Provide a 1-page description of a stressful event currently occurr.docx

Provide a 1-page description of a stressful event currently
occurring in your life. Then, referring to information you
learned throughout this course, address the following:
· What physiological changes occur in the brain due to the
stress response?
· What emotional and cognitive effects might occur due to this
stressful situation?
· Would the above changes (physiological, cognitive, or
emotional) be any different if the same stress were being
experienced by a person of the opposite sex or someone much
older or younger than you?
· If the situation continues, how might your physical health be
affected?
· What three behavioral strategies would you implement to
reduce the effects of this stressor? Describe each strategy.
Explain how each behavior could cause changes in brain
physiology (e.g., exercise can raise serotonin levels).
· If you were encouraging an adult client to make the above
changes, what ethical considerations would you have to keep in
mind? How would you address those ethical considerations?
In addition to citing the online course and the text, you are also
required to cite a minimum of two scholarly sources. Please see
the Academic Resources section under Course Home to use the
Argosy University online library to find appropriate scholarly
sources. For reputable web sources, look for .gov or .edu sites
as opposed to .com sites. Please do not use Wikipedia.
Your paper should be double-spaced, in 12-point Times New
Roman font, and with normal 1-inch margins; written in APA
style; and free of typographical and grammatical errors. It
should include a title page with a running head, an abstract, and
a reference page. The body of the paper should be at least 6
pages in length

Stress hormones increase blood pressure and have various other
effects on the body that might not be adaptive over long
periods.
Selye proposed the concept of the general adaptation syndrome
to account for the effect of stress on the body
Currently, there are two primary systems for the classification
of psychological disorders—The Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013), and The International Statistical
Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)
(World Health Organization, 1992).
Major depressive disorder is characterized by a lowering of
mood, energy, and activity that results in significant distress or
impairment in life. There is much research focusing on
imbalances in the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine,
norepinephrine, and serotonin) in people suffering from
depressive disorders
In the brain, the amygdala and the anterior cingulate cortex
show structural and functional abnormalities in people with
depression.
Bipolar disorder is characterized by an extremely elevated mood
with increases in activity and energy (manic phase) followed by
an equally low mood with decreases in activity and energy
(depressive phase), resulting in significant distress or
impairment. Typically, in people with bipolar disorder, the
higher their manic phase, the lower the successive depressive
phase will be
Anxiety disorders such as panic disorder, specific phobias, and
social anxiety disorder feature a heightened autonomic nervous
system response that is above and beyond what would be
considered normal when faced with the object or situation that
the person reacts to.
In general, anxiety disorders have been linked to underactive

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, resulting in
overexcitability of the amygdala and the anterior cingulate
cortex. Additionally, genetic research shows that anxiety
disorders demonstrate a clear pattern of genetic predisposition
Obsessive compulsive disorder is characterized by repetitive
thoughts and behaviors that result in significant distress or
impairment in life. Common obsession and compulsion pairings
include contamination/washing, harm/checking, and
perfectionism/ordering and hoarding. There is much research
demonstrating the genetic inheritance of obsessive–compulsive
disorder. While early research showed that dopamine and
serotonin are involved in obsessive–compulsive disorder, recent
research suggests that glutamate may also play an important
role in the disorder. Obsessive–compulsive disorder seems to be
mediated by overactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex
Medications for psychological disorders are often categorized
by function:
· Some medications tend to decrease psychotic experiences,
such as hearing voices and delusional thinking. These
medications are called antipsychotics, and we discussed them in
the earlier modules' lectures.
· Antidepressants are medications that reduce depression.
· Mood stabilizers are also frequently used for patients who
experience depression and periodic emotional highs.
Antianxiety drugs reduce panic and anxiety. These medications
are used together with psychotherapy or counseling. But,
sometimes, these drugs are used by themselves.
Counseling is also recommended as a treatment for most
psychological disorders, either alone or in conjunction with
pharmacotherapy. While access to mental health care has been
limited in the past, the Mental Health Parity and Addiction
Equity Act, which went into effect in January 2010, has reduced
barriers for those covered by group health insurance plans (US
Department of Health and Human Services, 2010
fear has three important qualities: It is the easiest emotion to
infer from behavior in various species; it plays an important

adaptive function in motivating the avoidance of threatening
situations; and chronic fear induces stress.
(Pinel 443)
Pinel, John P. Biopsychology, 8th Edition. Pearson Learning
Solution
s, 10/2010. VitalBook file.
It was apparent that the damage to Gage’s brain affected both
medial prefrontal lobes, which we now know are involved in
planning and emotion (see Machado & Bachevalier, 2006; Vogt,
2005).
(Pinel 443-444)
Darwin developed a theory of the evolution of emotional
expression that was composed of three main ideas:
•Expressions of emotion evolve from behaviors that indicate
what an animal is likely to do next.
•If the signals provided by such behaviors benefit the animal
that displays them, they will evolve in ways that enhance their
communicative function, and their original function may be
lost.
•Opposite messages are often signaled by opposite movements
and postures, an idea called the principle of antithesis.
(Pinel 444)
The first physiological theory of emotion was proposed
independently by James and Lange in 1884. According to the

