Saturation And Synthesis Essay

Saturation And Synthesis Essay
Discussion When the degree of saturation Ω is equal to one, the system is at equilibrium. When Ω is
greater than one, precipitation should occur because the solution is saturated in ions with respect to
the solid mineral form. The data show that gypsum should have started precipitating between sample
1 and sample 2 collection time, because this is when the degree of saturation moves to beyond 1.
The peak saturation for gypsum occurs between sample 3 and sample 4, and decreases afterwards.
This decrease is most likely caused by the decrease in available ions after gypsum continued to
precipitate through the experiment, leaving fewer calcium and sulfate ions to contribute to the
degree of saturation. As evaporation continues, halite approaches ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Degree of saturation calculations showed that gypsum precipitated sometime before sample 2 was
taken and peaked around the time sample 4 was taken. Although calculated degrees of saturation for
halite did not exceed 1, the sudden decrease in sodium and chloride ions in solutions indicate that
precipitation most likely occurred, and then exhausted the ions to the point where the solution was
no longer saturated. Because the precipitate was not analyzed, whether or not halite did precipitate
out is not known. The order of precipitation recorded in the experiment agrees with Usiglio's
original
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Research Paper On Io
Volcanology of Io Volcanos have played a colossal part in human history; mainly by destroying
cities and killing the people in them. While Earth is volcanically active there are other locations that
surpass it in activity. To find one of these places one must go through the Kuiper belt to the gas giant
Jupiter. Jupiter, while the biggest planet in our solar system comes second to Saturn for the most
amount of moons. There are sixty–three total moons and fifty–three of them have been officially
named. Whether it be size or composition, they all vary greatly from one another. The four biggest,
known as the Galilean moons, were named after the astronomer Galileo who discovered them over
400 years ago. Their names are Io, Europa, Ganymede, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The different types of eruptions that come from the volcanoes that stretch across Io play a
significant role in its volcanology. There are three popular types of eruptions that occur on Io. These
are: flow dominated, explosion dominated, and Intra–patera eruptions. Flow dominated eruptions
"produce extensive compound lava flow fields... similar to compound inflationary flows commonly
observed on Hawaiian eruptions on Earth" (Lopes 2015). These flows make up a major terrain type
on Io. Many of the major flows are produced by build ups of small breakouts of lava on top of older
flows. They differ from the other popular eruptions because they can last for years, have a low
output of energy, and can have flow fields larger than 300 kilometers. The opposite of this style of
eruption is explosion dominated eruptions. Where "most of the energy of the eruption is directed
into a short–lived, vigorous event that lasts days to weeks... can produce extensive pyroclastic
deposits and lava flow fields, and typically a large (>200 km high) plume, thought to originate from
the interaction of silicate magma with sulfurous volatiles" (Lopes 2015). These eruptions occur
when magma deep within Io's molten mantle reaches the surface and cause alterations in the near–
infrared brightness. They also have the potential to cause colossal short lived changes around them.
For example, in 1997 an eruption produced a 400 kilometer wide deposit of silicate and sulfur
dioxide. The powerful eruption in recorded history was explosion dominated and observed by
astronomers on February 22, 2001. The most common of the three eruption types, Intra–patera
eruptions, "occur with or without associated plumes, and are thought to be lava lakes" (Lopes 2015).
Generally they have flat floors and steep walls. Unlike features that are similar on Earth they are
usually not located at the peak of a shield volcano. Their

Suresh
Examining Minerals and Rocks
What is a mineral?
A mineral is homogenous, naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that
has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure and speciﬁc physical
properties.
Physical properties citrine rose quartz
prasiolite 1. COLOR agate
milky quartz
amethyst
smoky quartz
jasper
Physical properties
The color of a mineral when it is powdered is called the streak of the mineral.
Physical properties metallic adamantine
glassy The luster of a mineral is the way its surface reflects light. pearly dull
waxy
Hardness–Mohs scale
1 talc
2 gypsum

3 calcite
4 fluorite
5 apatite
6 feldspar
7 quartz
8 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
mafic rock, with predominance of maﬁc minerals pyroxenes, olivines and calcic plagioclase; these
rocks (example, basalt) are usually dark colored, but not always, and have a higher density than
felsic rocks. ultramafic rock, with more than 90% of maﬁc minerals (e.g., dunite)
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified by the source of their sediments, and are produced by one or more
processes that follow:
Sedimentary rocks
Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been deposited and
consolidated boulders greater than 25.6 cm cobbles 6.4 to 25.6 cm pebbles 2 mm to 6.4 cm sand
1/16 mm to 2 mm silt 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm clay less than 1/256 mm
Sedimentary rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks form when minerals precipitate from a solution, usually sea water.
Halite and gypsum are examples of minerals that precipitate from aqueous solutions to form
chemical sedimentary rocks.
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are composed of accumulations of organic debris. Coal and some
limestones are examples of biological sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are the result of the transformation of a pre–existing rock type, the protolith, in a
process called metamorphism, which means "change in

Research Paper On Sulfur
I choose Sulfur because of it's bright yellow color which really catches your attention. I also found it
very interesting how much damage sulfur really is to the human. Plus is a very hard element to
locate due to the fact that it can mainly be found by hot springs or volcanoes. Sulfur, also spelled
sulphur, is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number of 16. It is an abundant non–
metal and at room temperature is a bright yellow crystalline solid. Chemically, sulfur combines with
all elements except for gold, platinum, iridium, nitrogen, tellurium, iodine, and the noble gases.
Sulfur forms over 30 solid allotropes, more than any other element. Allotropes are different forms in
which an element can exist. I picked this element because ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
As a result of this Sulfur is the 10th most abundant element in the universe. Sulfur, typically in the
form of sulfide, is present in many types of meteorites. The distinctive color of Jupiter's volcanic
moon Io are caused by various forms of molten, solid, and gaseous sulfur. On Earth, elemental
sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic areas in many parts of the world. Sulfur is
commonly mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. Historically Sicily, Italy was a large source of
sulfur in the Industrial Revolution. Sulfur can be found in salt deposits along the Gulf of Mexico and
evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. Native sulfur may be produced by geological
processes alone. Fossil–based sulfur deposits were until recently the basis of commercial production
in the United States, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. Currently commercial production is carried
out in the Osiek mine in

