacities for multimode–based MIMO
systems. Edwards and Rebeiz2 utilized the sinuous antenna type placement on a silicon dielectric
lens. The lens had a diameter of 50.8 mm necessitating a compact design. They chose the four–arm
sinuous antenna configuration as an alternative to traditional log–periodic antennas, which suffer
from polarization variation versus frequency and high cross–polarization levels. Their results have
shown that the lens–coupled sinuous antennas do exhibit polarization stability and low cross–
polarization levels over a wide band. In addition, the antenna is very efficient, radiating only 5% of
its total power to its backside. A much more recent application from Suzuki et al.3, again utilizes the
silicon lens–coupled sinuous antenna as a

Design of a Rectangular Patch Antenna Using Computer...
(
Design of A Rectangular Patch Antenna using Computer Simulation Technology (CST)
Nik Nurul Azuin Bt Nik Abdul Rahman, ID No.: 2010702499, GROUP: EE2405A
Abstract– A design of a microstrip rectangular patch antenna is presented in this paper. The
proposed antenna was simulated using Computer Simulation Technology (CST) CAD Package and
design on a microstrip with relative permittivity of 4.6, and substrate and copper thickness of 0.5
mm and 0.035 mm respectively with 4.5 GHz of frequency.
Keywords– CST Microwave Studio, circular array antenna, frequency, microstrip, permittivity,
substrate thicknesses, copper thickness, RT/ Duroid 5880 result
INTRODUCTION
Microstip antenna which is also known as the printed antenna is very ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The patch antenna, microstrip transmission line and ground plane are made of high conductivity
metal (typically copper). The patch is of length L, width W, and sitting on top of a substrate (some
dielectric circuit board) of thickness h with permittivity. The thickness of the ground plane or of the
microstrip is not critically important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of
operation, but not much smaller than 0.05 of a wavelength.
[pic] Figure 1: Top view of patch antenna
The strip (patch) and the ground plane are separated by a dielectric sheet as shown in Figure 2.
[pic]
Figure 2: Microstrip feed line
Typical variations, as a function of frequency, of the effective dielectric constant for a microstrip
line with three different substrates as shown in Figure 3.
[pic]
Figure 3: Effective dielectric constant versus frequency for typical substrate

[pic]
Figure 4: Rectangular microstrip patch and its equivalent circuit transmission–line model
Each radiating slot is represented by the parallel equivalent admittance. This is shown in Figure 4.

Basic Fundamentals And Design Parameters Of Patch
CHAPTER 3
BASIC FUNDAMENTALS AND DESIGN PARAMETERS OF PATCH
3.1 Introduction As we all know, Selection of antenna is very important in designing of successful
rectenna because antenna is responsible for how much power is received by the circuitry following
after the antenna. This chapter describes the theory of antenna and its property, design process,
simulations and fabrication of an Microsrip antenna that operates within the microwave frequency
range. First we start with a brief explanation of the main design parameters of an antenna then we
briefly explain the advantages of using microstrip antennas in these applications [4–18]. Also a brief
introduction of the software used for the design and simulations stages. Then we will explain how
making some changes to the shape of the ground plane and the radiating patch of the antenna can
improve the performance. After all the parametric simulations a final antenna version was chosen
and subsequently built.
An antenna also known as midair is an electrical expedient which translates electric power into radio
waves, and apposite to it. It is typically cast–off with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In
broadcast, a radio transmitter deliveries an electric current wavering at radio frequency (i.e. a high
frequency alternating current ) to the antenna 's terminuses, and the antenna produces the energy
from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna interrupts certain
of the power of an