James-Lange theory, emotion-inducing sensory stimuli are
received and interpreted by the cortex, which triggers changes
in the visceral organs via the autonomic nervous system and in
the skeletal muscles via the somatic nervous system. Then, the
autonomic and somatic responses trigger the experience of
emotion in the brain.
(Pinel 444)
James and Lange argued that the autonomic activity and
behavior that are triggered by the emotional event (e.g., rapid
heartbeat and running away) produce the feeling of emotion, not
vice versa.
(Pinel 444)
1915, Cannon proposed an alternative to the James-Lange
theory of emotion, and it was subsequently extended and
promoted by Bard. According to the Cannon-Bard theory,
emotional stimuli have two independent excitatory effects: They
excite both the feeling of emotion in the brain and the
expression of emotion in the autonomic and somatic nervous
systems. That is, the Cannon-Bard theory, in contrast to the
James-Lange theory, views emotional experience and emotional
expression as parallel processes that have no direct causal
relation.
(Pinel 444-445)
biopsychological view. According to this view, each of the three
principal factors in an emotional response—the perception of

the emotion-inducing stimulus, the autonomic and somatic
responses to the stimulus, and the experience of the emotion—
can influence the other two
(Pinel 445)
In 1937, Papez (pronounced “Payps”) proposed that emotional
expression is controlled by several interconnected nuclei and
tracts that ring the thalamus
(Pinel 446)
key structures in this circuit, now known as the limbic system
(limbic means “border”): the amygdala, mammillary body,
hippocampus, fornix, cortex of the cingulate gyrus, septum,
olfactory bulb, and hypothalamus. Papez proposed that
emotional states are expressed through the action of the other
structures of the circuit on the hypothalamus and that they are
experienced through their action on the cortex. Papez’s theory
of emotion was revised and expanded by Paul MacLean in 1952
and became the influential limbic system theory of emotion.
(Pinel 446)
autonomic nervous system (ANS) in emotion has focused on two
issues: the degree to which specific patterns of ANS activity are
associated with specific emotions and the effectiveness of ANS
measures in polygraphy (lie detection)
(Pinel 446)
The hypothesis that our facial expressions influence our
emotional experience is called the facial feedback hypothesis.

(Pinel 448)
The subjects reported that the slides made them feel more happy
and less angry when they were making happy faces, and less
happy and more angry when they were making angry faces
(Pinel 448)
Most biopsychological research on emotion has focused on fear
and defensive behaviors. Fear is the emotional reaction to
threat; it is the motivating force for defensive behaviors.
Defensive behaviors are behaviors whose primary function is to
protect the organism from threat or harm. In contrast,
aggressive behaviors are behaviors whose primary function is to
threaten or harm.
(Pinel 450)
The fact that social aggression in many species occurs more
commonly among males than among females is usually
explained with reference to the organizational and activational
effects of testosterone. The brief period of testosterone release
that occurs around birth in genetic males is thought to organize
their nervous systems along masculine lines and hence to create
the potential for male patterns of social aggression to be
activated by the high testosterone levels that are present after
puberty.
(Pinel 452)
LeDoux and his colleagues began their search for the neural
mechanisms of auditory fear conditioning by making lesions in

the auditory pathways of rats. They found that bilateral lesions
to the medial geniculate nucleus (the auditory relay nucleus of
the thalamus) blocked fear conditioning to a tone, but bilateral
lesions to the auditory cortex did not. This indicated that for
auditory fear conditioning to occur, it is necessary for signals
elicited by the tone to reach the medial geniculate nucleus but
not the auditory cortex. It also indicated that a pathway from
the medial geniculate nucleus to a structure other than the
auditory cortex plays a key role in fear conditioning. This
pathway proved to be the pathway from the medial geniculate
nucleus to the amygdala. Lesions of the amygdala, like lesions
of the medial geniculate nucleus, blocked fear conditioning. The
amygdala receives input from all sensory systems, and it is
believed to be the structure in which the emotional significance
of sensory signals is learned and retained
(Pinel 453)
Several pathways (see Balleine & Killcross, 2006; LaBar, 2007)
carry signals from the amygdala to brain-stem structures that
control the various emotional responses. For example, a
pathway to the periaqueductal gray of the midbrain elicits
appropriate defensive responses (see Bandler & Shipley, 1994),
whereas another pathway to the lateral hypothalamus elicits
appropriate sympathetic responses.
(Pinel 453)
Environments, or contexts, in which fear-inducing stimuli are

encountered can themselves come to elicit fear. For example, if
you repeatedly encountered a bear on a particular trail in the
forest, the trail itself would elicit fear in you. The process by
which benign contexts come to elicit fear through their
association with fear-inducing stimuli is called contextual fear
conditioning.
(Pinel 453)
When the body is exposed to harm or threat, the result is a
cluster of physiological changes that is generally referred to as
the stress response—or just stress. All stressors (experiences
that induce the stress response) produce the same core pattern
of physiological changes, whether psychological (e.g., dismay
at the loss of one’s job) or physical (e.g., long-term exposure to
cold). However, it is chronic psychological stress that has been
most frequently implicated in ill health (see Kiecolt Glaser et
al., 2002; Natelson, 2004),
(Pinel 454)
Selye attributed the stress response to the activation of the
anterior-pituitary adrenal-cortex system. He concluded that
stressors acting on neural circuits stimulate the release of
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior
pituitary, that the ACTH in turn triggers the release of
glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex, and that the
glucocorticoids produce many of the components of the stress
response (see Erickson, Drevets, & Schulkin, 2003; Schulkin,