Gly1000 Exam 1 Study Guide Essay
Minerals Eight most abundant elements in the Earth's Crust: Abundance % by weight – Most
common Ionic Form Most Common Coordination Numbers Relative Ionic Size Oxygen (O) 46.6 %
O–2 – – – 1.40 Silicon (Si) 27.7 % Si+4 Si (4) 0.26 Aluminum (Al) 8.1 % Al+3 Al (4, or 6) 0.39
Iron (Fe) 5.0 % Fe+2 Fe (6) 0.63 Calcium (Ca) 3.6 % Ca+2 Ca (8) 1.00 Sodium (Na) 2.8 % Na+1
Na (8) 0.99 Potassium (K) 2.6 % K+1 K (8, 12) 1.37 Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 % Mg+2 – – – 0.72
Distinction between crystalline and non–crystalline solids Crystalline – term refers to the ordered,
symmetrical, arrangement or the atoms that make up the structure Minerals are naturally occurring
solid chemical compounds with crystalline structure Exhibits cleavage Non–Crystalline ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some rock's in the Earth's interior that are solid, are so hot that, if the pressure on these were
released, or they are convected into a lower pressure zone, they could begin to melt Volatiles: The
melting temperatures of minerals are reduced under high water pressure. Consequently "wet rocks"
(rocks containing water) melt at lower temperatures that do dry rock containing identical mineral
assemblages Factors influencing the viscosity of magmas Higher temperatures cause atoms to
spread out and decrease in density, so magma at higher temperature is less viscous and will flow
more easily Dissolved gases make the magma more fluid and buoyant. The higher the temperature
the more the gases remain dissolved and the less viscous the magma The amount of silica in the
magma. Silica has close jointing

Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics Theory (Part 1a) Introduction: The Beginning of the
"Continental Drift Theory" In the middle of the eighteenth century, James Hutton proposed a theory,
uniformitarianism; "the present is the key to the past". It held that processes such as geologic forces–
gradual and catastrophic–occurring in the present were the same that operated in the past. (Matt
Rosenberg, 2004) This theory coincides with the theory of Continental Drift that was first proposed
by Abraham Ortelius in December 1596, who suggested that North, South America, Africa and
Eurasia were once connected but had been torn apart by earthquakes and floods. He also discovered
that the coasts of the eastern part of South America and the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Water from the south then flowed in over time, thus forming the evaporites now found along the
coastlines there. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013)(Figure 5) However, Wegener believed that only the
continents were moving and they plowed through the rocks of the ocean basins. (Colliers
Encyclopedia, 1996) Harold Jeffreys then argued that it is impossible for continents to break through
solid rock without breaking apart. (USGS, 2012) Wegener also claimed that the centrifugal force of
the spinning planet had forced the continents sideways, parallel to the equator; tidal pull from the
sun and moon had caused lateral movement. (Sant, Joseph, 2012) His orders of magnitude were too
weak. Thus, his theory was dismissed. (Lois Van Wagner, 2013) Further development and support of
the "Continental Drift Theory" in the 1960s After World War 2, the U.S. Office of Naval Research
intensified efforts in ocean–floor mapping, leading to the discovery of the Mid–Atlantic Ridge to be
part of a continous system of mid–oceanic ridges on all ocean floors, prompting Harry H. Hess to
suggest the theory of sea–floor spreading. The oldest fossils found in ocean sediments were only
180 million years old and little sediment were accumulated on the ocean floor. Thus, he suggested
that seafloors were no more than a few hundred million years old, significantly younger than
continental land due to

The End Permian Mass Extinction Essay
Introduction Think of a world which existed 290 million years ago. As you look out
over the terane in front of you, you think that you are on an alien planet. You see volcanoes spewing
ash and lava. Beside them is the ocean which is swarming with many different species of
echinoderms, bryozoans and brachiopods. As you look down onto the sea floor you are amazed at
the countless number of starfish and urchins. Some animals leave you can't even describe and you
have no idea even what phylum they belong to. This is a world at its height in diversity of oceanic
species. Millions of wonderous species existed at this time in the ocean and most of them will never
appear again in earth's history. In the geologic time scale, a million ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The concentration of Ir was at least an order of magnitude higher than the background values and
this is characteristic of most Upper Permian and Lower Triassic boundaries. The scientists go on to
say that "the existence of a rich Ir anomaly on a global scale within the K/T boundary layers of both
marine and continental facies has been interpreted as highly impressive evidence for an impact
origin. Another discovery that may serve as a marker of an event is microspherules. A variety of
microsherules have been discovered in the PTB layers of the Meishan section (Xu et al., 1989). The
origin of the microspherules could be multiple. They are small circular indentations in the rocks and
the most abondent elements are Si or Si–Al. Mircospherules are similar to cosmic dust. Since a large
amount of microspherules occurs in a thin layer of PTB layer it can serve as another event marker.
 Maxwell (1989) who got his information from Clark et al. (1986) said that The
elemental in boundary clays across China suggest that there is a remote possibility that the
predominantly illite boundary clay is a remote possibility that the predomonantly illite boundary
clay resulted from the alteration of ejecta dust from a comet impact, but the most likely source was
ash from a massive volcanic eruption. The trace elements suggested that the dust was
highly acidic and the ratios of TiO2 and AL2O3 are low enough to support the volcanic dust
scenario