Taking a Look at Antenna Technology
The field of antennas is vigorous and dynamic, and over the last 60 years antenna technology has
been an indispensable partner of the communication revolution. Antenna has been considered an
important component in the development of modern wireless communication devices. In addition to
receiving and transmitting energy, an antenna in an advanced wireless system is usually required to
optimize the radiation energy in some directions and suppress in others. For wireless communication
systems the antenna is one of the most critical components. A good design of the antenna can relax
system requirements and improve overall system performance.
The planar antenna configurations such as microstrip and patch antennas have been found suitable
for such systems. These antenna configurations are of low profile, lightweight, simple and
inexpensive to fabricate. The main design goal of antenna design for modern communication
systems is to achieve the better performance for desired frequency bands. But the main disadvantage
of using microstrip antenna for recent day's wireless communication is to achieve multi frequency
operation with single antenna, maintaining the performance the antenna for all desired frequency.
One solution for multi frequency operation is to design different antennas for each frequency, results
in bulky structure and the mutual coupling between different feed elements will become a problem.
Stack structure is the solution to achieve multiple band operation with

Development Of The Model For Optimizing Antenna Array...
In this study, the discussion on a number of important issues and the state–of–the–art development
of the Model for Optimizing Antenna Array Element is done. An optimal radiation pattern as well as
Minimum Side lobes levels are obtained for a Rectangular antenna array using the hybridization of
particle swarm and genetic algorithm optimization technique. A set of normalized complex and
phase shift weights are generated by the developed optimization algorithm and the bound
constrained ﬁtness function that allows the optimization for non–uniform element spacing is
presented. A comparison between the un–optimized pattern and the one optimized for minimization
of SLL using the model developed in this research is also presented, the results ... Show more
For the last several
years, the telecommunications industry and academia have been investing significant amounts of
research effort in fourth generation
(4G) Long Term Evolution (LTE) to provide higher data rates to end users by improving spectral
efficiency, deploying more base stations, and/or aggregating more spectra. While some of the LTE
enhancements, such as advanced multiple–input multiple–output (MIMO), Coordinated multipoint
(CoMP), heterogeneous networks (HetNets), and carrier aggregation (CA), deliver the additional
capacity needed to sustain the traffic surge for the next few years, none of them is seen as a viable
solution to support the hundreds of times more traffic demands foreseen in 2020 and beyond, the
so–called 5G era[5]. However, it is expected that in 5G millions more base stations (BSs) with
higher functionality and billions more smart phones and devices with much higher data rates will be
connected.[6]. In 5G mobile communication it is expected to have the presence of higher traffic
volume, increased indoor or hotspot traffic, and higher energy [7]. The growth of wireless system
capacity ever since the invention of the radio right up to the present can be attributed to three main
factors: increase in the number of wireless infrastructure nodes, increased use of radio spectrum, and
improvement in link efficiency. These three ingredients continue to be the dominant drivers of
wireless capacity growth today [8]. As it is

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Microstrip Antenna
CHAPTER 3
MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In high–performance spacecraft, satellite and aircraft, where low size, low weight, moderate cost,
ease of installation are constraints, low profile antenna may be required. To meet these requirements,
microstrip antennas can be used [1], [18]. Microstrip antenna technology has been the most rapidly
developing topic in the antenna field in the last fifteen years, receiving the creative attentions of
academic, industrial, and government engineers and researches throughout the world.
Microstrip antenna has quickly evolved from academic novelty to commercial reality with
applications in a wide variety of microwave systems. In fact rapidly developing markets in a
personal communications systems ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The patch is generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible
shape. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate.
3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA
Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas and
therefore many applications over the broad frequency range from 100MHz to 50GHz. Some of the
principle advantages are: Light weight, low volume, low profile planar configurations which can be
made conformal. Low fabrication cost ; readily amenable to mass production. Can be made thin ;
hence, they do not perturb the aerodynamics of host aerospace vehicles. The antennas can be easily
mounted on missiles, rockets and satellites without major alterations. These antennas have low
scattering cross section. Linear, circular (left hand or right hand) polarizations are possible with
simple changes in the feed

