Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes

Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes
The article, Concussive brain injury enhances fear learning and excitatory processes in the amygdala
by Maxine L. Reger, Andrew M. Poulos, Floyd Buen, Christopher C. Giza, David A. Hovda, and
Michael S Fanselow took a close look into the fears and behaviors generated in rats two days after
suffering trauma to the brain. This particular article was discovered by searching the keywords:
brain injury and amygdala, in the PubMed database. By searching those keywords, the database was
able to pull up numerous articles discussing the two topics, but I felt that Reger et al (2012)
demonstrated a clear association between the topics. The article brings about a question of whether
or not there is a link between brain injuries, posttraumatic stress disorder, commonly referred to as
PTSD, and the changes involved in the excitatory and inhibitory processes involved in the
amygdala. In order to examine such a link, the authors performed a number of tests on adult
Sprague–Dawley rats to test their hypothesis as well as to investigate the neurobiological correlation
between concussion and PTSD. To further assess these correlations, it is imperative to explore the
methods used to conduct this study. The experiment was conducted using adult male Sprague–
Dawley rats from the Charles River Laboratories in Hollister, California. The rats were housed in
cages, two rats per cage, for a 12 hour light/dark cycle. The investigation began by combining the
use of lateral
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Effects Of Steroid Hormones And Neuropeptides On Social...
A Review of the Effects of Steroid Hormones and Neuropeptides on Social–Emotional Behavior
Bos, Peter A., Panksepp, Jaak, Bluthé, Rose–Marie, & van Honk, Jack (2011). Acute effects of
steroid hormones and neuropeptides on human social–emotional behavior: A review of single
administration studies. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 33 (2012) 17–35.
1. Introduction/Background Information The discovery of hormones and their function has been
relatively recent. The term was first coined by Professor Earnest Starling in 1905. He derived the
word from the Greek meaning "to arouse or excite." However, the idea of the role hormones could
be traced back as far as ancient Greece. Though Hippocrates' theory on humors has been refuted, the
concept of "bodily fluids," or in this case, the amount of hormones circulating in the blood directly
affecting temperament and emotions are related. Scientists continue to research the relevance of
hormones, as well as neuropeptides on human behavior (J.R. Tata). Amazingly, throughout
evolutionary history, both neuropeptides and steroid hormones were able to preserve their molecular
structure, and their effect on cross–species sexuality. An estimated 450 million years ago, the
neurotransmitter oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVT) were present in the earliest phyla, and their
varied functions are similar in both animals and humans. Much like OT and AVP, the steroid
hormones, testosterone (T) and estradiol (E) play a significant role in

The Discovery Of Hormones And Their Function
concept of "bodily fluids," or in this case, the amount of hormones circulating in the blood directly
affecting temperament and emotions are related. Scientists continue to research the relevance of
hormones, as well as neuropeptides on human behavior. Amazingly, throughout evolutionary
history, both neuropeptides and steroid hormones were able to preserve ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This research gives insight into the underlying neural mechanisms and also demonstrates substantial
hormonal control over human behavior. After reviewing and discussing the placebo–controlled
studies, they proposed a theoretical model that synthesized detailed knowledge of
neuroendocrinology of social–emotional behavior in animals, as–well–as the recently gained data on
humans. The study of emotional and behavioral disorders have become more popular in the last
twenty years. Characteristics of these irregularities include: learning disabilities that are not
explainable by either sensory, health, or intellectual factors; persistently inappropriate feelings and
conduct; and/or chronic unhappiness or depression (gadoe.org). The authors of this study thoroughly
analyzed the underlying neural mechanisms of supplemental hormones and how they affect
participants as opposed to using a placebo. Research into human behavior as it relates to
neuroendocrinology will be crucial to future generations and their interrelations.
3. Methods and Results For the purpose of this paper, the authors did not do their own research.
They used a collection of studies that looked at behaviors and their specific connections to
hormones and neuropeptides. The first studies the authors reviewed attempted to make a connection
between evolution and naturally occurring hormones. This portion of the paper, paragraph 2,

Ionotropic Receptors Research Paper
Ionotropic receptors is a binding site that opens when an ion attaches to the binding site. The
ionotropic receptor is also a direct method to the ion channels. Ionotropic receptors has a channel
where molecules move in and out of the ion channel. The ions that goes into the ion channel are
made out of sodium which cause the membrane to become small.
Metabotropic receptors is receptor that is a part of the binding site of a neurotransmitter.
Metabotropic is indirect and complex method to the ion channels. Metabotropic receptor process is
also different from the inotropic receptor. When the ion channel is open the molecule move to the
ion channel then molecule attaches to the metabotropic receptor and the ion channel closes.
Autonomic nervous system is a part of the different molecules in the body such as the smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, gladder bladder, stomach, and urinary bladder. The neurophysiology is
showing the functions, the autonomic nervous system is showing how this works through the body.
There are two branches that are include in the autonomic nervous system. Those branches are called
the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The parasympathetic branch uses activity that is in the body which stores energy. For example, when
you eat something your saliva helps you to break down your food and when we swallow our food
the food goes into our stomach the fluid in our stomach helps to break down the food we eat which
gives us energy and is stored in our bodies. In this example, salvation is an example of one of the
activities that is in our book. The parasympathetic nervous system are located in the cranial nerves
and the spinal

The Effects Of Caffeine On Children 's Performance On...
In the neocortex, acetylcholine (ACh) stimulates arousal and plays a major role in attention and
working memory (Jones, 2008). Neuropsychological studies on caffeine report increased arousal,
alertness, increased energy and concentration (Smith, 2002; Ruxton, 2008; Brunye´ et al., 2010)
even at doses as low as 50 mg, which is comparable to the amount of caffeine in a cup of tea. It has
been indicated that even in low doses caffeine improves performance on attention tasks (Brunye´ et
al., 2010a). However, caffeine intake has also been associated with anxiety, nervousness, irritability,
insomnia and even panic attacks (Bruce et al., 1992; Lieberman, 1992; Sicard et al., 1996) . During
an elevated plus maze test of anxiety in rats, it was found that high doses of caffeine brought a
remarkably increased anxiety–like behavior (Jain et al., 2005).
Similarly, nicotine improves cognitive performance by improving learning, memory and attention
(Levin and Rezvani, 2002; Swan, 2007). In a social interaction test for anxiety, nicotine was shown
to have an anxiolytic effect at lower doses and an anxiogenic effect at high doses (File et al., 1998).
Analysis of the EEG power spectrum, in the present work, revealed a significant increase in delta
wave while theta, beta–1 and beta–2 waves showed a significant decrease. Delta and theta
frequencies are dominant during sleep and drowsiness, alpha frequency dominates during relaxed
wakefulness, and beta frequencies occur during intense mental

The Crystal Structure of Sphingosine
In the PDBID 3V2Y, the crystal structure of the sphingosine–1–phosphate receptor subtype 1 is
fused to T4–lysozyme. Fusion of the third intracellular loop to the T4–lysozyme rendered soluble
crystal junctions (Rosen H et al, 2013) for the rapidly disintegrating microcrystals (Hanson MA et
al, 2012).
Structure elements of S1PR1
The structural observations gained from antagonist–preserved structures of Rhodopsin–like GPCRs
show that the typical orientation of the seven transmembrane domains have significant overlap. The
minute overlap is produced depending on the helix bundle, tilt and the specific interactions
(hydrophobic and electrostatic). This specific overlap is important for co–ordinated signaling by the
different GPCRs (Rosen H et al, 2013).
GPCRs possess an extracellular domain consisting of the N terminus and three extracellular loops.
However, a number of prominent features are associated with the Ligand Binding Pocket in the
S1P1 receptor. The extracellular region of S1PR1 is significantly ordered. This is due to the N
terminus comprising a well–ordered α–helix that projects the top of the receptor. This contributes to
binding interactions and forms a helix–cap, which occludes access to the amphipathic binding
pocket (Hanson MA et al, 2012). The three loops, namely, ECL1 amidst helices II and III, ECL2
formed between helices IV and V and ECL3 in helices VI and VII, also make up the extracellular
region. Both ECL1 and ECL2 are tightly packed against the

