The Role Of Superficial Yeast Infections In Humans

The Role Of Superficial Yeast Infections In Humans
Yeasts which are unicellular fungi that cause a wide range of infections commonly called yeast
infections in humans. Yeast infections are characterized into two groups– superficial and systemic.
Superficial yeast infections affect different parts of the human body including the skin, mouth,
digestive tract, nails, etc and can become persistent (Thevissen, 2005).Systemic yeast infections also
called invasive yeast infections affect the brain, spinal cord, eye, gall bladder, heart, lungs, kidneys
and urinary bladder. These infections have considerably increased over the past recent three decades
due to transplantation procedures, cancer chemotherapy, steroid therapy and, in particular, HIV
infection thus leading to a rise in the number of immunocompromised
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Invasive Fungal Diseases
Opportunistic invasive fungal diseases are a continuous threat to the immune–compromised host and
result in high morbidity and mortality rates. Most of the invasive fungal diseases are caused by
Candida and Aspergillus species, however, other pathogens such as Scedosporium and Fusarium
species may be encountered.(1) The number of antifungal agents available for treating invasive
fungal infections has grown in recent years and now includes mainly three classes of drugs, namely
the polyene group which includes amphotericin B, the azoles, and the echinocandins, each of which
has a specific profile with respect to antifungal activity and toxicity. Therapeutic drug monitoring
(TDM) includes the measurement of drug concentrations in biologic fluids ... Show more content on
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Multiple factors have been found to be associated with a large variability in voriconazole exposure
following standard dose administration, such as nonlinear saturable pharmacokinetics, patient age
(in particular, with respect to children), liver disease, drug–drug interactions, and genetic
polymorphism of the cytochrome CYP2C19.(5) In experimental candidiasis, the ratio of
voriconazole peak concentration and the 24–h area under the curve over the MIC have been
identified as the best pharmacodynamic predictors of treatment success. In contrast, no experimental
data are available regarding the pharmacodynamics of voriconazole for the treatment of aspergillosis
or other mycoses. Recently, experts have suggested that voriconazole trough blood levels should be
measured after 1 week of therapy for dose adjustment to target values of 1–5.5 mg/L.(6–8)
However, the utility of such measurements remains debatable, given that multiple confounding
factors may influence the outcome of infection and the assessment of tolerance in severely ill
patients. This uncertainty highlights the need for additional drug exposure–related efficacy and
safety data in patients treated with voriconazole. The objective of the present observational study is
to assess the utility of voriconazole therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM).(5,

Kaposi's Sarcoma, Endemic: Article Analysis
After reading the five given articles carefully there are critical points that I would like to articulate
in my reaction paper. These articles provoked me to think that we are blessed to have health
professional that were able to discover HIV/AIDS and the causes of Kaposi 's Sarcoma and
Pneumocystis pneumonia of homosexual men in July 1981, following the report of these cases of
PCP and cases of other rare life–threatening opportunistic infections and cancers in America we
began to recognize the importance of being aware of HIV/AIDS (Altman). Maybe not need
These articles outlined major events in the AIDS epidemic. The thing that stood out to me is the
information on Kaposi 's sarcoma. This cancer was so rear that it may be missed and not diagnosed
even by dermatologist during the 80's (Altman). Not being able to diagnose this rare and rapidly
fatal form of cancer was a concern of the physician's right at the beginning (Altman). There are
multiple forms of Kaposi 's sarcoma from the classic Mediterranean Kaposi 's Sarcoma, Endemic
(African) Kaposi sarcoma (mentioned in the article), iatrogenic (transplant–related) Kaposi sarcoma
and epidemic (AIDS–related) Kaposi sarcoma which is the most common type of KS in the United
States (American Cancer Society). The virus can be present in the body for a long time, often many
years, before causing major illness (American Cancer Society). When HIV damages the immune
system, people who also are infected with a certain virus (the