How Would You Compare The Relationship Between Witherite...
1. Witherite, and barite. If we compare the relationship between the weight and the size of the
mineral, these two have 2. Aragonite, Malachite, Calcite, and Witherite. 3. The different color of the
copper carbonates is due to the change in the oxidation. Malachite represents a later stage of
oxidation and the increased oxidation is what causes the color change. These minerals occur in near
surface in hydrothermal sulfide deposits, so they are found with chalcopyrite. 4. Evaporite sequence
is formed in a restricted basin, which evaporation progressively increases the concentration of
cations and anions in the water. For marine water the most abundant cations are Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
and K+. and the most abundant anions are Cl–, SO42–, and

Classifying Rocks Essay
Classifying Rocks
Rocks are classified to make it easier on people to identify them in the future. This can be done by a
numerous amount of ways. Each rock type has their own specific ways, but there are two distinct
characteristics that apply to all. These are texture and composition. These two, along with many
others helps to classify igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks are classified first by texture. This is broken down mainly into grain size. First there
are intrusive, or plutonic igneous rocks. These types of rocks cool within the crust and forms large,
visible crystals. The opposite would be extrusive, or volcanic rocks. These cool at the surface
rapidly, forming small grains. A combination ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Depending on what the sedimentary rock is formed by, determines whether is known as clastic or
chemical. Clastic rocks are composed of particles from weathering. They are then sorted by grain
size, gravel being the largest and clay being the smallest. A few examples would be sandstones and
shales. Chemical sedimentary rocks are biochemical, and contain ions in the solution from
weathering. These are also further classified. First you have limestone, which can be either organic
or inorganic. An example would be fossiliferous or chalk. Next is dolostone, and it is formed from
dolomite. Chert is next; and can be organic or inorganic also. Flint and jasper are some examples of
chert. Rock salt and gypsum are what are known as evaporites. These form from the evaporation of
saline waters in an arid environment. Finally there is coal, which is organic and forms from buried
plant remains and carbon. There is one more type of rock that is classified the same way as the
previous two.
Metamorphic rocks are pre–existing rocks that are changed by heat and pressure. The pre–existing
rock is called the parent rock, or protolith. Metamorphism occurs in these rocks when the minerals
become instable. There are two types of metamorphism, contact and regional. Contact is high
temperature, low pressure. It is basically a massive rock that is baked. Regional is high pressure and
low temperature. Strong fabric, or layering, develops from

Factors Affecting The Earth 's Surface Systems Undergo A...
Introduction. Over the past century there have been rapid and noticeable changes in environmental
conditions on Earth. These changes can be traced in various geospheres: alterations of the gaseous
composition of the atmosphere, major decreases in global ice volume (Cryosphere), in both: land–
and water based glaciers with consequent rise of sea–level (Hydrosphere), increase in the frequency
and severity of geohazards (Lithosphere) etc. Triggering mechanisms for those changes include
both: natural fluctuations of environmental processes brought about by heliophysical,
cosmophysical and tectonic factors as well as rapidly increasing contribution coming from human
anthropogenic activities via alterations of natural biogeochemical cycles. Geochemical weathering.
The Earth 's surface systems undergo a series of complex interactions involving exchanges between
various geospheres within the Earth's system (the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere and the
hydrosphere) and outside of it (helio– and cosmophysical factors), through matter and energy
exchanges. Despite the fact that overall understanding about the majority of these processes and
their involvement in these interactions exists (even though rather incomplete), their quantification
and the identification on the spatial and temporal scales remain central problems for the Earth
Science community (Moquet, 2011). One of the more important ones involves quantifying the role
of geochemical weathering in the carbon (C) cycle

Salt Gases Essay
for the inclusion of gases in salt deposits are outlined shortly in the following. Fig. 2–16 shows
schematically the geological conditions in marginal areas of the Zechstein basin which provided the
prerequisites for the inclusion of gases: tectonic events created passage ways (fissures) through the
salt sequence, allowing gases and brines to escape from their host formations below the consolidated
– and therefore impermeable – salt sequences. When contacting potash beds, the brines caused
alterations of the potash beds, dissolving the most soluble potash minerals and precipitating less
soluble salts; as the result, carnallite was replaced by sylvite and halite. In cases where such
processes extended laterally into potash beds, sylvite was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Although gas inclusions in salt rocks are extremely important in some salt and potash mining
districts for their effects on mining operations, they received little attention in textbooks which are
now available in English translations, e.g., Borchert and Muir (1964) and Braitsch (1971). This may
be due to the fact that, at the time when the German originals were written, these matters were still
under controversial discussion; see Gimm and Pforr (1964) with contributions by Obert, Ignatieff,
Panek, Baar. More recent publications (e.g., Gimm, 1968) indicate that the views expressed by Baar
(1954d, 1958,1962) have been generally accepted. As the formation of gas inclusions in salt rocks
requires special conditions, as outlined, such inclusions are rare in salt sequences without potash
salts, as no reaction salts could form. This is the reason why the salt domes of the Gulf Coast are
free from gas inclusions, with the exception of some cases where gases were occluded in
recrystallizing halite, or secondary halite which may have crystallized from migrating solutions due
to cooling. In contrast, the salt domes of northern Europe are loaded with pockets of salt rocks with
abundant gas inclusions; as a matter of fact, several potash mines were abandoned at the beginning
of this century because of the problems caused by gas outbursts (Gimm, 1968, p. 553). To date, no
gas inclusions have been encountered in the Prairie Evaporites, in spite of

Three Exam Questions and Answers
THREE EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
–MY FIRST QUESTION AND ANSWERS
5) Discuss the different types of traps and seals and the importance of "timing". Give an example
related to the Middle East.
"Trap" can be defined as shield against oil and gas movement. In other words, the trap system had
been set up before the migration of oil and/or gas to this location. After coming across the trap, oil
and gas finished their journey under the ground if the trap is settled well. (I ignore some leakage of
them). By the way, trap could be just structure as barren or could be productive.
The highest point of the trap is the crest, or culmination. The lowest point at which hydrocarbons
may be contained in the trap is the spill point; this lies on a horizon contour, the spill plane. The
vertical distance from crest to spill plane is the closure of the trap. A trap may or may not be full to
the spill plane, a point of both local and regional significance. Note that in areas of monoclinal dip
the closure of a trap may not be the same as its structural relief. This situation is particularly
significant in hydrodynamic traps. The zone immediately beneath the petroleum is referred to as the
bottom water, and the zone of the reservoir laterally adjacent to the trap as the edge zone.
Gross pay is total thickness of the reservoir unit.Net pay is the fraction of the reservoir that has
porosity