Ethanol Interactions with Receptors
Introduction
Ethanol, the alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, has a wide range of effects. Unlike many drugs,
ethanol does not have a specific area of the brain in which it exerts its effects. For this reason,
ethanol has a large diversity of symptoms and varying effects among individuals. In general, it binds
with and alters the function of voltage gated ion channels. Typically ethanol inhibits neurons directly
or stimulates the release of inhibitor neurotransmitters. Ethanol may have undesirable side effects
such as deficits in cognitive ability and long–term brain damaged if used frequently.
Ethanol Interactions with Receptors
Ethanol interacts with the several neurochemical systems that play a role in the effects and
reinforcing factors during consumption. It is a depressant that interacts with ion–gated channels in a
way that generally decreases brain activity. These interactions either facilitate the channel, opening
mostly Cl–, but also facilitate 5–HT3 receptors that are NA+ and K+ channels, or the interactions
inhibit the opening of channels usually NA+, CA+, and K+. Some of the receptors that it affects
include, GABAA, GABAB, NMDA, serotonin, and Dopamine. The GABAergic systems play a
major role in the reinforcing factors of alcohol consumption. Ethanol tends to enhance GABA
activity, most likely by increasing GABA release from the neurons. However, the mechanism is not
the same for every GABA receptor, and the exact mechanism may be difficult to determine

Understanding Stress During Puberty
In this experiment, the author's focused on understanding stress during puberty and the sex–specific
differences of the effects on humans through rat models. As we go through puberty, both male and
females have increased levels of sex steroid hormones. In females this causes levels of cortisol to
increase, as well as the probability of developing a mood disorder relating to stress. Past studies
have shown that this is because of the plasticity of the hypothalamic–pituitary– adrenal axis (HPA)
axis and the areas of the brain the regulate mood, such as the amygdala. They supported their
previous claim with an experiment that was done on rats where they were subjected to stressful
events, known as juvenile social subjugation (JSS), and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Autoradiography helps to visualize the CRF1 and CRF2 receptors. The sections of the brain were
incubated for 2 hours in a binding chamber that contained 500 mM Astressin 2B and 500mM CP–
154,526. The Astressin 2B helps to visualize the CRF1 receptors, while the CP–154,526 helps to
visualize the CRF2 receptors. The control group of sections of brains was incubated for 2 hours in
0.2nm 125I Sanguine. They were washed then exposed to Kodak Biomax MR film. Next, they
calculated the receptor binding density and background measurements of the lateral dorsal thalamus
and the dorsal striatum. They created heat maps of the brain sections, whose densitometry
measurements were close to the mean, using Photoshop. They performed two–way ANOVA and
post hoc Student's t–tests. They compared between subject with sex and age, as well as the "effects
of age within each sex and sex within each age."
Results
Overall the Basolateral Nucleus of the Amgdala (BLA) was the primary location for the expression
of CRF1 binding and the MePV was the secondary location for binding. CRF2 expression in the
MePV was not as intense as that of the CRF1 receptor. The MePD had less expression of both types
of CRF receptor and no expression in the CeA. They found intense expression of CRF2 receptor in
the cortical nucleus of the amygdala and choroid plexus.
Each hemisphere of the brain had no significant difference in the binding of both types of CRF
receptors. Figure 2 shows that in the binding

Assignment : Bioassay Of Androgenic Hormones
Faculty of Pharmacy
Pharmacology Department
Assignment Topic: Bioassay of androgenic hormones
Course Title: Bioassay
Course Code: PO411
Lab Group: A1
Submitted to: Dr Mona
Prepared by: Rahma Ahmed Ahmed – 141191
Due date: 10–27–2016
– Fall 2016 –
Androgen Bioassays
Introduction:
During the recent decades, athletes were trying to enhance their performance by using exogenous
hormones such as; androgens, erythropoietin and growth hormone.
The most potent form of sports steroids is the Androgens and it is the most common type of steroids
that enhances the performance that can be detected in screening tests.
Detection of androgens is through urine screening to detect even trace amounts of androgens.
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is a highly specific and sensitive method for
detection of steroids in the screening urine samples.
In a trial to pass the screening methods, designer androgens was created with different chemical
structures to known androgens so it cannot be easily detected by GC–MS. Designer androgens can
be detected by androgen bioassays because they can activate the androgen receptor (AR).
Therefore, androgen bioassays maybe a suitable tool for screening of biological samples suspected
to contain an androgen.
.
Receptor binding assays:
Principle: The ligand competes for binding to AR.
Receptor binding assays have been developed to measure compounds, including hormones, that are
able to bind specifically to receptors.
Procedure: the

Nursing Case Study
Corrective surgical entry points: Wound recuperating quality is critical in the achievement of
restorative surgery. (Lu, Jin and Pang 2006) analyzed the impinging of FGF2 on coiled repair in 50
female patients who accomplished restorative surgery. Every single surgical entry point were perfect
cuts, and self–controls (another incisional twisted on a similar patient) were utilized. In the
treatment amass FGF2 was connected once every day until expulsion of lines, beginning with the
primary postoperative day. Wounds because of laser reemerging were spread with FGF2 twice day
by day until the point that normal de–crustation happened. The control gather was subjected to
regular dressing change until expulsion of fastens. The outcome ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
After debridement of the injuries, FGF2 was showered on the injuries and they were sutured the
following day. Wound dressings were changed frequently. The control bunch was dealt with
likewise, however without the utilization of FGF2 shower. Mending time was wholly shortened in
subjects with dehiscence measurement 6 cm in estimation or beneath activated with FGF2
comparing with the control assemblage. Interestingly, in patients with dehiscence measuring 5 cm or
more optional suturing was embraced. In this experiment there was no carping comparison in the
FGF2 treated assemblage connected with their single control gathering: it is likely that this control
gathering's abbreviated recuperating time, contrasted with the control bunch with dehiscence
measuring 5 cm or less, was because of auxiliary suturing. (Why is FGF Not used consistently in
today repair techniques?) Fibroblast development factor 2 (FGF2) is an exceptionally bottomless
development factor found inside the peri–cellular network of articular chondrocytes, however
contemplates examining its part have been clashing. The paper announced by Yan and partners in
the past issue of "Arthritis Research and Therapy proposes" that distinctions in reactions to FGF2
are in all probability because of changes to be determined between the two noteworthy articular
types of FGF receptors, FGFR1 and FGFR3. They demonstrate that the