Morgan, & Rosen, 2005). The level of circulating
glucocorticoids is the most commonly employed physiological
measure of stress.
(Pinel 455)
, stressors activate the sympathetic nervous system, thereby
increasing the amounts of epinephrine and norepinephrine
released from the adrenal medulla. Most modern theories of
stress acknowledge the roles of both the anterior-pituitary
adrenal-cortex system and the sympathetic-nervous-system
adrenal-medulla system (see Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007; Ulrich-
Lai & Herman, 2009).
(Pinel 455)
There is good evidence that all kinds of common psychological
stressors—such as losing a job, taking a final exam, or ending a
relationship—act like physical stressors.
(Pinel 455)
Stress responses are complex and varied, with the exact
response depending on the stressor, its timing, the nature of the
stressed person, and how the stressed person reacts to the
stressor (e.g., Joëls & Baram, 2009; Miller, Chen, & Zhou,
2007; Smith, 2006).
(Pinel 455)
In the 1990s, there was an important advance in the
understanding of the stress response (see Fleshner &
Laudenslager, 2004). It was discovered that brief stressors

produce physiological reactions that participate in the body’s
inflammatory responses. Most notably, it was found that brief
stressors produced an increase in blood levels of cytokines, a
group of peptide hormones that are released by many cells and
participate in a variety of physiological and immunological
responses, causing inflammation and fever. The cytokines are
now classified with the adrenal hormones as major stress
hormones
(Pinel 455)
Responses to extreme stress tend to mask normal variations in
the stress response, and it is difficult to relate the results of
such studies to common human stressors (see Fleshner &
Laudenslager, 2004; Koolhass, de Boer, & Buwalda, 2006).
(Pinel 455)
Interest in pathological effects of stress has increased as
researchers have identified more and more psychosomatic
disorders (medical disorders that have psychological causes). So
many adverse effects of stress on health (e.g., in heart disease,
asthma, and skin disorders) have been documented that it is now
more reasonable to think of most, if not all, medical disorders
as psychosomatic (Miller & Blackwell, 2006; Wargo, 2007).
(Pinel 456)
Gastric ulcers were one of the first medical disorders to be
classified as psychosomatic. Gastric ulcers are painful lesions
to the lining of the stomach and duodenum, which in extreme

cases can be life-threatening. About 500,000 new cases are
reported each year in the United States.
(Pinel 456)
Apparently, there is another factor that increases the
susceptibility of the stomach wall to damage from H. pylori,
and this factor appears to be stress. Gastric ulcers occur more
commonly in people living in stressful situations, and stressors
produce gastric ulcers in laboratory animals.
(Pinel 456)
The discovery that stress can increase susceptibility to infection
led in the early 1980s to the emergence of a new field of
research: psychoneuroimmunology—the study of interactions
among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the
immune system (see Fleshner & Laudenslager, 2004).
Psychoneuroimmunological research is the focus of this
subsection.
(Pinel 456)
Segerstrom and Miller found that the effects of stress on
immune function depended on the kind of stress. They found
that acute (brief) stressors (i.e., those lasting less than 100
minutes, such as public speaking, an athletic competition, or a
musical performance) actually led to improvements in immune
function.
(Pinel 458)
In contrast, chronic (long-lasting) stressors, such as caring for

an ill relative or experiencing a period of unemployment,
adversely affected the adaptive immune system. Stress that
disrupts health or other aspects of functioning is called distress,
and stress that improves health or other aspects of functioning
is called eustress.
(Pinel 458)
Stress produces widespread changes in the body through its
effects on the anterior-pituitary adrenal-cortex system and the
sympathetic-nervous-system adrenal-medulla system, and there
are innumerable mechanisms by which these systems can
influence immune function.
(Pinel 459)
Conversely, cytokines, originally thought to be produced only
by cells of the immune system, have been found to be produced
in the nervous system (Salzet, Vieau, & Day, 2000). In short,
the physiological mechanisms by which the nervous system and
the immune system can interact are innumerable.
(Pinel 459)
people under severe stress often change their diet, exercise,
sleep, and drug use, any of which could influence immune
function. Also, the behavior of a stressed or ill person can
produce stress and illness in others. For example, Wolf and
colleagues (2007) found that stress in mothers aggravates
asthmatic symptoms in their children; conversely, asthma in the
children increases measures of stress in their mothers.

(Pinel 459)
The immune system seems to have many redundant components;
thus, disruption of one of them may have little or no effect on
vulnerability to infection.
•Stress-produced changes in immune function may be too short-
lived to have substantial effects on the probability of infection.
•Declines in some aspects of immune function may induce
compensatory increases in others.
(Pinel 459)
Early exposure to severe stress can have a variety of adverse
effects on subsequent development. Children subjected to
maltreatment or other forms of severe stress display a variety of
brain and endocrine system abnormalities (Evans & Kim, 2007;
Teicher et al., 2003)
(Pinel 459)
Also, early exposure to stress often increases the intensity of
subsequent stress responses (e.g., increases the subsequent
release of glucocorticoids in response to stressors).
(Pinel 459)
I hope you remember from earlier chapters that traits can be
passed from parents to off-spring by epigenetic mechanisms—
literally, epigenetic means “not of the genes.”
(Pinel 460)
Exposure to stress affects the structure and function of the brain
in a variety of ways (see Rodrigues, LeDoux, & Sapolsky,

2009). However, the hippocampus is particularly susceptible to
stress-induced effects. The reason for this susceptibility may be
the particularly dense population of glucocorticoid receptors in
the hippocampus (see McEwen, 2004).
(Pinel 460)
Stress has been shown to reduce dendritic branching in the
hippocampus, to reduce adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus,
to modify the structure of some hippocampal synapses, and to
disrupt the performance of hippocampus-dependent tasks (see
Sandi, 2004). These effects of stress on the hippocampus appear
to be mediated by elevated glucocorticoid levels: They can be
induced by corticosterone (a major glucocorticoid) and can be
blocked by adrenalectomy (surgical removal of the adrenal
glands)—see Brummelte, Pawluski, and Galea (2006), Gould
(2004), and McEwen (2004).
(Pinel 460)
Cognitive neuroscience is currently the dominant approach
being used to study the brain mechanisms of human emotion.
There have been many functional brain-imaging studies of
people experiencing or imagining emotions or watching others
experiencing them. These studies have established three points
that have advanced our understanding of the brain mechanisms
of emotion in fundamental ways (see Bastiaansen, Thioux, &
Keysers, 2009; Niedenthal, 2007):
•Brain activity associated with each human emotion is diffuse—