Inhibiting Pathogenic Infections: A Polypheno
Inhibiting Pathogenic Infections: A Polyphenol and Carotenoid Based
Approach
Background Research
This research focuses on the effects of polyphenols and carotenoids found in Green tea and Cloves
on inhibiting and treating pathogenic infections. The number of people who are infected with
pathogenic infections is on the rise and cases are being reported from around the world with a
mortality rate of 60%–65% [1,2]. It is suspected that the number of people infected with pathogenic
infections will upsurge by 10%–15% within the next two decades [2]. Most pathogenic infections
such as Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus haemolyticus are antibiotic
resistant towards levofloxacin–based medications, which are the most commonly ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
6. Liu X, Li J, Yang Y, Chen X. "Exposure of pathogens to green tea polyphenols enhances the
tolerance to certain environmental stress" World J Microbial Biotechnol, 3374–3378, 2012.
7. Yi SM, Zhu JL, Fu LL, Li JR. "Tea polyphenols inhibit P. aeruginosa through damage to cell
membrane" International Journal of Food Microbiology, 112–118, 2010.
8. Brennan BP, Rauch SL, "Oxidative stress and depressive symptoms upon adults: A nuclear
magnetic resonance study" Journal of Affective Disorders, 29–35, 2005.
9. Jeon J, Kim JH, Lee CK, Ow CH. "Antimicrobial activity of the green tea polyphenol (–)–
epigallocatechin–3–gallate (EGCG) against clinical Pseudomonas and Escherichia Isolated from
skin wounds" University of Seoul Journal, 564–587, 2014.
10. Keeler J. "NMR and energy levels and Nuclear spin state" Journal of spectroscopy, 2–17,
2002.
11. Liu JH, Tian SF, Ju Y, Li Y. "Apparent diffusion coefficient measurement by diffusion– weighted

magnetic resonance imaging is a useful tool in differentiating renal tumors" BMC Cancer Journal,
322–327,

Enterobacter Aerogenes Research Paper
Enterobacter aerogenes is a species of rod shaped gram negative bacterium in the family of
enterobacteriaceae. It is a facultative anaerobe, meaning that it can grow in either the presence of
oxygen or in the absence of oxygen. It also uses fermentation as the means of gathering energy that
protect it from reative oxygen species, and allowing it to live in oxygenated environments.
Enterobacter aerogenes is a nosocomial and pathogenic bacterium that cause opportunistic
infections. The majority are sensitive to most antibiotics designed for this bacteria class, but it can
be complicated due to their resistance mechanism such as lactamas, which quickly become resistant
to standard antibiotics during the treatment. Enterobacter aerogenes is found in human
gastrointestinal tract, and it does not generally cause disease in healthy individuals. It has been
found to live in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Enterobacter aerogenes have been found to produce a greater amount of bioethanol due to a process
called metabolism (ScienceDirect). Many Enterobacter aerogenes have flagella, and thus motility,
that distinguish them from Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria (Kara, 2016). Traditional approaches for
treating Enterobacter infections involve single– agent antimicrobial therapy such as an
aminoglycoside, a fluoroquinolone, and a cephalosporin. However, newer theories have adopted
combination–therapy employing multiple antibiotics with different core structure. In some
Enterobacter aerogenes resistant to aminoglycoside, resistance has been associated with a bacterial
genetic element known as integron. Integrons contain genes that confer antibiotic resistance
capabilities and its incorporated into bacteria genomes via genetic recombination (Kara, 2016).
Finally, we have learned that Enterobacter aerogenes have some positive and negatives implications
on human

Lab Report On Unknowns
Lab Report on Unknowns Jordan Paul November 10, 2017 INTRODUCTION: The goal is this
project was to use our skills previously learned in class and apply them to identifying an unknown
organism. These types of skills are important in many clinical setting. If a patient came in with
unrecognizable symptoms using the skills we used in class one could be able to identify the
organism and give the patient targeted treatment. We performed twelve experiments to help us to do
so. After conduction my experiments I was able to identify my unknown as the organism
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. P. aeruginosa is a "ubiquitous environmental bacterium that is one of the
top three causes of opportunistic human infections." (***) An important part of this organism ...
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2016. Pseudomonas aeruginosa. MicrobeWiki. 1–2. Retrieved from
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa Author. Publication Year.
Article Title. Journal Title Volume(Issue): Page Numbers. Dao, Chelsea. 2016. Pseudomonas
aeruginosa. MicrobeWiki. 1(1): 1–2. Retrieved from
https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa
https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/226748–overview
https://www.nature.com/articles/35023079#main then need to do Stover, C. K., Pham, X. Q., Erwin,
A. L. Mizoguchi, S. D., Warrener, P. Hickey, M. J., Brickman, F.S. LOlson, M. V. (2000) Complete
genome sequence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, an opportunistic pathogen. Nature:
International journal of science. Nature 406: 959–964. Retrieved from
https://www.nature.com/articles/35023079#main ., Hufnagle, W. O., Kowalik, D. J., Lagrou, M.,
Garver, R. L., Goltry, L., Tolentino, E., Westbrock–Wadman, S., Yuan, Y., Brody, L. L., Coulter, S.
N., Folger, K. R., Kas, A., Larbig, K., Lim, R., Smith, K., Spencer, D., Wong, G. K.–S.s Wu, Z.,
Paulsen, T., Reizer, J., Saier, M. H., Hancock, R. E. W., Lory, S., & Friedrich, Marcus. (2016).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections. Medscape. 1(1): 1–3. Retrieved from