Essay on The Science of Rocks
1. According to Thompson and Turk (2011), there are two types of igneous rocks–extrusive and
intrusive–and the primary difference between the two types of igneous rocks is that the rocks are
formed in two separate locations: within the Earth's crust and on the Earth's surface (35). Extrusive
igneous rocks form when "magma rises all the way through the crust to erupt onto Earth's surface"
(35). Since the crystals do not have much time to grow, extrusive sedimentary rocks, also commonly
known as volcanic rocks, have "fine–grained textures, with crystals too small to be seen with the
naked eye" (Thompson & Turk, 2011, 36). For example, basalt is a common very fine–grained
volcanic rock. On the other hand, intrusive igneous rocks form when ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The difference in the mineral composition is apparent in the rocks' color and grain texture. Since
basalt is a mafic rock, it tends to have a dark green to black, dark color, while granite tends to have a
clear, white, and pink light color (Thompson & Turk, 2011, 37). Additionally, because basalt is an
extrusive igneous rock, it has a very fine–grained texture, meaning that the crystals are nearly
impossible to see (Thompson & Turk, 2011, 36). On the other hand, granite is an intrusive igneous
rock, meaning that it has a medium– or coarse–grained texture, where the mineral grains and
crystals are easily visible (Thompson & Turk, 2011, 36).
3. According to Thompson and Turk (2011), sedimentary rocks are broadly divided into four
categories: clastic, organic, chemical, and bioclastic rocks. Clastic sedimentary rock is "composed of
particles of weathered rocks, such as sand grains and pebbles (also known as clasts), which have
been transported, deposited, and lithified" (38). Clastic rocks, such as shale, siltstone, and sandstone,
are composed of fragments of older rocks: clay, silt, and sand (38). Moreover, organic sedimentary
rocks consist of "lithified remains of plants or animals," and the most common examples are coal,
which is made up of decomposed and compacted plant remains and

A Short Note On The Salinity Crisis And Its Effects On The...
The Messinian Salinity Crisis, most commonly referred to as MSC, is considered to be one of the
most dramatic events to occur in the geology of the world in about twenty million years. The
Messinian Salinity Crisis is essentially when the Mediterranean Sea dried up completely. The sea
began to dry up approximately 6 million years ago and ended around 5.3 million years ago. Prior to
the drying of the sea, the sea level in the oceans had dropped about 70 meters because of global
cooling which led to the glaciers and icebergs. Because of this, the connection between the Atlantic
Ocean and Mediterranean Sea had become nonexistent and the Mediterranean could not depend on
the Atlantic for the source of water. With the Mediterranean Sea being ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The two types of salts that were deposited on the floor were Halite and Gypsum. Some of the salt
deposits were as deep as 800 meters which is equivalent to 2,500 feet. The scientists were baffled by
this discovery, thus leading to numerous investigations about where these salt deposits came from.
Some of the scientists believe that environmental changes like the Mediterranean Salinity Crisis,
could quite possibly have a larger affect than what is assumed. Scientist believe that it could having
an impact on the global level.
The Mediterranean Salinity Crisis is said to have occurred in three stages. The first stage was when
the, "evaporites precipitated in shallow sub–basins." Basically, this is when natural salt build us in
the sub–basin after the evaporation of a body of water. During the second stage, "evaporite
precipitation is shifted to the deepest depocentres." Essentially all of the salts moved to the bottom
of the basin. This is what the oil drillers were drilling into when they discovered the large salt
deposits at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. The third stage is considered to be the "large–scale
environmental fluctuations in the Mediterranean transformed into brackish water lake." The idea
behind this stage is that it basically the erosion that occurred after all of the water was gone. This
erosion then led to the breaking of the barrier between the basin and the Atlantic Ocean. The

Properties Of Phosphorus 31 System Essay
1) Properties of Phosphorus–31 system: Ideal phosphorus system has Relatively high mass
difference between large and small isotope ratio (Large isotope: Small Isotope). It has high natural
abundance so, we can easily measure practically. It is also related to Even Magic mass number. This
type of system participates in many forms of fractionation. This system should be conservative in
the process. Generally, sources are limited to others and quantity. It may be related to the signal such
as high noise in the system. Phosphorus–31 is also little bit less sensitive than proton and somewhat
higher sensitive than carbon. It has also wide chemical shift range. Application of P–31: Phosphorus
is mainly used in NMR spectroscopy (Nuclear magnetic resonance). It is one kind of analytical
technique because it has 100 % isotopic abundance and relatively high magnetogyric ratio compare
to other isotopes. It has also spin of ½ which makes spectra easy to understand and interpret. It also
used to assay purity and to assign structure of P– containing compounds. By using this, we can
resolve it within its characteristics. As we discussed, In NMR, P–31 use widely particularly in
Monitoring reactions, Measuring epoxide content of carbon nanomaterials and Assaying sample
purity. 2) There are so many isotope systems has application based on the radioactive decay of
isotope and buildup of the same isotope. Ar–Ar dating system is one of them. In this system, the key
is that