there is not a center for each emotion. Think “mosaic,” not
“center,” for locations of brain mechanisms of emotion.
•There is virtually always activity in motor and sensory cortices
when a person experiences an emotion or empathizes with a
person experiencing an emotion (see Figure 17.13).
•Very similar patterns of brain activity tend to be recorded
when a person experiences an emotion, imagines that emotion,
or sees somebody else experience that emotion.
(Pinel 461)
the activity observed in sensory and motor cortex during the
experience of human emotions is now believed to be an
important part of the mechanism by which the emotions are
experienced. The re-experiencing of related patterns of motor,
autonomic, and sensory neural activity during emotional
experiences is generally referred to as the embodiment of
emotions (see Niedenthal, 2007).
(Pinel 461)
The discovery that certain patterns of brain activity are
observed on fMRI scans when individuals experience an
emotion or watch somebody else experience the same emotion
suggests that a mirror-like system might be the basis for human
empathy (Fabbri-Destro & Rizzolatti, 2008; Iacoboni, 2009;
Keysers & Gazzola, 2009; Oberman & Ramachandran, 2007).
(Pinel 461)
Emotion and cognition are often studied independently, but it is

now believed that they are better studied as components of the
same system (Phelps, 2004, 2006; Beer, Knight, & Esposito,
2006). The medial portions of the prefrontal lobes (including
the medial portions of the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate
cortex) are the sites of emotion-cognition interaction that have
received the most attention
(Pinel 462)
The medial prefrontal lobes have been hypothesized to monitor
the difference between outcome and expectancy (Potts et al.,
2006), to respond to personal choices that result in losses
(Gehring & Willoughby, 2002), to predict the likelihood of
error (Brown & Braver, 2005), to guide behavior based on
previous actions and outcomes (Kennerly et al., 2006), and to
respond to social rejection (Somerville, Heatherton, & Kelley,
2006). Which hypothesis is correct? Perhaps all are; the medial
prefrontal lobes are large and complex, and they likely perform
many functions. This point was made by Kawasaki and
colleagues (2005).
(Pinel 462-463)
This confirms previous research linking the medial prefrontal
lobes with negative emotional reactions, but it also shows that
not all neurons in the area perform the same function—neurons
directly involved in emotional processing appear to be sparse
and widely distributed in the human brain.
(Pinel 463)

There is considerable evidence that emotional functions are
lateralized, that is, that the left and right cerebral hemispheres
are specialized to perform different emotional functions (e.g.,
Kim et al., 2004; Shaw et al., 2005)—as you learned in Chapter
16. This evidence has led to several theories of the cerebral
lateralization of emotion (see Demaree et al., 2005);
(Pinel 463)
The right-hemisphere model of the cerebral lateralization of
emotion holds that the right hemisphere is specialized for all
aspects of emotional processing: perception, expression, and
experience of emotion.
•The valence model proposes that the right hemisphere is
specialized for processing negative emotion and the left
hemisphere is specialized for processing positive emotion.
(Pinel 463)
the cortical localization of language processes varies
substantially from person to person. Nevertheless, few studies
of the neural mechanisms of emotion have focused on individual
differences (see Leppänen & Nelson, 2009; Samanez-Larkin et
al., 2008).
(Pinel 463-464)
Canli and colleagues (2002) used functional MRIs to compare
the reactions of healthy participants who scored high on
extraversion with those of healthy participants who scored high
on neuroticism. These personality dimensions were selected

because of their relation to emotion—people high on the
extraversion scale have a tendency toward positive emotional
reaction; people high on the neuroticism scale have a tendency
toward negative emotional reaction. Although all the
participants displayed increased activity in the amygdala when
viewing fearful faces, only the extraverts displayed increased
amygdalar activity when viewing happy faces.
(Pinel 464)
http://www2.byui.edu/CounselingCenter/Physiological%20Chan
ges%20that%20Occur%20During%20the%20Stress%20Response
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Stress | University of Maryland Medical
Centerhttp://umm.edu/health/medical/reports/articles/stress#ixz
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University of Maryland Medical Center
produces changes in many body systems; examples
include increased heart rate and blood pressure
and altered immune function.
left
untreated, can lead to anxiety and illness.
in
America Survey, major causes of stress listed included work,
money, and the economy. Stress-related unhealthy habits were

also reported, with many Americans noting they were
overeating or eating unhealthy foods due to stress.
such as exercise, practicing mindfulness-based stress reduction
(meditation and yoga), and engaging in a cognitive behavioral
therapy program.
-behavioral therapy (CBT) has been shown to help
reduce the stress associated with many chronic medical
conditions, including back pain, arthritis, and tinnitus (buzzing
in the ears).
f long-term disability from
low back pain can be reduced through early intervention for
depression and stress.
are underway to assess the effects of "virtual healing" using
devices such as video game simulators that might augment
traditional stress management therapies
Acute (sudden or short-term) stress leads to rapid changes
throughout the body. Almost all body systems (the heart and
blood vessels, immune system, lungs, digestive system, sensory
organs, and brain) gear up to meet perceived danger.
These stress responses could prove beneficial in a critical, life-
or-death situation. Over time, however, repeated stressful
situations put a strain on the body that may contribute to
physical and psychological problems. Chronic (long-term) stress

can have real health consequences and should be addressed like
any other health concern.
pain or hot or cold temperatures) or stressful psychological
environments (such as poor working conditions or abusive
relationships).
illnesses, inflammation) or psychological (such as intense worry
about an event that may or may not occur). As far as anyone can
tell, internal psychological stressors are rare or absent in most
animals except humans.
Under most circumstances, once the acute threat has passed,
levels of stress hormones return to normal. This is called the
relaxation response.
Chronic Stress. Frequently, modern life exposes people to long-
term stressful situations. Stress, then, becomes chronic. The
urge to act (to fight or flee) must therefore be controlled
In response to seeing the bear, a part of the brain called the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system is activated.
Release of Steroid Hormones and the Stress Hormone Cortisol.
The HPA systems trigger the production and release of steroid
hormones (glucocorticoids), including the primary stress
hormone cortisol. Cortisol is very important in organizing
systems throughout the body (including the heart, lungs,
circulation, metabolism, immune systems, and skin) to deal