Methotrexate Research Paper
Methotrexate side effects:
In some patients, this drug methotrexate can cause nausea, mouth ulcers, vomiting, diarrhoea, hair
loss & skin rashes. This drug reduces the blood cells in the body. A decrease in white blood cells
leads to a risk of developing infections. A decrease in red blood cells can cause anaemia and
decrease in platelets increases the propensity of bleeding. Methotrexate increases the skin's
sensitivity to sunlight and hence you must use a high–factor sun cream if you go out in sun.
Seek immediate medical attention, if you develop the following symptoms,
Fever, sore throat
Any other symptoms of infection
Unexplained bleeding or bruising.
Jaundice (skin and eyes turn yellow)
If the above symptoms become severe
Breathlessness ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kidney problems:
A decrease in the kidney function is noted in patients on methotrexate. The concomitant use of other
drugs that cause renal problems can aggravate the condition further. Adequate and aggressive
hydration and urine alkalization can reduce the risk of methotrexate induced nephropathy.
Genitourinary side effects:
Women experience menstrual dysfunction, abortion, vaginal discharge and defective oogenesis.
Likewise, men experience decreased libido and defective spermatogenesis.
Musculoskeletal problems:
The post–menopausal women may exhibit a syndrome called MTX–osteopathy, where the bone
density becomes very low.
Heart problems:
This includes infection of pericardium (outer layer of heart), lowered blood pressure, change in the
rhythm of heart beat. There may be a clot formation in the arteries or veins with methotrexate use.
Sometimes, pulmonary embolism, a serious condition may occur due to methotrexate treatment.
Eye problems:
This includes conjunctivitis and serious visual changes of unknown origin
Other effects:
They include malaise, chills, fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia and fluid accumulation outside lungs and

Hiv/Aids Stigma and Discrimination
Cepeda
Social Psychology
HIV/AIDS Stigma and Discrimination
Strayer University
November 19, 2011
Internationally, there has been a recent resurgence of interest in HIV and AIDS–related stigma and
discrimination, triggered at least in part by growing recognition that negative social responses to the
epidemic remain pervasive even in seriously affected communities. Yet, rarely are existing notions
of stigma and discrimination interrogated for their conceptual adequacy and their usefulness in
leading to the design of effective programmers and interventions. Taking as its starting point, the
classic formulation of stigma as a 'significantly discrediting' attribute, but moving beyond this to
conceptualize stigma and stigmatization as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
She also reported being excluded from participating in some school activities, just because she had
AIDS.
HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination in employment
Getting a job after school was not easy for her. After suspecting that she was denied jobs from the
local businesses because of her HIV/AIDS status, she decided to look for a job in a distant town.
She got the job, but after her employer and workmates learned of her HIV/AIDS, things never
remained the same; she suffered rejection and offensive comments from workmates, and eventually,
her employer terminated her employment.
HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination in religious communities
Instead of love and compassion from religious groups, the young girl instead was perceived to have
brought double portions of shame, disgrace and reproach to her religion. She was blamed for moral
and religious irresponsibility. Religious groups generally considered her as a sinner paying for her
sins, as they believed that her AIDS is curse from God inflicted on fornicators.
The consequences
In fear of stigma and discrimination, she stopped seeking for treatment and refrained from
disclosing her status. She went into prostitution; selling her body, often in unprotected sex, to earn
money for a living.
Stigma and discrimination did not help her prevent or manage her HIV/AIDS infections, and it did
not stop her from infecting other people with HIV/AIDS. She felt hurt and psychologically tortured.
Given the

Reaction Paper On The Aids Epidemic
Module 2, Activity 1: Reaction Paper
After reading the five given articles carefully there are critical points that I would like to articulate
in my reaction paper. These articles provoked me to think that we are blessed to have health
professional that were able to discover HIV/AIDS and the causes of Kaposi 's Sarcoma and
Pneumocystis pneumonia of homosexual men in July 1981, following the report of these cases of
PCP and cases of other rare life–threatening opportunistic infections and cancers in America we
began to recognize the importance of being aware of HIV/AIDS.
These articles outlined major events in the AIDS epidemic. The thing that stood out to me is the
information on Kaposi 's sarcoma. This cancer was so rear that it may be missed and not diagnosed
even by dermatologist during the 80's (Altman). Not being able to diagnose this rare and rapidly
fatal form of cancer was a concern of the physician's right at the beginning (Altman). There are
multiple forms of Kaposi 's sarcoma from the classic Mediterranean Kaposi 's Sarcoma, Endemic
(African) Kaposi sarcoma (mentioned in the article), iatrogenic (transplant–related) Kaposi sarcoma
and epidemic (AIDS–related) Kaposi sarcoma which is the most common type of KS in the United
States (American Cancer Society). The virus can be present in the body for a long time, often many
years, before causing major illness (American Cancer Society). When HIV damages the immune
system, people who also are infected with a