Prediction By Komputer Assisted Technology : Lab Analysis
In the materials and methods section; ligand preparation, target protein identification and
preparation, molecular descriptors calculation, ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and
Excretion) and TOPKAT (Toxicity Prediction by Komputer Assisted Technology) analysis were
carried out according to the previously reported method as briefly stated below.
Ligand preparation
Chemical structures of the ligands i) asperyellone [CID101600052]; ii) asperenone [CID5368642];
iii) hydroasperyellone [CID561143]; iv) CHEMBL1715716 [CID49859207] and v)
CHEMBL2152350 [CID71458428] were downloaded PubMed (www. pubmed.com) database. The
ligands were drawn in ChemBioDraw Ultra 12.0 (www.cambridgesoft.com) and subsequently
molecular mechanics (MM2) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
ADME and TOPKAT analysis
Both ADME and TOPKAT analysis were performed using Discovery Studio® 3.1 (Accelrys, San
Diego, USA). ADME analysis was performed using six descriptors such as human intestinal
absorption (HIA), aqueous solubility (AS), blood brain barrier (BBB), cytochrome P450 2D6
(CYP2D6), plasma protein binding (PPB) and hepatotoxicity (HT). As for the TOPKAT analysis,
five descriptors were used which includes aerobic biodegradability (AB), Ames mutagenicity (AM),
ocular irritancy (OI), skin irritancy (SI), skin sensitization (SS) and oral toxicity (OT) in rat (LD50
in g/Kg of body weight).
Docking studies Docking studies were performed on the protein crystal structures of HMGR, HNE,
SQS, tyrosinase and XO obtained from Protein Data Bank (PDB) using the CDOCKER protocol
under the protein–ligand interaction section in Discovery Studio® 3.1 (Accelrys, San Diego, USA).
In general, CDOCKER is a grid–based molecular docking method that employs CHARMM force
fields. A protein was firstly held rigid while the ligands were allowed to flex during the refinement.

How Does Starvation Affect Larval Behavior
Starvation impacts larval behavior as measured in the two–choice assay a) 3rd instar larvae: From
previous studies of our lab (Newquist, Novenschi et al. 2016) we learnt that each larval ORN is
functionally diverse and each ORN differentially contributes to olfactory behavior in the Drosophila
melanogaster larvae. Based on these results, we postulated that individual ORNs might be
differentially modulated under starved state conditions. To begin to address this question we started
with a panel of seven different odorants from the panel of 19 different odorants published in the
study by (Mathew, Martelli et al. 2013). Each of the seven odorants elicits a strong, specific
physiological response from a single ORN (Or 47a :: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Larvae on each half are counted, RI is calculated using simple equation RI =(S–C)/(S+C) [S denotes
number of larvae on the odorant/test side and C denotes number of larvae towards the control side].
The data from this experiment is presented in Figure 1. When tested for odorant acetal, starved
larvae showed higher RI when compared to non–starved larvae. In other words, starved larvae have
a stronger attractive response towards acetal compared to the non–starved larvae. Next, we looked at
the olfactory responses of the remaining six odorants from the panel of seven that were mentioned
above. As mentioned in the previous paragraph, starved and non–starved larvae were subjected to
the two–choice assay after 2 hours of the starvation protocol. Data collected for all seven different
odorants are shown in Figure 2. Of all the seven odorants tested, only three odorants showed
significant changes in response indices upon starvation. Acetal (shown in Figure 1), 4, 5–
dimethylthiazole, and pentyl acetate were the three odorants that showed higher RI values for
starved state larvae when compared to non–starved larvae. In other words, for these three odorants
starved larvae had higher attractiveness towards odorants compared to non–starved larvae. This
supported our hypothesis that individual ORNs might be differentially modulated by the animal's
starved state. b) 2nd instar larvae: Next, we looked at the olfactory behavior response of 2nd

Mechanisms of Axon Guidance
Axons are sensitive and their respond depend on the local environment. When the tectum is
removed, retinal axons grow toward the missing tissue, demonstrating that optic axons utilize these
neighbourhood signals as opposed to a long–run diffusible attractant from the tectum as they grow
along the optic tract (Taylor, 1990). In the event of a small piece of the optic tract neuroepithelium is
turned 90° preceding the axons enter it, then they become misoriented when they enter the pivoted
transplant (Harris, 1989) and correct their course of growth once they exit. These results confirm
that the neuroepithelium contains local information to which growing axons respond and that they
are not simply following gradients of attractants released by their targets (Sanes et al., 2012).
Growth cone filopodia are long, motile, and covered with receptors, also have a very high surface to
volume ratio, which can help convert membrane signals into large changes in intracellular
messengers such as calcium. Filopodia can show localized transient elevations of intracellular
calcium and these transients reduce filopodial motility (Sanes et al., 2012). Calcium transients can
be directly artificially activated in growth cone filopodia by loading neurons with a calcium caging
agent that releases calcium upon stimulation with a pulse of light (Gomez et al., 2001). Experiments
in which calcium is uncaged on one side of a growth cone generally cause the growth cone to turn
toward the side that has

Glutamatergic And Gabaergic Dysfunction Case Study
Glutamatergic and GABAergic Dysfunction: Predisposing Factors in Schizophrenia?
Academic consensus regarding the etiology of most mental disorders is often tough to achieve due
to a myriad of polygenic effects and complex gene–environment interactions; however, certain
disorders such as Schizophrenia pose even more difficulty. Schizophrenia is a psychiatric condition
that is marked by various positive and negative symptoms that cause fluctuations in cognitive ability
and impose distorted experiences onto the patient (Pinel, 2011). Positive symptoms are defined as
extreme and maladaptive variations on normal functioning, which include symptoms such as
delusions and hallucinations (Xavier & Vorderstrasse, 2017); conversely, negative symptoms ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Schizophrenia research has examined many glutamatergic components, which has altered the
Glutamate Hypothesis many times; nonetheless, the updated hypothesis explains Schizophrenic
symptoms as the result of the malfunctioning of NMDA (n–methyl–d–aspartate) receptors, which
are ionotropic glutamate receptors (Howes et al., 2015). For instance, a psychopharmacological
study by Krystal et al. (1994) examined the effects of Ketamine, an NMDA non–competitive
antagonist, on behavior. They observed the behavior of three groups of healthy adults that were
administered a placebo or a high or low dose of Ketamine via an I.V. injection. Subsequently, those
injected with Ketamine presented dose–dependent schizophrenia–like behaviors that were similar to
positive and negative symptoms (Krystal et al., 1994). Similar studies have replicated these findings;
however, to ensure that these behaviors are not only related to acute treatment, other studies have
looked at prolonged use. Stone et al. (2014) compared the mental states of a group of chronic
Ketamine users with a group of poly–drug users, and found that six of the fifteen chronic Ketamine
users were formally at–risk for a psychotic episode, while none of the poly–drug users fit such
criteria. Secondly, they used proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H–MRS) to measure the
activity of glutamatergic system proteins, such as glutamine, creatine, and N–acetyl aspartate
(NAA), in

Optimizing The Hypothalamic Hunger Regulation Mathematical...
OPTIMIZING AND VALIDATING THE HYPOTHALAMIC HUNGER REGULATION
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Ms. Divya1, Dr. Saurabh Mukherjee2
1Research Scholar, 2Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science, AIM & ACT,
Banasthali University, Banasthali–304022, email: jangid.divya@gmail.com
Hypothalamus has a significant effect on the physiological functions of human body like Hunger
regulation, Energy balance etc. A mathematical model is being developed which mathematically
explains the functionality of Hunger Regulation. Some hormones also acts effectively during this
process plays as important role in this model. Hypothalamic Hunger RegulationMathematical Model
(HhRM). We are using statistical optimization tools to optimize and validate this Model. The ...
This Hunger Regulation process is simulated with the help of Hypothalamic Hunger Regulating
Mathematical Model (HhRM)[2]. HhRM is a mathematical approach for this homeostatic function
of human body.HhRM divided into five different steps. Each step represents the combination of
mathematical functions and variables. A simple binary function G (h) shows that whether the
hormones are secreted by internal organs or not. The hormonal signals explain by the random
numbers.Daubechies Wavelet function interprets the movement of Hormonal signals through Vegal
Nerve.The response to the Hormonal Signals is being generated by the hypothalamic receptors. For
this the concept of signal generation is used with scaling function with Entropy. The receptors
signals transferred to Central Nervous system.
The mathematical model HhRM is as follows: dH/dt = G^ ' (h)+f(h)D4^ ' (h)+ Em(s)Sc '(s)
WheredH/dtis the change in the processing of Hypothalamus, H with respect to Time t, G(h) is the
binary function f(h) is fractal function, D4'(h) is the Daubechies function, Em(s) is entropy measure
and Sc'(s) scaling function.
2. Objective
The objective of our study is to optimize the mathematical model HhRM. In previous version of
HhRM the simple scaling function was being used. Here our objective is to study