quickly with the bear.
Release of Catecholamines. The HPA system also releases
certain neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) called
catecholamines, particularly those known as dopamine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine (also called adrenaline).
Catecholamines activate an area inside the brain called the
amygdala, which appears to trigger an emotional response to a
stressful event. In the case of the bear, this emotion is most
likely fear.
Release of Neuropeptide S. The brain releases neuropeptide S, a
small protein that modulates stress by decreasing sleep and
increasing alertness and a sense of anxiety. This gives the
person a sense of urgency to run away from the bear.
Effects on Long- and Short-Term Memory. During the stressful
event, catecholamines also suppress activity in areas at the front
of the brain concerned with short-term memory, concentration,
inhibition, and rational thought. This sequence of mental events
allows a person to react quickly, either to fight the bear or to
flee from it. It also interferes with the ability to handle difficult
social or intellectual tasks and behaviors during that time.
At the same time, neurotransmitters signal the hippocampus (a
nearby area in the brain) to store the emotionally loaded
experience in long-term memory. In primitive times, this brain
action would have been essential for survival, because long-
lasting memories of dangerous stimuli (such as the large bear)

would be critical for avoiding such threats in the future.
Research also finds that during times of stress, nerve cells in
the brain interpret chemical signals incorrectly. Instead of
switching "off," these nerve cells perceive the signals as telling
them to switch "on." It's as though the brain's "brakes" fail in
response to stress
stress response also affects the heart, lungs, and circulation:
· As the bear comes closer, the heart rate and blood pressure
increase instantaneously.
· Breathing becomes rapid, and the lungs take in more oxygen.
· The spleen discharges red and white blood cells, allowing the
blood to transport more oxygen throughout the body. Blood
flow may actually increase 300 to 400%, priming the muscles,
lungs, and brain for added demands
fluids are diverted from nonessential locations, including the
mouth. This causes dryness and difficulty talking. In addition,
stress can cause spasms of the throat muscles, making it
difficult to swallow.
The Skin's Response to Acute Stress
The stress effect moves blood flow away from the skin to
support the heart and muscle tissues. This also reduces blood
loss in the event that the bear causes a wound. The physical
effect is cool, clammy, sweaty skin. The scalp also tightens so
that the hair seems to stand up.
Metabolic Response to Acute Stress

Stress reduces digestive activity, a body function that is not
essential during short-term periods of hard physical work or
crisis.
The Relaxation Response: the Resolution of Acute Stress
Once the threat has passed and the effect has not been harmful
(for example, the bear has not wounded the human), the stress
hormones return to normal. This is known as the relaxation
response. In turn, the body's systems also return to normal.
Factors That Influence the Response to Stress. People respond
to stress differently, depending on different factors:
· Early nurturing: People who were abused in childhood may
have long-term abnormalities in the hypothalamus-pituitary
system, which regulates stress.
· Personality traits: Certain people have personality traits that
cause them to over-respond to stressful events. For example,
those who are neurotic may get stressed more easily and turn to
dangerous behaviors such as smoking and heavy drinking as a
result. Being more outgoing and aware of the world may
improve a person's response to stress by lowering levels of
stress-related inflammatory hormones.
· Genetic factors: Some people have genetic factors that affect
stress, such as having a more or less efficient relaxation
response.
· Immune regulated diseases: Certain diseases that are
associated with immune abnormalities (such as rheumatoid

arthritis or eczema) may weaken the response to stress.
· The length and quality of stressors: The longer the duration
and the more intense the stressors, the more harmful the effects.
Individuals at Higher Risk for Stress. Studies indicate that the
following people are more vulnerable than others to the effects
of stress:
· Older adults: As people age, achieving a relaxation response
after a stressful event becomes more difficult. Aging may
simply wear out the systems in the brain that respond to stress,
so that they become inefficient. The elderly, too, are very often
exposed to major stressors such as medical problems, the loss of
a spouse and friends, a change in a living situation, and
financial worries. No one is immune to stress, however.
· Women in general and working mothers specifically: Working
mothers, regardless of whether they are married or single, face
higher stress levels and possibly adverse health effects, most
likely because they bear a greater and more diffuse work load
than men or other women. This effect has been observed in
women in the U.S. and in Europe. Such stress may also have a
harmful effect on their children. It is not clear, however,
whether stress has the same adverse effects on women's hearts
as it does on men's.
· Less educated individuals.
· Divorced or widowed individuals: Numerous studies indicate
that unmarried people generally do not live as long as their

married contemporaries.
· Anyone experiencing financial strain, particularly the long-
term unemployed and those without health insurance.
· People who are isolated or lonely.
· People who are targets of racial or sexual discrimination.
· People who live in cities.
Some evidence suggests that the repeated release of stress
hormones produces hyperactivity in the hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal (HPA) system, and disrupts normal levels of serotonin,
the brain chemical that is critical for feelings of well-being.
Some people appear to be more at risk for an overactive HPA
system under stress, including those with personality traits that
cause perfectionism. On a more obvious level, stress reduces
quality of life by affecting feelings of pleasure and
accomplishment. In addition, relationships are often threatened
in times of stress
Sexual Function. Stress can reduce sexual desire and cause
women to be unable to achieve orgasm. The stress response can
lead to sexual problems, including erectile dysfunction, in men.
Premenstrual Syndrome. Some studies indicate that the stress
response in women with premenstrual syndrome may be more
intense than in those without the syndrome.
Fertility. Chronic stress may affect fertility. Stress hormones
have an impact on the hypothalamus, which produces