Aureus: Opportunistic Pathogenesis
Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunistic pathogen found mainly on skin, nose and respiratory tract
1 The gram positive facultative anaerobe is round. Transmission occurs through humans or animals,
exposure to contaminated surfaces or enterotoxins presence in food 2 . Most susceptible are
newborns, young children and the elderly due to reduced immune function 3, 4.
Immunocompromised individuals diagnosed ( ie. AIDS, HIV, Crohn's etc.) assume greater risk of
infection 3, 5 . S. aureus causes many diseases including food poisoning, endocarditis, skin/soft
tissue (enterotoxin caused scaled skin and abscess) and pleuropulmonary infections (ex.
pneumonia), osteomyelitis, septic arthritis and bacteremia 2, 3. In health care settings S. aureus
colonies ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
S.aureus skin infection is often diagnosed visually 9. Respiratory tract and sometimes external
infections require collections of swabs from invaded site, Gram–staining and selective culturing for
confirmation of diagnosis; additional tests are coagulase and catalase test (S.aureus positive for
both) 9, 10. For detection of bacteremia, blood sample is taken and selectively cultured. More rapid
detection is possible with use of real time quantitative PCR. Specifically, nuc and sodA assays allow
for detection/monitoring the presence/increase of S.aureus cells and genomic DNA in patient's blood
11. As of 2015, there were 740 cases of S.aureus infection in Canada, 210 cases (53 new), occurred
in Ontario 12. Mortality is 20%, majority of deaths occurring within 30 days of infection 21,22, 23.
Community acquired S.aureus is ~$7070–20500 per case; 27% of those who acquire CA–MRSA
nosocomially die 17,20. MRSA also makes up nearly 1% of all SSTIs in America 19. S.aureus is
equipped with a battery of virulence factors; Its enterotoxins, and toxic syndrome toxin are harmful
to gastroenteric and endothelial tissues

Pneumocystis Pneumonia Report Essay
The Pneumocystis Pneumonia Report, also known as the first report of AIDS, was reported during
the early 1980s. It was unveiled that this outbreak was not a form of pneumonia and that it was
prevalent in the gay community. Due to the sudden emergence of this disease Americans were left in
the dark leaving minds to conjure up ideas of how this disease was spread. The outbreak of this
newly found "Gay Man's Disease" left an alteration of the outlooks of Americans by the end of the
rapid fire of this disease. The Pneumocystis Pneumonia Report caused America to put a stigma on
gay males as well as raise awareness in order to combat HIV/AIDS, the workforce to be diminished
due to the illness of workers leaving many with the inability to provide for their households and
companies scrambling to replace workers, and forced AIDs relief plans to be set forth by the
government. "In the period October 1980–May 1981, 5 young men, all active homosexuals, were
treated for biopsy–confirmed Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia at 3 different hospitals in Los
Angeles, California" ("Pneumocystis"). In the early 1800s, five patients were treated for what was
presumed to be a form of pneumonia known as PCP. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Indirect costs include lost time due to illness, recruitment and training costs to replace workers. If
costs are financed out of savings, then the reduction in investment could lead to a significant
reduction in economic growth" (Stover 3). Companies tried to replace workers as quickly as they
left leaving them virtually bankrupt because of all of the money that went into recruitment and
training. Many companies had the inability to keep up with the sudden shift in the workforce. Due to
this change economic growth was put at a standstill and pushed into the opposite direction that it
was previously moving; instead of moving forward, economic growth moved