Designing A Seven Band Stacked Patch Antenna Design For C,...
Abstract:– In this paper a seven–band stacked patch antenna design for C, X and Ku band is
considered. To generate multiband frequencies micro strip stacked patch antenna is introduced. The
proposed structure is a planar structure having all the dimensions in mm and is designed by using a
substrate of FR4 having thickness 1.6 mm. This proposed antenna is having seven bands of
operation. The considered antenna consists of H–slot loaded fed patch, stacked with dual U–slot
loaded rectangular patch. The size of the antenna is 39.25 x 29.25 x 1.66 mm2. The patch antenna is
studied and simulated using IE3D simulator. The antenna is analyzed by circuit theory concepts to
practically verify the results. The results pertaining to various functional parameters of the
multiband micro strip patch antenna such as RL, Gain and Radiation pattern versus frequency are
obtained.
Keywords:–Dual U– Slot Loaded Stacked Patch, H–Slot loaded Fed Patch, RL(Return Loss),
IE3D,Microstrip Patch antenna, Multiband Antenna
I. Introduction
Every communication system is primarily focused on the usage of antenna as it plays a vital role in
transmitting and receiving the information signals. An antenna is made itself a mandate component
of communication system. The stupendous growth of wireless communication systems along with
wonderful use of radars opens a huge demand to new kind of antennas like small antennas, multi
frequency antennas, and broadband antennas [2]–[1]. Planar multi–resonators and

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Microstrip Antennas
i23
2.7 Advantages & Disadvantages
Microstrip antennas are low profile, conformable to planar and non planar surfaces, simple and
inexpensive to manufacture using modem printed–circuit technology, mechanically robust and
compatible with MMIC designs. When the particular patch shape and mode are selected they are
very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and impedance. In addition by
adding loads between the patch and the ground plane, such as pins and varactor diodes. adaptive
elements with variable resonant frequency, impedance, polarization and pattern can be designed.
Since it is of planar structure, it has all the advantages of printed circuit technology. The major
operational disadvantages of microstrip antennas ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The microstrip feed line is easy to fabricate, simple to match by controlling the inset position and
rather simple to model. However as the substrate thickness increases, surface waves and spurious
feed radiation increase, which for practical designs limit the bandwidth.
2.8.2 Coaxial feed
In this type, the inner conductor of the coaxial cable is attached to the patch while the outer
conductor is connected to the ground plane. This is the widely used type of feeding. The coaxial
probe feed is also easy to fabricate and match, and it has low spurious radiation. However, it also
has narrow bandwidth and it is more difficult to model, especially for thick substrates (h>0.02 1.0).
2.6.3 Aperture coupling: The aperture coupling of is the most difficult of all four to fabricate and it
also has narrow bandwidth. However, it is somewhat easier to model and has moderate spurious
radiation. The aperture coupling consists of two substrates separated by a ground plane. On the
bottom side of the lower substrate there is a microstrip feedline whose energy is coupled to the patch
through a slot on the ground plane separating the two

Voltage Between The Antenna And Antenna
3.6.6 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
There should be a maximum power transfer between the transmitter and the antenna for the antenna
to perform very well. This happens only when the impedance Zin is matched to the transmitter
internal impedance, Zs.
In the process of accomplishing this particular configuration for an antenna to perform very well,
there is always a reflecting power which leads to the standing waves, which is categorized by the
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR).
This is given by [30]:–
VSWR=V_max/V_min =(1+|Γ|)/(1–|Γ| )=(1+S_11)/(1–S_11 ) –––––––––––––– Eq. (2.31)
As the reflection coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, the VSWR ranges from 1 to ∞.
3.6.7 Input Impedance
It is the ratio of the voltage to current at the input terminals or the ratio of the proper components of
the electric fields to the magnetic fields at a particular point. Or in other words we can say it is the
impedance presented by the antenna at the input terminal.
Zin = (Rin + jXin) –––––––––––––––––– Eq. (2.32)
Rin – the real part, representing the power dissipated though heat or through radiation losses.
Xin – imaginary part, representing the reactance of the antenna & the power stored in the near field
of the antenna [32].
3.6.8 Bandwidth
Bandwidth can be said as the frequencies on both the sides of the center frequency in which the
characteristics

Antenna Is The Main Component Of Every Communication System

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