reproductive hormones. This effect may lead to changes in a
woman's menstrual cycle, as well as a reduction in a man's
sperm count. Stress can also reduce sex drive.
Effects on Pregnancy. Old wives' tales about a pregnant
woman's emotions affecting her baby may have some credence.
Stress may cause physiological alterations, such as increased
adrenal hormone levels or resistance in the arteries, which may
interfere with normal blood flow to the placenta. Maternal
stress during pregnancy has been linked to a higher risk for
miscarriage, lower birth weight, and an increased incidence of
premature births. Some evidence also suggests that an expectant
mother's stress can even influence the way in which her baby's
brain and nervous system will react to stressful events. One
study found a higher rate of crying and low attention in infants
of mothers who had been stressed during pregnancy.
Menopause. A drop in estrogen levels during perimenopause
and menopause may be responsible for changes in mood
precipitated by stress
Effect of Acute Stress on Memory and Concentration. Studies
indicate that the immediate effect of acute stress impairs short-
term memory, particularly verbal memory. On the plus side,
high levels of stress hormones during short-term stress have
been associated with enhanced memory storage, improved
working memory, and greater concentration on immediate
events. The difference in effect may be due to how cortisol

impacts glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex.
Effect of Chronic Stress on Memory. If stress becomes chronic,
sufferers often lose concentration at work and home, and they
may become inefficient and accident-prone. In children, the
physiologic responses to chronic stress can interfere with
learning. Studies have connected long-term exposure to excess
amounts of the stress hormone cortisol to a shrinking of the
hippocampus, the brain's memory center. It is not yet known
whether this shrinking is reversible
When choosing specific strategies for treating stress, several
factors should be considered.
· No single method is always successful: A combination of
approaches is generally most effective.
· What works for one person does not necessarily work for
someone else.
· Stress can be positive as well as negative. Appropriate and
controllable stress provides interest and excitement and
motivates the individual to greater achievement. A lack of stress
may lead to boredom and depression.
Stress may play a part in making people vulnerable to illness. A
physician or psychologist should be consulted if there are any
indications of accompanying medical or psychological
conditions, such as heart symptoms, significant pain, anxiety, or
depression

General Practicum Information
0. Students’ practicum experiences should follow the practicum
experience requirements, including the diversity and hour
requirements for this course as noted on the Practicum
Placement Form.
0. Students should fill out the Practicum Placement Form and
Observation Record. Complete the form with the name of the
school and grade levels where the observations took place and
document the hours spent in the classroom. Submit the form to
the course instructor along with your Benchmark Assessment in
Module 8.
0. Ensure that the classroom teacher has completed a Classroom
Teacher Evaluation Feedback Form, found in the practicum
manual, for each observation.
0. Spend 20 hours in one classroom, grades 1-3. Let your
mentor know that you are working on developing assessment
skills. Throughout the practicum, observe and interview your
mentor.
0. Practicum Observations/Teaching Lessons
1. In Modules 2-6, devote attention to each of the four areas of
literacy development. For each of these categories, observe a
classroom (grades 1-3) as the teacher and students focus on one

of the four areas. Keep notes on activities used by the teacher.
Suggested practicum schedule for observations and teaching the
lesson plans:
0. Module 2: Observations only; look for differentiation
techniques for ELL’s and special needs students.
0. Module 3: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics
0. Module 4: Word Study and Fluency
0. Module 5: Vocabulary Development
0. Module 6: Comprehension
1. Lesson Plans and Teaching Lessons
1. In each of the four areas and using literacy assessments
available in the classroom, administer a pre-test to one student
in your practicum classroom.
1. After you have administered the pre-test, confer with the
mentor teacher and prepare lesson plans to address the four
areas of literacy development. These lessons should be based on
the direct instruction model. The lessons should reflect the
areas of need identified through the data analysis collected from
the pre-test.
1. Teach the lessons to the one student you assessed previously.
(1) Administer assessments as a post-test to the same student.
Analyze the data to see if learning has improved from the pre-
test to the post-test.
Assessment: Student Prompts/Teacher Directions
Individual: Practicum Teacher Work Sample (Benchmark

Assessment)
a) Reflection Paper
1. Write a 1000-1250 word essay summarizing:
3. Your learning experience during the practicum
3. Assessment administration- the pre and post assessment data,
challenges and strengths.
3. Data analysis. Include a chart or graphic organizer.
3. Specific activities with the student during instruction
3. Progress made to be notated in the chart
3. Collaboration with the classroom teacher
3. Your reflection on how assessment guides instruction.
Explain how data was used to target the needs of the student
and to plan instruction.
1. Use standard essay format in APA style, including an
introduction, conclusion, and title page. An abstract is not
required. Cite in-text and in the References section.
Scoring Tool/Guide (Rubric)
Practicum Teacher Work Sample (Benchmark Assessment)
Levels/Criteria
1: Unsatisfactory
2: Less than Satisfactory
3: Satisfactory
4: Good
5: Excellent