Schizophrenia: Types, Symptoms, Medications, Treatment Essay
Schizophrenia is a neurological disorder that affects the cognitive functions of an individual. The
cause of this illness is unknown, but there are several theories of how an individual may acquire
schizophrenia. Because there are many symptoms of the disease and because the symptoms can vary
quite dramatically among several individuals and even within the same individual over time, the
diagnosis of schizophrenia can be quite difficult.
In the United States and Europe, schizophrenia occurs in about 3 to 6 of every 10,000 individuals.
Schizophrenia occurs equally in males and females; however, the age of onset of the disease is
different between the sexes. The primary age of onset in males occurs roughly between the ages of
15 and 25, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since the social causation hypothesis is more narrow and only accounts for the assumption that
schizophrenia results from stress (one hypothesis for the development of schizophrenia), the
downward drift hypothesis seems to better explain the disproportionate numbers of schizophrenics
in the lower socioeconomic classes. Moreover, a number of estimations have claimed that between
one–third and two–thirds of homeless individuals have schizophrenia (1).
However, the theory that social factors may produce the stressors that lead to schizophrenia does
correlate with several key points. Epidemiological studies have shown that a higher proportion of
schizophrenics are found in large cities, particularly in those cities with populations of over one
million people, whereas smaller cities have virtually no incidence of schizophrenia. Also, the
development of schizophrenia in children of a schizophrenic parent or parents appears to be twice as
likely in those residing in large cities as compared to those in smaller communities. Moreover,
schizophrenia occurs in a higher percentage of immigrants that move from a less industrialized area
or nation to a more industrialized area or nation (1). However, other factors may be present that
contribute to the disproportionate localization of schizophrenia in relation to geography which will
be discussed later.
The symptoms of schizophrenia are quite variable in type and

Experiment : Melting Point And Percent Yield Of Dimethyl...
A. Melting Point and percent yield of Dimethyl Fumarate Dimethyl Fumarate was not successfully
created during the course of this particular experiment, likely because of a failure of the bromine to
mix with the other components of the test tubes. It was observed that the bromine had formed a
separate fraction at the top of the rest of the test tube contents, and because of this the necessary
reaction could not occur in substantial amounts for a precipitate of dimethyl fumarate to form. The
amount of bromine that was in contact with the dichloromethane and dimethyl maleate was simply
too small for a significant reaction to occur. The data discussed below is sourced from Alexander
Boley. Alex reported the melting point range to be 94–97°C, with an accepted range of 102–105°C.
The lower boiling point is most likely due to the compound not being dried sufficiently before the
melting point was tested. Alex also reported isolating 0.348 grams of dimethyl fumarate. Since he
utilized 0.5 g of dimethyl maleate solution, and the accepted density of dimethyl maleate is 1.153
g/ml, the theoretical maximum amount of dimethyl fumarate that could have been obtained is
0.5765 g; dimethyl fumarate would be present in the same amounts as it's steroisomer because of
their identical constitution, so dimethyl maleate's density is a valid input for calculating the final
amount of product. The result indicates that his percent yield was 60.36%. The percent loss
indicated could be attributed to

Reflection Of Chemistry
"Dr. Adriana, we need 70 mL of ethanol," I said confidently after computing the dilution factor
needed for an immunohistochemistry experiment. This was my first time using the molarity formula
in real life. When I first learned this formula, it had little significance because I never had to use it.
That was the way most things were to me regarding science; I was bombarded with formulas and
equations to memorize with no intention of actually using them. While I was told that I was "good"
at chemistry and was able to work hard and do well in the class, it was not until I sat in a real
medical research laboratory that my passion for chemistry began. It was quite the adjustment for me;
the answers to my questions could not be found in a book. I soon realized that memorizing formulas
would not suffice; I needed a way to visualize intricate ideas on the subatomic level. But this is what
made me love the experience – the challenge. Everything we did used chemistry concepts but took it
a step further. The goal was not to get the "right" answer; with each step we were closer to a solution
for patients struggling with cancer. This topic hit home to me because it felt as though I was
personally leave a touch on lives of each person I knew who the disease had affected. Through
working for a purpose greater than just myself, I found a new love for chemistry.
Chemistry is a very challenging field of study and would provide the obstacles needed for me to
grow as a student and young adult.

Effect of caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, epinephrine on Daphnia
03 – 31 – 2006
RESULTS:
In this experiment the effect of different hormones on heart rate of _Daphnia_ was examined. It was
investigated which substances act as stimulants and which substances act as depressant. Initially,
_Daphnia_ was placed on depression slide under the microscope and the average heart rate was
determined. Subsequently, _Daphnia_ was treated with different type of hormone and the effect on
Daphnia heart rate was observed. It was investigated which substances act as stimulants and which
substances act as depressant. Daphnia was treated with aged water, caffeine, ethyl alcohol, nicotine,
and epinephrine, and their effect on heart rate of Daphnia was observed. The results are posted on
table 1:
Table 1: Average heart ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Heart rate of daphnia fell from an average of 274.455+/–26 beats per minutes to an average
246.868+/–71 heart beats per minute. After performing Mann–Whitney U statistical test, this
difference in heart rate was found to be statistically not significant.
In last procedure, the effect of epinephrine on Daphnia heart rate was observed. The result is posted
on figure 5:
Figure 5: Effect of Epinephrine on average heart rate of Daphnia
From figure 5 it can be seen that before the addition of epinephrine, Daphnia had an average heart
rate of 277.663+/–18 heart beats per minutes. However, when epinephrine was added, the average
heart rate was decreased to 291.467+/–57 heart beats per minute. However, after performing Mann–
Whitney U test, it was found that after the addition of epinephrine, no significant difference was
observed in Daphnia's heart beats.
Mann–Whitney U statistical testing was performed to see if the result obtained for the difference in
heart rate of Daphnia before and after the addition of stimulant was significant. The statistical test
for the difference in heart rate of daphnia observed after the addition of aged water is shown on table
2:
Table 2: Mann–Whitney U statistical testing for the difference in average heart rate of Daphnia

before and after the addition of aged water:
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
B
B
A
194
200.67
204
204.68
259
260

264
264.67
273.3
277.2
278
283.4
285

The Role Of Endothelin Receptor Populations On Ventricular...
Use of Competitive Radioligand Binding to examine Endothelin Receptor Populations on
Ventricular Cardiomyocyte Membranes of Spontaneous Hypertensive Rats. Abstract
This investigation concerned the relationship between endothelin receptor populations on the
ventricular cardiomyocyte membrane of spontaneous hypertensive rats at 16 weeks old. The use of
radioligand competitive binding assay method, involving the displacement of [125I]ET–1 by 3
competitive, cold ligands, ET–1, ET–3 and BQ123, allowed for the generation of competition
binding curves, that adopted either a one–site or two–site model and allowed the determination of
relative IC50s and identification of receptor proportions. ET–3 produced a two site model
suggesting the existence of ET–A and ET–B receptors on cardiomyocyte membranes in SHRs and
calculated that around 29% of receptors were ET–B, whereas ET–1 and BQ123 both produced one–
site models.
Introduction
Endothelin peptide family is a group of 3 isoforms of a peptide, comprising of 21 amino acids, all of
which are formed from the same larger precursor, pro endothelin–1 by endothelin converting
enzyme. (Inoue A et al,1989) Each isoform is distinguished from the others by a differing gene, with
endothelin 2 and 3 differing from endothelin 1 by 2 and 6 amino acids, respectively. (Inoue A et
al,1989) Endothelin is known mostly as a potent vasopressor, but is also known to have a positive
inotropic effect on the heart, act as a proliferator of vascular smooth