Geology Midterm Review
Introduction to Geology GEOL–101
Midterm 1 Review
Based on the textbook: Understanding Earth, 6th Edition, by Grotzinger and Press
CH 1: earth system
Summary
The human creative process, field and lab observations, and experiments help geoscientists
formulate testable hypotheses (models) for how the Earth works and its history. A hypothesis is a
tentative explanation focusing attention on plausible features and relationships of a working model.
If a testable hypothesis is confirmed by a large body of data, it may be elevated to a theory. Theories
are abandoned when subsequent investigations show them to be false. Confidence grows in those
theories that withstand repeated tests and successfully predict the results of new ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Questions being addressed include:
Where do the plate driving forces originate?
At what depth does recycling occur?
What is the nature of rising Convection Currents?
The assembly and subsequent break up of Pangaea represent a striking example of the effects of
plate tectonics acting over geologic time. The story begins with the breakup of the ancient
supercontinent of Rodinia 750 million years ago. Plate tectonic processes dispersed the fragments of
Rodinia forming a system of ancient continents that existed from the late Proterozoic through much
of the Paleozoic. Continued tectonic movement eventually resulted in a set of continental collisions
and reformation of the ancient continents into Pangaea. Assembly was completed during the early
Triasic, about
240 million years ago. Then, about 200 million years ago the rift that would evolve into the Atlantic
Ridge began to open and the separation of Pangaea was underway. By the beginning of the
Cenezoic, India was well on its way to Asia, and the Tethys sea that had separated Africa from
Eurasia began to close into the modern inland sea that we know as the Mediterranean. Continued
changes during the Cenozoic produced our modern world and its geography.
Terms and Concepts
Continental drift
Continent–continent convergent boundary
Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary
Island arc

Isochron
Lithospheric plates
Magnetic anomaly
Magnetic time scale
Mid–ocean ridge
Mountain

The Depositional Environments Of The Six Facies Displayed
1. The depositional environments of the six facies displayed in Figure 1 are as follows:
Fore reef (dark blue)–The mudstones indicate a low energy environment and small amounts of
skeletal fragments creating a wackestone, suggesting an infrequent presence of organisms. The
conglomerates have formed due to gravity driven flows.
Reef crest (orange) – Indicated by the presence of red algae and Schleractinian corals e.g. .Acropora
(Oppen, at el, 2000), which suggests a low energy crest.
Lagoon (light blue) – Ooids can precipitate in depths up to 15m (but usually within the top 5m)
indicating a shallow water environment. Green algae and foraminifera represent a lagoon floor
environment whilst the skeletal grainstones are more ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
2. The facies distribution in both layers indicate that this platform has a rimmed shelf geometry,
most likely an accretionary rimmed shelf, however there is not enough distal data to determine how
steep the fore reef slope is, see Figure 9 (Read, 1985). This platform follows a distal to proximal
trend moving from East to West. Within layer A, the facies in well A are fore reef and reef crest.
Moving westwards, the abundance of the fore reef decreases as water depth decreases, allowing the
reef and lagoonal facies to become more abundant. The lagoonal facies in well B will have a higher
concentration of skeletal grainstones than green algae as it will be closer to the lagoon barrier than
well C. Well C is dominated by lagoonal facies with a small amount of a lower intertidal zone
facies, indicating a more proximal environment. Wells D, E and F are dominated by lower intertidal
zones with small deviations into lagoonal and upper intertidal zone facies. The abundance of
anhydrite and gypsum facies increases moving westwards as the platform becomes more proximal
and may be moving into a supratidal facies.
Within layer B, the platform begins with a fore reef slope and reef crest for the first 4km, followed
by facies exhibiting a steady decrease in energy moving westwards (oolitic grain stones to
mudstones and wackestones). These layers differ as layer A has a larger reef crest and a lagoon
which extends more distally. The larger reef could lead to the larger

Natural Resources of Texas Essay example
Natural Resources of Texas
When one thinks of natural resources, probably the first things that come to mind are fossil fuels. If
you bring the state of Texas into the equation, you think of the big oil wells. Texas tea, black gold,
swamp juice, whatever you want to call it, oil is a big part of people's perception of Texan natural
resources. But there are a lot more natural resources in Texas than you might think. The natural soils
make for good farming and ranching conditions, we've got great rock deposits for a variety of
industrial uses, and we have a number of different mineral deposits scattered through the state. It's
time we took a look at some of the many natural resources Texas has to offer. First up, of course, has
to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most important of these is the Permian Basin. In the latter half of the Paleozoic era, sediments
rich in organic matter accumulated here when a shallow sea got cut off from the main oceans and
evaporated off, leaving lots of dead critters and evaporites. These sediments eventually got buried
and compressed, causing the oil and gas to form "pockets in permeable rock, surrounded by
impermeable rocks so that they couldn't escape. There the fluid sits until someone pokes a hole
(well) into the area and the contents rush out as the tremendous pressure is released. Other areas of
Texas with notable petroleum sources include East Texas's Woodbine Formation (formed in the Late
Cretaceous), much of the Gulf Coast and the Gulf itself, and various smaller pockets in South and
South Central Texas.
Coal may be overshadowed by petroleum in Texas, but it's still here. Pennsylvanian age bituminous
coal was mined in North Central Texas in sizable quantities. Bituminous coal can also be found in
Cretaceous age rocks in near Eagle Pass and in the Trans–Pecos region. But the major player in
Texas coal is Lignite, even though it is a lower grade coal. The Texas lignite comes from vegetative
material deposited around 50 million years ago in coastal lagoon type environments, near rivers and
their deltas. The material was buried before it could decay, so it sat there and was buried under more
and more sediments. The enormous

petro hw #3 Essay
1. What is the first priority of a petroleum engineer? (5 points)
The first priority of a petroleum engineer is safety.
2. What are the 5 elements of a petroleum system labeled on the illustration above? Green indicates
hydrocarbon fill and E refers to the anticlinal structure. (10 points)
A. Top Seal Rock (impermeable shale)
B. Reservoir Rock (Porous sandstone)
C. Source Rock (Organic–Rich shale)
D. Potential migration route (Non–sealing fault)
E. Anticlinal Trap
3. Name the four major disciplines of Petroleum Engineering. (4 points)
Reservoir Engineering, Production Engineering, Petrophysics (Formation Evaluation), and Drilling.
4. What are the three main purposes of drilling fluid (mud)? (6 points) ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
(10 points)
There are clastics, nonclastics, and evaporites. Clastics include sandstone, which is a reservoir, and
shale, which is a source, trap, and also a reservoir. An example of a nonclastic is carbonate, which is
a reservoir. An example of an evaporite is salt, which is a trap.
10. The seismic reflection coefficient R for the interface between two layers of rock is given
(approximately) by the following equation for normal incidence (sound raypaths hit the interface
between two rock layers at a right angle), where ρ1 is the density of layer 1 (top), ρ2 is the density
of layer 2 (bottom), v1 is the velocity of sound in layer 1 (top) and v2 is the velocity of sound in
layer 2 (bottom):
Calculate the reflection coefficient R if ρ1 = 2.1 gm/cm3, ρ2 = 2.2 gm/cm3, v1 = 1500 m/s, and v2 =
2000 m/s. (5 points)
The reflection coefficient is 0.17
11. Why do Petroleum Engineers care about Plate Tectonics? (4 points)