Score/Level
0%
65%
75%
85%
100%
Applying ACEI Standards 15% 1.0 Development, Learning, and
Motivation (1.875%)
Candidates do not know, understand, or use the major concepts,
principles, theories, and research related to development of
children and young adolescents to construct learning
opportunities that support individual students’ development,
acquisition of knowledge, and motivation.
Candidates know and understand some of the concepts,
principles, theories, and research related to development of
children and young adolescents to construct learning
opportunities that support individual students’ development,
acquisition of knowledge, and motivation but rarely use them
effectively.
Candidates know, understand, and effectively use the major
concepts, principles, theories, and research related to
development of children and young adolescents to construct
learning opportunities that support individual students’

development, acquisition of knowledge, and motivation.
Candidates know, understand, and carefully use the major
Candidates know, understand, and methodically use the major
2.1 Reading, Writing, and Oral Language (1.88%)
Candidates do not demonstrate competence in use of English
language arts, nor do they know, understand, or use concepts
from reading, language and child development, to teach reading,
writing, speaking, viewing, listening, and thinking skills and to
help students successfully apply their developing skills to many
different situations, materials, and ideas.
Candidates demonstrate a limited level of competence in use of
English language arts and they know, understand, and use few
concepts from reading, language and child development, to
teach reading, writing, speaking, viewing, listening, and
thinking skills and to help students successfully apply their
developing skills to many different situations, materials, and

ideas.
Candidates demonstrate an adequate level of competence in use
of English language arts and they know, understand, and use
ideas.
Candidates demonstrate a high level of competence in use of
English language arts and they know, understand, and use
ideas.
Candidates demonstrate a comprehensive level of competence in
use of English language arts and they know, understand, and use
ideas.
3.1 Integrating and Applying Knowledge for
Instruction(1.875%)

Candidates do not plan or implement instruction based on
knowledge of students, learning theory, connections across the
curriculum, curricular goals, or community.
Candidates rarely plan or implement instruction based on
curriculum, curricular goals, and community.
Candidates plan and implement instruction based on knowledge
of students, learning theory, connections across the curriculum,
curricular goals, and community.
Candidates skillfully plan and implement instruction based on
curriculum, curricular goals, and community.
Candidates methodically plan and implement instruction based
on knowledge of students, learning theory, connections across
the curriculum, curricular goals, and community.
3.2 Adaptation to Diverse Students (1.875%)
Candidates do not understand how elementary students differ in
their development and approaches to learning, nor do they
create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse
students.
Candidates do not completely understand how elementary
students differ in their development and approaches to learning,
and rarely create instructional opportunities that are adapted to
diverse students.

Candidates understand how elementary students differ in their
development and approaches to learning, and create
instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse students.
development and approaches to learning, and skillfully create
instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse students.
development and approaches to learning, and methodically
create instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse
students.
3.3 Development of Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving(1.875%)
Candidates do not understand or use a variety of teaching
strategies that encourage elementary students’ development of
critical thinking or problem solving.
Candidates understand but rarely use a variety of teaching
critical thinking and problem solving.
Candidates understand and use a variety of teaching strategies
that encourage elementary students’ development of critical
thinking and problem solving.
Candidates understand and efficiently use a variety of teaching
critical thinking and problem solving.

Candidates understand and meticulously use a variety of
teaching strategies that encourage elementary students’
development of critical thinking and problem solving.
4.0 Assessment for Instruction (1.88%)
Candidates do not know, understand, or use formal and informal
assessments strategies to plan, evaluate or strengthen
instruction that will promote continuous intellectual, social,
emotional, and physical development of elementary student.
Candidates know, understand, but rarely use some formal and
informal assessments strategies to plan, evaluate and strengthen
Candidates know, understand, and use formal and informal
assessments strategies to plan, evaluate and strengthen
Candidates know, understand, and effectively use formal and
Candidates know, understand, and strategically use formal and

5.1 Professional Growth, Reflection, and Evaluation(1.88%)
Candidates are not aware of and do not reflect on their practice
in light of research on teaching, professional ethics, and
resources available for professional learning; they do not
evaluate the effects of their professional decisions and actions
on students, families and other professionals in the learning
community or actively seek out opportunities to grow
professionally.
Candidates are rarely aware of and scarcely reflect on their
practice in light of research on teaching, professional ethics,
and resources available for professional learning; they seldom
evaluate the effects of their professional decisions and actions
on students, families and other professionals in the learning
community and do not seek out opportunities to grow
professionally.
Candidates are aware of and reflect on their practice in light of
research on teaching, professional ethics, and resources
available for professional learning; they occasionally evaluate
the effects of their professional decisions and actions on
students, families and other professionals in the learning
community and seek out opportunities to grow professionally.
available for professional learning; they typically evaluate the

effects of their professional decisions and actions on students,
families and other professionals in the learning community and
seek out opportunities to grow professionally.
available for professional learning; they continually evaluate
the effects of their professional decisions and actions on
students, families and other professionals in the learning
community and actively seek out opportunities to grow
professionally.
5.2 Collaboration with Families, Colleagues, and Community
Agencies (1.88%)
Candidates do not know the importance of establishing or
maintaining a positive collaborative relationship with families,
school colleagues, and agencies in the larger community to
promote the intellectual, social, emotional, physical growth and
well-being of children.
Candidates know very little about the importance of
establishing and maintaining a positive collaborative
relationship with families, school colleagues, and agencies in
the larger community and do not know how to use that
knowledge to promote the intellectual, social, emotional,
physical growth and well-being of children.
Candidates know the importance of establishing and

school colleagues, and agencies in the larger community but
know very little about how to use that knowledge to promote the
intellectual, social, emotional, physical growth and well-being
of children.
school colleagues, and agencies in the larger community and
effectively know how to use that knowledge to promote the
intellectual, social, emotional, physical growth and well-being
of children.
school colleagues, and agencies in the larger community and
know how to comprehensively use that knowledge to promote
the intellectual, social, emotional, physical growth and well-
being of children.
Content: Lesson Plans: (70%) Vocabulary: (14%)
The vocabulary lesson plan is missing many of the required
components. Attention to prior knowledge and essential
vocabulary is weak or missing..
The vocabulary lesson plan consists of most of the required
components. Attention to prior knowledge and essential
vocabulary is minimal or underdeveloped.