Gasba Essay
Introduction:
GABAA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid) receptors are the main inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors
in the mammalian brain. Although these receptors have been found in other parts of the body like
liver9, smooth airway muscles of the lungs10, and several type of immune cells11,12, their main
function comes in the nervous system, specifically neurons. The GABAA receptors located in the
postsynaptic membrane are stimulated by GABA neurotransmitter released from the pre–synaptic
neurons and functions to inhibit neuronal stimulation in the short–term (millisecond time range),
while the extrasynaptic GABAA receptors are stimulated by ambient GABA in the extracellular
space and confers long term inhibition.2 However, there are many types of GABAA receptors
depending on the subunits that they are made up of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cys–loop receptors are characterized by pentameric ligand–gated ion channels. Some other
members of this superfamily are nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh), 5–hydroxytryptamine (type 3,
5HT3) and glycine receptors 1, 2 and 3. nACh receptors and 5HT3 receptors contain cation–
selective channels that depolarize or excite neurons, whereas GABAA/B receptors and glycine
receptors contain anion–selective channels that, in most cases, hyperpolarize or inhibit neurons.
Exception occurs during early postnatal development when these channels are excitatory.5, 3
Neuropathic pain can occur if these channels become excitatory in adults.16 The unique feature of
GABA receptors that distinguish it from other cys–loop receptors is its activating ligand GABA (or
accurately γ–aminobutyrate). There are two types of GABA receptors– A & B. GABAB receptor
was originally found due to their insensitivity to bicuculline which is GABAA antagonist1. They are
G–protein–coupled receptors and differ strongly in structure, function, and sequence from GABAA
receptors and will not be discussed further in this

Different Methods Of Communicating Between Cells And Humans
As multicellular organisms became more complex they required a method of communication
between cells. Over time several methods of cell–cell communication developed. There are two
main methods of communicating between cells in humans. One is a humoral method that usually
involves hormones or other ligands (molecules that bind to larger molecules) that are released into
the blood stream and then cause a response in the target cell. The other method is by using nerve
cells an electrical signal is transferred across a large distance and will then result in a response.
Hormones are proteins whose structure is shaped in order to interact with a cells surface membrane.
They are specific to cell surface receptors and will only trigger a change in cell that has a particular
receptor. Because of this the body can communicate with certain types of call selectively as it can
produce a hormone specific to the receptors on that cell group. This is an advantage to a human as it
is a complex organism and as a result many types of cell that require coordinating in different ways.
Therefore having different hormones for different signals helps to avoid disorientation of the cells
making the organism more efficient.
Hormones are usually produced in a specific type of cell or gland. For example the hormone insulin
is only produced in Beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, the hormone travels into
the blood stream through the capillary network where it's distributed across the

Marijuana and the Biological Bases of Behavior Essay
Marijuana and the Biological Bases of Behavior
Marijuana is the dried leaves and flowers of the hemp plant
Cannabis sativa. Like all plants, it's sensitive to the environment where it grows. Some of the names
for it are Mary Jane, pot, weed, grass, herb, ganja or skunk. The brain has many responses to
marijuana.
Marijuana can cause people to lose focus on events around them. For some it makes them more
aware of their physical sensations. For others, there are numerous other effects. All forms of
marijuana are mind– altering. All of the changes are caused by chemicals that affect the brain.
More than 400 chemicals are in the average marijuana plant. When smoked, heat produces even
more chemicals. Different weather ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When a receptor receives information, it causes changes in the nerve cell.
The chemical in marijuana that has a big impact on the brain is called THC (tetrahydrocannabinol).
It is the main active chemical in marijuana. Scientists recently discovered that some areas in the
brain have a lot of THC receptors, while other have very few or none. These clues are helping
researchers figure out exactly how THC works in the brain. One region of the brain that contains a
lot of THC receptors is the hippocampus, which processes memory. When THC attaches to receptors
in the hippocampus, it weakens short–term memory.
The hippocampus also communicates with other brain regions that process new information into
long–term memory. In the brain, under the influence of marijuana, new information may never
register, and may be lost from memory.
In some people, marijuana can cause uncontrollable laughter one minute and paranoia the next.
That's because THC also influences emotions, probably by acting on a region of the brain called the
limbic system. THC can make something as simple as driving a car really dangerous. Some of
THC's effects are useful in the world of medicine, like preventing nausea and blocking pain. The
trick is for scientists to get these results without the harmful effects.
Researchers recently found out the brain makes a chemical,
anandamide,

Ketamine Essay
Introduction
Chronic intake, the delayed onset of action, drug resistance and numerous side effects force the
researchers to look for the new, safe antidepressant strategies (1, 2) with rapid onset and longer time
of action.
Results obtained in the recent years give some hope that ketamine which is a global NMDAR
antagonist could be the fast and long– acting novel antidepressant. Antidepressant–like activity of
ketamine was shown in many preclinical studies (1–7). The single non–anesthetic dose of ketamine
reversed symptoms of major depression (MDD) in clinical conditions (8). These antidepressant
effects of ketamine also occurred in patients who suffered from resistant depression or suicidal
ideations (9–12). Despite a successful ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At the molecular level of explanation these processes are dependent on the interplay between
glutamate receptors, Ca2+ channels, the increase of intracellular Ca2+ levels, Ca2+–dependent
proteins like Akt, ERK, mTOR and neurotrophins such as brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
(24, 25).
Because Ca2+ is the central point for all mentioned processes, we focused our interests on
hyperforin which is Ca2+–modulator. Hyperforin is the natural and biologically active compound
extracted from Hypericum Perforatum (St John Wort) (26). The St John Wort extract and hyperforin
attenuated symptoms of mild to moderate depression in a few clinical trials. Both extract and
hyperforin displayed antidepressant–like activity in preclinical studies (27, 28).
From molecular perspective, hyperforin has multidirectional mechanisms of action. It acts on
ligand–gated (GABA, NMDA and AMPA receptors) (29, 30) and voltage–gated channels (Ca2+,
K+, and Na+) (29, 31). In contrast to blockade of ion transport through the plasma membrane,
hyperforin can increased an inward Ca2+ current. These processes are dose dependent and probably
involved a few different cellular events. In the details, hyperforin in in vitro studies increased the
Ca2+ intracellular level by activation of the non–selective canonical transient receptor potential 6
channels (TRPC6) or by the releasing Ca2+ from mitochondria (32–34). As has been previously
shown hyperforin activates intracellular