It tells them about the creation of structures and basins. It also helps them identify places where
there are potential reservoirs or source rocks.
12. Flow from a pressured "zone" (interval of porous rock) encountered while drilling is controlled
when the mud weight in the wellbore provides a pressure that equals or exceeds the pressure of the
zone. There is a pressured zone at 8000psi penetrated while drilling at 15,000ft

Sea Water: Dolomitization Essay
Dolomitization – Question C
One of the conundrums of carbonate diagenesis is that seawater is supersaturated in dolomite, yet
dolomite is rarely directly precipitated in the present day. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
different mechanisms that have been postulated to explain dolomitization, and why it is important to
understand from a hydrocarbon perspective.
Introduction
Dolomite (CaMg〖(CO_3)〗_2) is found in carbonate rocks of all ages that formed under a variety
of conditions, but today it only forms in hypersaline lagoons, lakes and tidal flats. This suggests that
most dolomite is secondary in origin as a result of dolomitization: the replacement of calcite or
aragonite (CaCO_3) by dolomite soon after deposition or during ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It is also thought that lower sulphate content helps (Wright, 2009) although in sulphate rich
solutions it may actually increase dolomitization rates (Machel, 2004).
There are four general models for dolomitization, each one of which has different variations to
match different environments and scales of dolomitization. Reflux Dolomitization
Reflux dolomitization, also known as seepage–reflux, is a model for hypersaline shallow subtidal
and reef environments. Here evaporation creates fluids with high Mg:Ca ratios under tidal flats and
sabkhas and within lagoons. Figure 1 gives a schematic overview of this process. These then migrate
to the subsurface due to density contrasts between them and marine pore waters (Machel, 2004;
Tucker, 2001).
There are no modern large–scale examples but the model has been applied to areas as big as a
sedimentary basin; Potma et al. (2001) suggest that matrix dolomites in the Western Canada Basin
were formed by regional seepage reflux of brines sourced from sequence boundaries in the upper
Frasnian. On a small scale, dolomitization is currently occurring via reflux on Bonaire in the
Northern Antilles. Here Deffeyes et al. (1964) found that dense Mg rich brines were being produced
by a combination of seawater evaporation and gypsum precipitation. From Mass balance
calculations they

Essay On Deep Water
Results & Discussion:
In the article, Shallow Groundwater Conveyance of Geologically Derived Contaminants to Urban
Creeks in Southern California, high levels of Aqueous sulfate, TDS, and trace contaminants have
been found in springs and weeps in the Capistrano Formation in Orange County. The sulfate found
in these water sources comes from various places. Sulfur–bearing minerals such as pyrite, jarosite,
and gypsum are some of the contributors to the high amounts of sulfate. However, a study of the
area suggests that sulfide oxidation and dissolution of sulfide–derived secondary minerals are the
dominant sources of sulfate (Bardsley, Audra I. et al).
Data from deeper groundwater monitoring wells showed us that deeper water contains lower ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
et al).
Also, the article states that DIC Calcite and dolomites are important factors in producing aquifer
alkalinity. However, studies have found that additional sources of carbon may also influence DIC
(Dissolved Inorganic Carbon) in these waters. Breakdown of organic matter contributes large
amounts of DIC to the water. Secondary carbonate in the Capistrano Formation can also contribute
light amounts of DIC to the groundwater. Limestone lenses and nodules formed often release carbon
as well (Bardsley, Audra I. et al).
Findings from this investigation suggest that more attention needs to be brought to persistent urban
quality problems. TDS and sulfate are the highest contaminants in California creeks. Efforts to
improve creek water quality includes reducing the water that we use outdoors. However, because
most of the water that ends up in weeps and spring water comes from meteoritic sources it is
impossible to completely get rid of natural sources of contaminants. With an improved
understanding of key resources, environmentalists will be able to better manage water quality in
California (Bardsley, Audra I. et al).
In the article, Wastewater compounds in urban shallow groundwater wells correspond to exfiltration
probabilities of nearby sewers, the results were that in the shallow groundwater that was tested had
chloride and sulfate that was higher than the limit was. The shallow groundwater goes beyond the
drinking water benchmark

Keg River Essay
The term Keg River has been historically used within Alberta to indentify early to middle Devonian
carbonate reef type structures within the Alberta Basin. Nomenclature problems were identified by
Schneider (2011) with commonly interchangeable terminology that began in the 1930s, including
Upper Elk Point formations such as the Winnipegosis, Keg River and Methy.
Sproule (in Ells, 1932) described the Keg River from outcrops along the Clearwater River, near Fort
McMurray in the 1930s. Sproule described the carbonate sequence as a "thin–bedded, alternating
limestone and shale, progressing to an argillaceous limestone under a massive dolostone."
The "Methy Formation" was first published in research from Nauss (1950), currently used as the ...
Corrigan (1975) divided the Keg River into two units; the lower unit "The Platform" consisting of
uniform thickness over a large regionally area; and the second unit as an aerially restricted
"Buildup" consisting of reef mounds deposited on the top of the lower platform unit. He described
the Keg River Formation to contain halite, anhydrite and carbonate.
Campbell (1987) defined the Keg River Formation as an open marine carbonate with an upward
shoaling character marking the beginning of the Lower Elk Point Group (Lower Keg River
Member).
This Lower Keg River member was initiated by a rapid increase in sea level elevation flooding the
salt plains of the Contact Rapids. Campbell (1987) described the Lower member of a dark micritic
limestone, in a somewhat "euxinic" environment, containing bitumen and fauna such as
brachiopods, crinoids, corals, stromatoporoids and gastropods. The unit can be locally dolomitized
with a maximum thickness of approximately 50m. The Upper Keg River member was deposited
during the restriction of marine waters by the Presqu'ile Barrier reef into the Elk Point Basin
(Campbell, 1987). The interior of the basin contains Upper Keg River pinnacle reefs, banks and
platforms. Campbell (1987) noted the spatial differences in the type of carbonate deposition within
sub–basins; areas from the Peace River Arch to southern Alberta show a fringing carbonate
platform, while the Rainbow, Zama and Shekelie basins contained the majority of the