The vocabulary lesson plan consists of all the required
components. The lesson activates prior knowledge and teaches
essential vocabulary that enhances comprehension.
All lesson plan components are addressed. Prior knowledge is
surveyed and built to support new learning. Essential
vocabulary is thoughtfully developed and meaningfully
connected to prior knowledge.
All lesson plan components are addressed. Exceptionally
organized activities that create depth of understanding through
connecting old knowledge with new knowledge and predictions.
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: (14%)
The phonemic awareness and phonics lesson plan is missing
many of the required components. Attention to phonemic
awareness and phonics is weak, missing, or incomplete. Skills
and activities are not grade appropriate..
The phonemic awareness and phonics lesson plan consists of
most of the required components. Attention to phonemic
awareness and phonics is minimal or underdeveloped. Skills and
activities are mostly grade appropriate.
The phonemic awareness and phonics lesson plan consists of all
the required components. The phonemic awareness and phonics
activities are grade appropriate and teach students to actively
analyze word parts in an effort to generalize to new word. .
All lesson plan components are addressed. The phonemic

awareness and phonics skills and activities are thoughtfully
developed and meaningfully connected to grade appropriate
academic standards.
organized activities that create multiple and meaningful
opportunities to learn word parts that aid in segmenting and
blending phonemes and letters. There is a strategic balance
between word sounds and word letters.
Word Study and Fluency: (14%)
The word study/ fluency lesson plan is missing many of the
required components. The word study/fluency activities are
missing, weak, or incomplete. Skills and activities are not grade
appropriate..
The word study/ fluency lesson plan consists of most of the
required components. Attention to word study/fluency is
minimal, underdeveloped, or inappropriate for teaching word
study/ fluency. Skills and activities are mostly grade
appropriate.
The word study/ fluency lesson plan consists of all the required
components. The word study activities develop ways to build
fluency (speed and accuracy) with text. Activities are
appropriate for grade level and encourage participation.
All lesson plan components are addressed. The fluency skills
and activities are thoughtfully developed and provide

meaningful practice with familiar text. The fluency activities
are fun, interactive, and creative.All lesson plan components are
addressed. The word study skills and activities are thoughtfully
developed and provide meaningful fluency practice with
familiar text. The word study/ fluency activities are fun,
interactive, and creative.
All lesson components are addressed. Exceptionally organized
activities create multiple and meaningful opportunities to
practice word study skills while reading whole text with
smoothness, accuracy, speed, and prosody. Activities are
engaging and focus on fluent decoding/ processing of whole
text.
Comprehension: (14%)
The reading comprehension lesson plan is missing many the
required components. Attention to reading comprehension is
weak, missing, or incomplete. Skills and activities are not grade
appropriate.
The reading comprehension lesson plan consists of most of the
required components. Attention to reading comprehension is
minimal or underdeveloped. Minimal or no attention is given to
quality “before, during, and after” reading activities to develop
comprehension. Skills and activities are mostly grade
appropriate.
The reading comprehension lesson plan consists of all the

required components. The reading comprehension activities
address “before, during, and after” reading stages. The learning
activities are high quality and strategically selected.
All lesson plan components are addressed. The reading
comprehension activities are thoughtfully developed and focus
on building understanding of text and extending learning
beyond the text.
organized activities that create multiple and meaningful
opportunities to create and extend learning of the text. There is
a variety of useful strategies in activity selection. The specific
comprehension strategies teach student independence.
Assessment Instruments: (14%)
Assessment instruments are inappropriate and/or do not focus
on the required areas. Data is weakly analyzed. The selected
learning experiences are at the wrong level or are inappropriate.
Most of the assessment instruments are skill appropriate and
focus on the required areas. Data is minimally or incorrectly
analyzed. Most of the learning experiences are at the right level.
Assessment instruments are skill appropriate and focus on the
required areas. Data is thoughtfully analyzed to select
appropriate learning experiences at the right level.
Multiple assessment instruments are used for each skill area.
Triangulation of data is used to support the analysis/

conclusions. Data analysis strongly supports the selection of
lesson choices.
Graphs and tables are used to represent the data. Strong
justifications are provided to explicate the direct connections
between activity selections and the student assessment data.
Assessment results clearly indicate student achievement level.
Reflection Paper Content: (10%)
The reflection portion is superficial and/or lacks quality
attention to areas for self-improvement. Weak or no connections
are made between the assignment and the text readings.
Suggestions are unrealistic and impractical.
The reflection portion identifies several areas for self-
improvement, but with minimal depth. Some connections are
made between the assignment and the text readings. Most
suggestions are realistic and practical.
The reflection portion has depth and identifies areas for self-
improvement. Connections are made between the assignment
and the text readings. Suggestions are realistic and practical.
There is a thorough reflection that involves input from the
classroom teacher and demonstrates self-reflection that is
directly supported with examples. Suggestions for
improvements incorporate clear steps that are logically based on
the examples provided in paper.
The reflection is exceptionally organized and strongly supported

by many concrete examples from the data and lesson events.
The candidate demonstrates a solid self-reflection that
incorporates classroom teacher’s comments and that offers
superb suggestions for improvement.
Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation,
grammar): (2.5%)
Surface errors are pervasive enough that they impede
communication of meaning.
Frequent and repetitive mechanical errors distract the reader.
Some mechanical errors or typos are present, but are not overly
distracting to the reader.
Prose is largely free of mechanical errors, although a few may
be present.
Writer is clearly in control of standard, written American
English.
APA Format and Style Requirements: (2.5%)
APA format and style are not evident.
Title page is present, though missing APA elements; in-text
citations, where necessary, are used but formatted inaccurately
and not referenced.
All key elements of an APA title page are present; in-text
citations and a reference section are present with few format
errors. Mechanics of writing are reflective of APA style.

Plan elements are theoretically supported with accurate citations
and references.
A broad understanding of APA format and style is evident in
use of level headings and lists, for example.

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