Remifentanil: A Synthetic Opioid Analysis
Remifentanil (marketed as Ultiva) is a synthetic opioid analgesic that selectively binds μ receptors.
Unlike other opioid compounds, remifentanil is not metabolised by the liver but is subjected to
widespread chemical hydrolysis catalysed by non–specific esterases circulating in blood and found
in tissue (Navapurkar et al. 1998) (Said et al. 2011) (Haider et al. 1996). This makes it suitable to
administer to patients who have some degree of organ dysfunction (such as liver disease or renal
impairment) that are commonly found in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) setting (Pitsiu et al. 2004)
(Dershwitz et al. 1996). Hydrolysis at the methyl ester located on the N–acyl moiety (Figure 1)
occurs within minutes, making remifentanil an ultra–short acting opioid (onset of action occurring
around one ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(2000), where high (50 μg/mL) and low (5 μg/mL) concentrations of remifentanil were added to 10
mg/mL propofol. The point at which remifentanil or propofol stability was deemed unsuitable was
when 90% of its original concentration remained (Stewart et al. 2000). It was found that the high
remifentanil concentration remained stable for longer, and that the mixture had greater stability
when stored in the syringes. A recent study conducted by the authors observed the effect of mixing a
range of remifentanil concentrations (10 – 50 μg/mL) in a stable 10 mg/mL of propofol in glass over
24 hours, as well as the effect of reconstituting remifentanil in a 0.9% saline solution in order to
decrease pH. The results of this investigation found that a remifentanil concentration of 2 μg/mL in
10 mg/mL of propofol was the most stable, and that reconstituting remifentanil with 0.9% saline
solution did have a significant positive effect on the degradation of

Opioid Drugs And Their Receptor
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. History of opioid research
Opioid drugs and their receptor is one of the most extensively studying areas in pharmacology. This
field of research really began from isolation of morphine, an active ingredient of opium, by German
pharmacist Friedrich Sertürner in 1989. The compound he managed to isolate was called morphine
after Morpheus, the Greek god of dream. Later Pierre Robiquet in France isolated the second
predominant alcholoid of opium, codeine. After the discovery that morphine can be used as
anesthetic in some medical procedures, it became widely used during surgeries (Brownstein, 1993).
In 1898, the Bayer Company in Germany synthesized another opioid compound, heroin. Heroin was
a non–prescription drug, which was thought to be more potent than morphine in producing
analgesia, and more powerful than codeine in cough suppression. The legal production of heroin
was suspended in 1925 when high levels of heroin addiction were noticed (Hosztafi, 2001,
Tsisanova, 2012). In 1939, Otto Eisleb synthesized meperidine, first opioid ligand structurally not
related to morphine. This was followed by the discovery of methadone by Max Bochmühl and
Gustav Ehrhart just before the Second World War in unfortunate attempt to synthesize addiction–
free opioid (Sneader, 2005, Tsisanova, 2012). 1940s were marked with the discovery of opioid
antagonists, nalorphine and naloxone. The later compound is still widely used in research as well as
clinically

Chapter 1. Overview Of Opioid Use Disorders . 1.1. Diagnosis
Chapter 1. Overview of Opioid Use Disorders
1.1. Diagnosis and Classification of Substance Use Disorders There has been recent change in the
diagnosis of psychoactive substance–related disorders. In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic
Statistical Manual Version [APA DSM–5, 2013], both classification and diagnosis requirements
have changed moving from the DSM IV–TR to the DSM V. Under DSM IV, diagnosing a substance
use disorder (SUD) is performed according to two levels of severity: 1. Substance dependence
(reflecting higher severity) and
2. Substance abuse (reflecting a lower severity) [Hasin et al, 2013]. In contrast under DSM–5,
"Substance Dependence" is combined into one construct and named "Substance Use Disorders"
(SUD) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is important to note that maintaining and sustaining recovery outcomes is the most challenging.
Patients who do not meet any of the diagnostic criteria, with the exception of "strong urge to use or
craving" for at–least 3 months, are considered to be in early remission. If this period extends to 12
months, patients are considered in sustained remission. In this connection, it is important to identify
the type and level of care the patient is receiving, i.e. whether the patient is enrolled in maintenance
pharmacotherapy treatment or is living in controlled medical welfare or custodial environment. 1.2.
Classification of Opioids
Opioids are chemical compounds that exert their pharmacological effect on endogenous opioid
receptors in the brain. Endogenously circulating opioids are called endorphins, and those extracted
from natural resources like opium are called ca opiates such as morphine. The chemically
synthesised opiate analogues are called opioids (the generic term 'opioids' is used in this thesis,
herein) [UNODC 1961; UNODC 1971]. 1.3. Epidemiology
Globally, substance use is estimated as '1 in 20' in the general population (5% among those aged 15–
64 years; UNODC, 2015). While '1 in 10' of the users develop SUD (0.59– 0.6% of the population),
only 1 in 6 are able to access treatment globally. These prevalence rates remain stable, but the
landscape of substance use has changed in period between 2009 and 2013. During this period, there

The Function Of A Memory
The capacity to form memory in face of stressful stimuli is an essential adaptive behaviour that
enables organisms to respond rapidly and effectively to similar demands1. The stress response is
largely mediated by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis (HPA) coupled with the release
of catecholamines through adrenergic neural discharges1. These physiological mechanisms activate
downstream pathways that stimulate metabotropic alterations in neural networks, resulting in long–
term memory formation1. In animals and humans, stress mediated neuroendocrine responses
enhance the consolidation of emotional memories2. However, exposure to traumatic or chronic
stress can result in memory impairments as well as memory related psychopathologies such as
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 1. Noradrenergic mechanisms are largely implicated in the
mediation of emotional memory consolidation1. Therefore, the disruption of this mechanism during
periods when memories are in a molecularly labile state has been proposed as a clinical method of
pharmacologic modification of intolerable memories in psychiatric patients3. The application of β–
adrenergic receptor antagonists during periods of memory reconsolidation is a possible novel
mechanism of emotional memory modification in patients with memory related psychopathologies4.
In this paper, the influence of the noradrenergic receptor antagonists, propranolol, on stress mediated
memory reconsolidation will be characterized. Similarly,

What is Autism?
Autism is a varied family of disorders, and its prevalence is on the rise. Today, one in 110 children
are diagnosed with Autism. Although there are a few drugs available to treat repetitive behaviors and
irritability, associated side effects can limit their use. Currently there are no effective treatments for
the core symptoms of Autism which often include language and communication shortfalls,
intellectual disability, epilepsy, attention deficits, and hyperactivity (Dolan et al. 5671). Fragile X
syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited form of intellectual disability and is universally
recognized as the monogenic cause of Autism. The gene responsible for Fragile X Syndrome,
FMR1, is located on the long arm of the X chromosome. It contains a CGG repeat sequence in the
5'–untranslated region that, on expansion to greater than 200 repeats, results in gene methylation and
transcriptional silencing of the FMR1 gene. The absence of its protein product, fragile X mental
retardation protein (FMRP), is responsible for the clinical symptoms and pathologic findings of
FXS. In the past few years, a plethora of research has been conducted in regards to Fragile X
syndrome. Many scientists are hoping to uncover therapeutic agents that not only address the
secondary symptoms, but the root cause of the disease as well. Absence of FMRP had been shown in
a recent study to affect rates of brain protein synthesis in awake and functioning animals. In adult
FMR1 knockout mice, regional