Compared To The Meled Age Of Earth
APSC 151 MIDTERM FALL 2017 1) Compared to the age of the Universe of about 14 billion
years, the currently accepted age of Earth is about ________ years as determined by using
radioactivity for dating rocks and minerals. A) 4.6 thousand B) 4.6 billion C) 5.4 million D) 13.7
billion 2) The ________ division of the geologic time scale is an era of the Phanerozoic Eon. A)
Paleocene B) Paleozoic C) Permian D) Proterozoic 3) The Earth's core was formed from ________.
A) a massive nickel iron asteroid that was the nucleus upon which Earth condensed B) high density
radioactive carbon C) the left over nickel and iron that would not fit into the earlier formed crust and
mantle D) molten iron and nickel that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A) along a mid–ocean ridge B) along the length of a deep mantle plume C) along a transform fault
D) along a subduction zone 11) Deep ocean trenches are surficial evidence for ________. A) rifting
beneath a continental plate and the beginning of continental drift B) sinking of oceanic lithosphere
into the mantle at subduction zones C) rising of hot asthenosphere from deep in the mantle D)
transform faulting between an oceanic plate and a continental plate 12) Plates are sliding past one
another horizontally along a ________ plate boundary. A) Transform B) convergent C) divergent D)
subduction 13) The true colour of a mineral as seen in its powdered form is called it's ________. A)
Birefringence B) chatoyancy C) iridescence D) streak
14) Which one of the following minerals has the greatest hardness on the Mohs hardness scale? A)
Feldspar B) calcite C) gypsum D) topaz 15) Which of the following best defines a mineral and a
rock? A) A rock has an orderly, repetitive, geometric, internal arrangement of minerals; a mineral is
a lithified or consolidated aggregate of rocks. B) A mineral consists of its constituent atoms arranged
in a geometrically repetitive structure; in a rock, the atoms are randomly bonded without any
geometric pattern. C) In a mineral the constituent atoms are bonded in a regular, repetitive, internal
structure; a rock is a lithified or consolidated aggregate of minerals. D) A rock consists of atoms
bonded in a regular,

Archie Equation Petrophysics
INTRODUCTION
Archie Unleashed is an attempt to put the basic log analysis methodology for computing water
saturation into a readable reference document. The beginning log analyst or petrophysicist should
have little difficulty with the terms and concepts utilized in this paper, however, most terms are
redefined in appendix A.
The basic outline of this document closely follows a previous work written for the casual interpeter
in log analysis. Archie Unleashed is meant to carry that work one step further. Basic concepts are
explained along with more detailed examples and explanations.
The personal computer has revolutionized the way we work and play. The kind and amount of data
we work with in petrophysics can be easily handled in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Mark intervals selected for quantitative analysis on this log. Depth. correlate the other surveys to
this reference log or the Gamma ray curve from this log.
4. Select intervals with at least four feet of constant response whenever possible. Use a single
representative value from the center of the zone for each porosity and resistivity measurement. This
procedure minimizes thin bed and bed boundary effects on the logs.
5. Consider how to keep the interpretation simple. Analyse the most clear–cut cases first. Look for:
The obvious mineral markers (salt, anhydrite). The cleanest, most porous, intervals. The cleanest,
water–bearing, intervals. The cleanest, hydrocarbon–bearing, intervals. The fluid contacts: gas/oil,
oil/water. The transition zones.
6. Tackle one unknown at a time. For example, when deriving an Rw value from logs, choose a
water–bearing zone as nearly identical as possible to the hydrocarbon zone of interest. This means
the two zones have the same lithology, have the same or very similar porosity values, have the same
type of pore structure (do not compare a zone with moldic porosity to one with granular or fracture
porosity for instance), have the same formation water chemistry, etc. Ideally, the two zones are
identical except for hydrocarbon content.
Bear in mind what G. E. Archie said about his equations. "It should be remembered that the
equations given are not precise and represent only approximate relationships.

Yucatan Peninsula Maya
Maya The Yucatan Peninsula is the exposed portion of the larger Yucatan Peninsula, all of which is
composed of carbonate and soluble rocks, being mostly limestone although dolomite and evaporites
are also present at various depths. The whole of the Yucatán Peninsula is an unconfined flat lying
karst landscape. Sinkholes, known locally as cenotes, are widespread in the northern lowlands. The
Yucatan peninsula usually experienced tropical weather. The Mayans grew corn, farmers also
cultivated beans, squash, and fruit trees. Black beans and red beans contributed protein to the Maya
diet. Numerous varieties of squash and pumpkin were grown. Droughts were one of the biggest
threats to Mayan farms. The Mayans found a way to store water in case of droughts. The Mayans
used a farming technique called slash and burn. Slash and burn meant that you would burn down
forests and the land that was leftover would be your farm. The leftover ash from slash and burn is
very good for plants. People still use slash and burn today, but performing this technique can cause
global warming. Inca ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The geography of the Andes mountains was rugged. People are rebuilding terraces, irrigation
systems, reclaiming traditional crops, methods of planting. But modern farmers also believe that the
Inca ways can offer simple solutions to protect a communities food supply in climate change. Today
people still use terraces because they are still very useful on a farm, a hill, or a mountain terrain.
Terraces are essential to the Inca because it is a reliable method of farming and agriculture. Terraces
can grow potatoes easily, potatoes were important to the