Factors That Affect The Rate Of The Pregnancy
OT plays a major role in the initiation of labor particularly during the expulsive phase by stimulating
prostaglandin release in species, specifically in the uterine epithelium. Blanks and Thornton (2003)
study revealed that secretion of oxytocin is at its maximum level during fetal delivery of pups but
the amount of OT released during expulsion of the pups varies among species. According to them,
oxytocin is at its peak at the time of delivery of the first fetus in rabbit, and throughout labor with
greater pulses overlapping with pup's expulsion in rats. Variations in oxytocin level are also seen
during the pregnancy and labor in humans. According to Blanks and Thornton (2003) several
discrepancies are present when in OT is measured in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This suggests that OT is critical for the ejection of milk but not parturition. Additionally, after
injecting OT on OT null mice and wild type mice, the start of premature labor within 24hrs was
observed at high concentrations of OT in both wild and null mice (Blanks & Thornton, 2003). With
that in mind, abnormal modification of OT action does influence the start of labor. In conclusion,
they put forward the idea that OT receptor in mice is mostly invested in the timing for the initiation
of labor. Most importantly, the OT receptor is essential for normal labor because those receptors are
found in abundance in uterine epithelium during late pregnancy promoting contractile effects. Along
with those findings, female rats that are undergone a knockout of OT, showed a decreased in
maternal care of their pups but displayed a higher level of aggression (Bales & Perkeybile, 2012).
Social rearing conditions plays a role in the binding of OT. Prairie voles, when differently handled
by experimenters a week after being born resulted in more OTR binding (Bales et al 2011). When
changing the animal's cages, experimenters carried the parent prairies vole by the scruff of the neck
and others were not touched. Those females that had careful attention and handling by the
experimenters displayed an increase in OTR binding. The same results were reported in males. They
concluded that the type of maintenance that pups received in early days after being born does affect

The Role of P2X Receptors in Nociception
Introduction
Nociception is the sensation of pain which is normally a warning signal to brain in respond to a
potential hazard. Generally noxious stimulations are detected by specialised high–threshold sensory
neurons, which are refer to nociceptors. The signals are then transferred to an electrical potential and
conducted to the brain via spinal cord. However sometimes abnormal nociception can lead to a
moderate to severe pain although a noxious stimulus is missing. This kind of pain are usually trigger
by nerve injury, while the pain sensation remains after the tissue had been healed. Although the
prevalence of neuropathic pain is not significant, about 7% to 8% of the European population is
affected, and about 5% are suffering severe pain (Torrance et al., 2006; Bouhassira et al., 2008).
Normally the neuropathic pain is induced by injury of somatosensory nerves, and the pain remains
after the tissue being healed. It can bring abnormal nociception while noxious stimuli are missing,
which called dysesthesia. Beside, pain can be triggered by non–painful stimuli, which is called
allodynia). Many research has linked the neuropathic pain to neuronal damages where endogenous
ATP being released. Therefore purinergic receptors that can respond to ATP are involved. In this
essay, after a brief introduction of P2X receptors, the role of microglial P2X4 and P2X7 in
neuropathic pain will be discussed.
Purinergic receptor can be divided into two families based on their different

Symptoms And Diagnosis Of Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is one of the most severe psychiatric disorders that affects both male and females,
respectively. This illness is characterized by gradual increase in changes of perception, thinking,
social activities, speech, feelings, and motivations. Many studies have shown that there is a clear
difference in outcome between genders including symptom severity, age–at–onset and functional
outcome (as cited in Gogos, Kwek and van den Buuse, 2011, p. 213). For example, schizophrenia
occurs on average 1.5–4.5 earlier in men compared to women. Further evidence suggests that
women who have a psychiatric disorder such as schizophrenia may have various levels of estrogen;
the most severe phase of the disorder will be when there is low level of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
PPI is an indicator sensomotoric reflecting the ability of the central nervous system to filter sensory
information and is one of the best established translational paradigms that allows measuring
sensorimotor gating in both humans and rodents (Labouesse, Langhans and Meyer, 2015).
There have been many studies conducted on learning the causes of schizophrenia and its treatments.
Unfortunately, the treatments for complete recovery from this disorder still remain unsolved. Some
studies focused on a general context in terms of a role of sex hormones in schizophrenia, other
studies focused on a specific state such as cognition and role of hormones in schizophrenia. The aim
of this paper is to further analyze of the role of sex steroid hormones in schizophrenia in animal
models and human studies, compare different methodologies and possible treatments. Dopamine,
which plays a significant role in schizophrenia, regulates sensorimotor filtration information in
rodents and in humans as well. These findings fit the description of dopamine hypothetical
mechanisms of disease, possibly being associated with the processes of fragmentation and sensory
cognitive overload that may be involved in the pathology of schizophrenia (Gogos, Kwek and van
den Buuse, 2011). There are many research studies that focus on the effects of estrogen and
testosterone administration in schizophrenia. For

Effects Of Steroid Hormones And Neuropeptides On Social...
Acephalia
A Review of the Effects of Steroid Hormones and Neuropeptides on Social–Emotional Behavior
Bos, Peter A., Panksepp, Jaak, Bluthé, Rose–Marie, & van Honk, Jack (2011). Acute effects of
steroid hormones and neuropeptides on human social–emotional behavior: A review of single
administration studies. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 33 (2012) 17–35.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The neuro–developmental effects of these chemicals are comparatively well–known, while their
impact on human conduct has yet to be fully comprehended.
2. Goals of the study The main goal of this study was to review all of the placebo–controlled single
hormone administration studies addressing human social–emotional behavior, involving the peptides
oxytocin and vasopressin, and the steroids testosterone and estradiol. This research gives insight into
the underlying neural mechanisms and also demonstrates substantial hormonal control over human
behavior. After reviewing and discussing the placebo–controlled studies, they proposed a theoretical
model that synthesized detailed knowledge of neuroendocrinology of social–emotional behavior in
animals, as–well–as the recently gained data on humans. The study of emotional and behavioral
disorders have become more popular in the last twenty years. Characteristics of these irregularities
include: learning disabilities that are not explainable by either sensory, health, or intellectual factors;
persistently inappropriate feelings and conduct; and/or chronic unhappiness or depression
(gadoe.org). The authors of this study thoroughly analyzed the underlying neural mechanisms of
supplemental hormones and how they affect participants as opposed to using a placebo. Research
into human behavior as it relates to neuroendocrinology will be crucial to future generations and
their interrelations.
3. Methods and

Alcohol And The Central Nervous System
Alcohol, like many other drugs, is dose dependent, readily absorbed, and widely distributed. As a
result, alcohol affects many organ systems of the body, including the central nervous system (CNS).
Alcohol is easily absorbed, is soluble across all biological membranes, and does not bind to any
plasma proteins. There is no place in our bodies where alcohol cannot reach. Alcohol absorption
occurs between 80–90 minutes, and is affected by whether or not someone has eaten, as this will
affect the speed at which the alcohol enters the blood stream. Alcohol is metabolized similarly to
food. Approximately 85% of ingested alcohol is metabolized by the liver, 5–10% is metabolized in
the stomach, and approximately 5% is excreted, unchanged, through sweat and the lungs. Men
metabolize alcohol faster than women. This is due to the fact that women have 50% less enzymes in
the stomach that metabolize alcohol than men, and the fact that women have more body fat than
men. The blood supply to fat is much less than that found in muscles. Therefore, alcohol does not
get metabolized as quickly in individuals with a higher fat content. When alcohol is metabolized,
acetaldehyde, a poisonous byproduct, is formed. Alcohol dehydrogenase breaks down alcohol into
acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase further breaks down the poisonous acetaldehyde into
acetic acid. Some ethnicities, such as some Asian groups, have less active acetaldehyde
dehydrogenase leading to a buildup of

Comparing The Different Classes Of Glutamate Receptors Essay
Compare and contrast the different classes of glutamate receptors.
Glutamate as a neurotransmitter
In the brain, neurons communicate between each other and with target cells via a great numbers of
chemicals they release, so called neurotransmitters. A signal in the brain is sent from a presynaptic
neuron to a postsynaptic cell through synaptic transmission, allowing the brain to process
information in a rapid way. (Südhof, Starke and Boehm, 2008)
One of the most important transmitters within the vertebrate nervous system for normal brain
function is known to be glutamic acid also known as glutamate. In the mammalian central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord) is acknowledged that almost all excitatory neurons are glutamatergic
and approximately more than 40% of the synapses in the brain release the amino acid glutamate.
(Purves et al., 2001)
The interaction of this major neurotransmitter with different cells in the brain is dependent on
whether the cells express receptors for glutamate on their surfaces, to which they can bind and
activate. (Hu, Ondrejcak and Rowan, 2012)
Glutamate interaction with glutamate receptors plays a role in the efficacy of synaptic plasticity,
which is fundamental for many neurological functions such as memory, learning, behaviour and in
addition during development in the formation of neural connections within the central nervous
system (CNS), thus allowing neurons to communicate with each other (Sundaram, Gowtham and
Nayak, 2012)

Substance Abuse Within Correctional Setting
Substance Abuse in Correctional Setting Assessment psychology has examined individuals who are
criminal offenders who were evaluated to determine their personalities to which they have a long
history with. Approximately well over a century ago, Münsterberg, 1908, Vaccaro & Hogan, 2004
who are all psychologists has managed a improved study on criminal offenders that will allow us all
to have an ambiguous understanding of how the process of his research in reference to the criminal
offenders testimony in court cases. In the 20th century the personality assessment was established,
which was generally exercised to govern a component for personality in criminals (Symonds, 1934).
During court cases in 1942 adults and juveniles were introduced to the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) which was disclosed that same year. Psychologists Archer, Stredny,
& Zoby, (2006); Archer, Buffington–Vollum, Stredny, and Handel (2006); Borum and Grisso
(1995); and Lally (2003) was flabbergasted to find how accurate the MMPI–2 presented itself,
which was ultimately the most universally piece of equipment acknowledged and used as evidence
for criminals, that calculated their personalities in forensic assessments. The MMPI was
authenticated well in the 70's which everyone employed extensively as solid foundation in
correctional settings as well as the use in forensic psychologists. Currently the use of assessments
were for people who were under

Disadvantages Of Bclofen
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to apply and evaluate usefulness Central Composite design for the
optimization of polymer concentration in sustained release tablets of muscle relaxant Baclofen.
Drug release at 4 hrs (R4hrs) and 12 hrs (R12hrs) were taken as target responses, whereas the
concentration of different polymers such as Polyox WSR 303 (hydrogel) and HPMC K4M
(hydrophilic matrix system) were considered as impacting factors. A second–order polynomial
equation was concluded using the multiple regression analysis for the experimental data. The design
space was established targeting the successful operating ranges for drug release at 4 hrs (R4hrs) and
12 hrs (R12hrs) as 30.0–40.0 % and 90.0–100.0 % respectively. The design space illustrated ...
Baclofen activates the GABAB receptor and give its effects. This similarirty is also observed in the
drug phenibut, which activates the GABAB receptor and gives the some of its effects. Baclofen acts
as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, postulated to block mono–and–polysynaptic reflexes and to block
the release of excitatory transmitters. Nevertheless, baclofen is known to 'no absue' potenstial and do
not have any substantial connection for the GHB receptor

Phencyclidine: The Dawn Of A New Age Essay
Phencyclidine: The Dawn of a New Age
April, 1956 : The pharmaceutical company Parke & Davis first synthesize what they believe to
be the perfect anesthetic (Souza, 1995). When administered to patients, it causes a completely
dissociative state, with no significant respiratory or cardiovascular depression. Patients appear to be
awake, eyes open, breathing normally.but are unaware of their surroundings or the procedures being
performed upon them (Souza, 1995). Indeed, this is the perfect drug.
Unfortunately, like all good things, this one has a darker side. 15% of patients awake from their
slumber with what appeared to be an acute case of paranoid schizophrenia (Peterson; Stillman,
1978). The drug is PCP, and to this day it is the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In special cases, ketamine is still used as an anesthetic. (C.H. Badenhorst M.D, personal
communication). Ten years after its initial discovery, phencyclidine found a new audience in the
scientific and underground drug culture communities (Nintey
Fifth Congress, 1978). At this time, a few Freudian psychologists carried out unauthorized
experiments in which perfectly healthy patients were given PCP and observed (Nintey Fifth
Congress, 1978). Although their research did not provide much useful data, it did begin a revolution
in our knowledge of the chemical basis for schizophrenia (Nintey Fifth Congress, 1978). In 1987,
the FDA removed
Sernyl (phencyclidine's market name) from the human market and reserved it for use only as an
animal tranquilizer, for which it is still used today (Peterson,
1978). Unfortunately, some individuals were still able to obtain the drug, either through theft or
home synthesis in a garage laboratory (Nintey Fifth
Congress, 1978). It was distributed under a number of slang terms, including
PeaCe Pill, THC, and Love Boat; and rapidly spread throughout the country as a result of its low
price and availability (Peterson, 1978). There were many casualties.not because of the drug, but
because of

Effects Of Thymosin On The Human Body
What are the effects of Thymosin ß–4 on the Human Body?
Nolan P. Stringfellow
Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
Jefferson Davis Campus
Abstract
Introduction
Thymosin ß–4 is a naturally occurring immunological hormone that is secreted by the thymus gland.
According to Thymosin beta 4 | ProSpec. (2011, March 01). Retrieved March 27, 2017, from
http://www.prospecbio.com/Thymosin_beta–4_7_171/ thymosin also assists in the development of
B cells to plasma cells to produce antibodies. The dominant form of thymosin, thymosin b4, is a
member of a highly conservative family of actin monomer–sequestering proteins. Thyomosin in the
body is composed of 43 different amino acids ( Ac–Ser–Asp–Lys–Pro–Asp–Met–Ala–Glu–Ile–Glu–
Lys–Phe–Asp–Lys–Ser–Lys–Leu–Lys–Lys–Thr–Glu–Thr–Gln–Glu–Lys–Asn–Pro–Leu–Pro–Ser–
Lys–Glu–Thr–Ile–Glu–Gln–Glu–Lys–Gln–Ala–Gly–Glu–Ser–OH.) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Most of the hormones present in the human body are transported through the blood. Hormones
according to www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/nature/etc/hormones can influence the
function of the immune system and alter one's behavior. These chemical signals are the reason for
many factor including why one's arms are the same length, why one can turn food into a viable fuel,
and why one grows through puberty. Hormones are indicative of changes in target cells by binding
to hormone receptors. In this way, even though hormones circulate throughout the body and meet
different cell types, they only affect cells that possess the necessary receptors. Receptors of a
specific hormone can be found on different cells or a small number of specialized cells. Per
www.pbs.com/ the thyroid hormones act on different tissue types, stimulating metabolic activity
throughout the body. Cells can have receptors for the identical hormone, but often also possess
receptors for different types of hormones. The number of receptors that respond to a hormone
determines the cell's sensitivity to a specific hormone. The number of receptors that respond to a
hormone can change over time, resulting in increasing or decreasing the cell's sensitivity. Often in
up–regulation, the number of receptors increases to rising hormone levels, making the cell more
sensitive to the hormone. Down regulation describes when a cell is decreasing the quantity of a
cellular component. When the cells respond to a hormone, they express a specific receptor for that
specific hormone. The hormone binds to the receptor protein, resulting in the activation of a
mechanism that ultimately leads to cell type–specific responses. Receptor binding alters cellular

activity, resulting in an increase or decrease in normal body processes. According to
www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline depending on the location of the protein receptor on the

Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes

Similar to Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes (14)

More from Karen Gilchrist

More from Karen Gilchrist (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Brain Injury Enhances Fear Learning And Excitatory Processes