Cause And Effect Of Chacxulub Impact
Chicxulub Impact
By Talullah Lennon
The Cause:
An Asteroid is formed in the inner solar system in a particular part called the Asteroid Belt, when
small particles of rock and metal collide with each other, and slowly build up over time. Planets are
formed the same way as asteroids, but what stops asteroids from growing and becoming a planet is
due to the gravitationally pull of Jupiter. The asteroid belt lies between Jupiter and mars. Because of
Jupiter's gravitationally pull the asteroid goes at a highly increased speed causing it to crash into
other asteroids in the belt, the result of this is either the asteroids bounce off one another or they
break off and don't stick together. The asteroid belt contains billions of asteroids in all different
sixes. Majority are reasonable small around the size of a large bolder but on occasion there are
asteroids that are humongous just like the Chicxulub asteroid
When an asteroid hits Earth it normally strikes at the rapid speed of "16 to 32km/sec". The ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The asteroid instantaneously made a hole that was 100km wide and 30km deep. Experts say that " it
hit at the same energy as 100 million atomic bombs and left behind a 100–mile–wide scar known
today as the Chicxulub creator" Many scientists believe that the impact of the Chicxulub asteroid
played a big part in the "KT Extinction" which was the extinction of almost all life on earth,
including the dinosaurs. When the bowl collapsed it left behind a 200km creator across and a couple
of km deep. Later, on the centre of the crater "rebounder and collapsed again", this time it produced
an inner ring. Now days a larger percentage of the creator is buried offshore, under about 600m of
sediments. The parts of the crater that are still on land are cover in limestone and at the rim of the
crater there is an arc of

Exam Three Study Guide
Chapter 11
The first Paleozoic orogeny to occur in the Cordilleran mobile belt was the: | c. Antler | |
Extensive cratonic black shales were deposited during what two periods? | d. Late Devonian–Early
Mississippian | |
The main economic deposit of a cyclothem is: | a. coal | |
During the Late Kaskaskia (Cratonic Sequence 3), what type of deposition predominated on the
craton? | e. carbonates | |
Which orogeny was not part of the closing of the Iapetus Ocean | b. Antler | |
Rhythmically repetitive sedimentary sequences of alternating marine and terrestrial sediments are: |
c. cyclothems | |
During which period did extensive continental glaciation of the Gondwana continent occur? | ...
| a. rift valleys | | | b. dikes | | | c. great quantities of poorly sorted nonmarine detrital sandstones | | | d.
sills | | |
The first Mesozoic orogeny in the Cordilleran region was the: | | b. Nevadan | | | d. Sonoma | |
The Mesozoic tectonic history of the North American Cordilleran region is very complex and
involves: | a. oceanic–continent convergence | | | b. terrane accretion | |
The formation or complex responsible for the spectacular scenery of the Painted Desert and Petrified
Forest is the: | c. Chinle | |
The Sierra Nevada, Southern California, Idaho, and Coast Range batholiths formed as a result of
which orogeny? | d. Nevadan | |
The first major seaway to flood North America was the: | d. Sundance | |
The orogeny responsible for the present–day Rocky Mountains is the: | c. Laramide | | The Jurassic
formation or complex famous for dinosaur fossils that Marietta College's dinosaur program is

famous for digging in each summer and will be going to visit in Utah during May to collect more
dinosaurs from is the: | a. Morrison | |
The breakup of Pangaea began with initial Triassic rifting between which two continental
landmasses? | d. Laurasia and Gondwana | |
The time of greatest post–Paleozoic inundation of the craton (by transgressive seas) occurred during

Southern North Sea Basin Essay
Introduction The Southern North Sea basin is located between the UK and The Netherlands, being
the main gas fields in the UK, with production coming from Permian reservoirs, which are sealed by
the upper Permian salt. The development of this basin is resulted of the subsidence, which has been
punctuated by discrete events of uplift and predominant erosion in several periods such as Late
Carboniferous, Late Cretaceous, as well as at several times during the mid–Cenozoic (Cameron et
al. 1992, cited in Balson et al. 2001, p.10). Some of the episodes are not completely clear when they
occur, for instant, extensional events with different stress orientations in the Upper Jurassic. Thus,
the aim of this report is to analyse the structural and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
1992). In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic subsidence in the Sole Pit Basin was connected to
reactivation of Variscan basement faults and these movements stemmed from the earliest mid–
Triassic halokinesis of the Upper Permian salts (Balson et al. 2002). However, In the early– mid
Jurassic times, differential subsidence of the Sole Pit Basin was more prominent by the development
of growth faults along the western margin of the North Sea, being that this faults account for the
major thickness and facies changes of the Lower and Middle Jurassic sediments between the Sole
Pit Basin and the East Midlands Shelf (Balson et al. 2002). Moreover, during the Jurassic times the
Sole Pit Trough and the Cleveland Basin were the principal depocenters, accumulating high
thickness of marine mudstones with subsidiary sandstones and limestones before undergoing
erosion at the end of this period, which followed by post Jurassic inversion (Cameron et al. 1992).
Nevertheless, cretaceous sediments are dominantly argillaceous and are more 800 thick adjacent to
contemporary growth fault in the Dowsing Fault Zone. On the other hand, in the Upper Cretaceous
pelagic carbonates of the chalk sea are located more than 1000 thick, and following their deposition
there was widespread uplift and regression prior to the deposition of up to 800 m of mainly
argillaceous marine sediments during the

Saturation And Synthesis Essay

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Saturation And Synthesis Essay

Similar to Saturation And Synthesis Essay (13)

More from Jenny Richardson

More from Jenny Richardson (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Saturation And Synthesis Essay