Bioprospection Analysis Essay
In silico bioprospection analysis is the process and application for the development of a novel
natural product that can be achieved from utilizing digital information scattered all across web
network in a systematic and scientifically validated manner. The present chapter provides the
outcome of the analysis of web based classical data search, matrix linked data mining followed by
fuzzy logic based optimization and validation using molecular docking analysis. Such analysis
identified potent nutraceuticals with a physiological functional indicator of combined effects of
progression of multi–drug resistant (MDR) Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) infections in
pre–existing inflammatory disorder (RA). These indicators are useful for ... Show more content on
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1) Fuzzy set membership analysis for decision matrix & optimization: The following mathematical
relationship as mentioned below (Eqs. 2) was used to ascertain relative relevance within an
identified set of herbals. μS=((S–Min S))/((Max S–Min S))(Eqs. 2) Molecular Docking: To validate
the bioprospection model, docking simulations of predominant phytoconstituents against most
relevant bioactivity parameter was carried out using Maestro 9.4, Schrodinger, USA Estimation of
Physiological Function Indicator (HΔI) Nutraceuticals were evaluated for their Physiological
function indicators (HΔI) utilizing the following formula: HΔI=E value (test)÷Evalue (control) The
average was also calculated by using HΔI value taken together for estimating the most efficient
herbal compound. 4.2 Results 4.2.1 Classical Bioprospection Classical Bioprospection exhibited 100
herbals combining individual analysis of RA and S. typhimurium. The common plants based on
clinical manifestation showed37 nutraceuticals common to both categories. This primary database is
part of reviewing of literature thus, enlisted as probable nutraceuticals targeting pre–existing
inflammatory disorder suffering from opportunistic infections (Table 2.4). The list of a plants
rationale based selection of rheumatic and virulence factors targetingpathophysiologiyRA
aggravated by the impact of MDR S. typhimuriumasshown in Table 4.1 and

Wound Infection
2.1.1. Most common pathogenic strains that cause wound infection
The most common pathogenic strains that cause wound infection is Staphylococcus aureus (35%),
Escherichia coli (15%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13%) and other bacteria (37%) (Amit Kumar
Gupta et al., 2015). In another study, Staphylococcus aureus has been reported as the major cause of
wound infection with (24.2%), followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (21.4 %), Escherichia coli
(14.8 %) and another different organism (39.6 %) (Jyoti Sangwan et al., 2016). Staphylococcus
aureus (Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is gram positive bacteria and can be a lethally
opportunistic pathogen or human commensal, it is one of the leading organisms causing a variety of
hospital–acquired infection and community acquired infection (Brown et al., 2014). S. aureus has ...
S. aureus responsible for 70% skin infection in children, moreover, the incidence of skin infection
caused by MRSA is in a continuous increasing (Nataraj et al., 2014). Pseudomonas aeruginosa is
gram–negative bacteria, it is classic opportunistic bacteria and are often severe, life–threatening and
difficult to treat due to it has an innate resistance to many of antibiotic and disinfection (Bangera D
et al., 2015; Wendell Lou B. Ladion et al., 2015). P. aeruginosa recently acquired significant as one
of the most important organisms that cause nosocomial infection due to having an ability to survive
in hospital environments, in addition, it has the ability to develop resistance against many
antimicrobial agents (Nagoba et al., 2013). Wound infection caused by P. aeruginosa rapidly
deteriorating and lead to systemic spread and therefore death within days or weeks (Turner et al.,
2014). Escherichia coli is gram negative bacteria and considered as a member of the
Enterobacteriaceae, it is innocuous resident in a gastrointestinal tract, but at the same time has the
ability to cause

Serratia Marcescens Research Paper
With both the classical and genetic testing concluding that the unknown is Serratia marcescens.
Some strains of the bacterium Serratia marcescens are capable of manufacturing a pigment called
prodigiosin, which ranges in color from dark red to pale pink, depending on the age of the colonies.
(Climaco, et al., (2017). Almost all stains can grow at temperature between 10°C and 37°C and at a
pH between 5–9(Bergey's). Currently 14 species of Serratia marcescen are recognized within the
genus Enterobacteriaceae, eight of which are associated with human infection (Herra, et al., (2010)).
As an opportunistic human pathogen, Serratia marcescens is involved in nosocomial infections,
particularly urinary tract infection, pneumonia, respiratory tract infections, endocarditis,
osteomyelitis, septicemia, eye infection, meningitis and wound infections (Serratia marcescens. ...
It is found everywhere in the environment but it flourishes in damp conditions like bathrooms,
where it is commonly found growing on tile grout, shower corners, toilet water line, and basin,
where it manifests as a pink discoloration and slimy film feeding off phosphorus–containing
materials or fatty substances such as soap and shampoo residue (Serratia marcescens. (n.d.). The
topmost risk factor for Serratia marcescen infection is long drawn out hospitalization. Those who
have a weak immune system are more prone to the development of these nosocomial infections.
Important triggering factors include: intra peritoneal, intra venous or urinary catheters,
instrumentation of the respiratory tract, such as bronchoscopy and ventilators, intra articular
injections, trauma to the skull, neuro–surgery, epidural injection, or a lumbar puncture.
(Serratiamarcescens.net: What Is Serratia Marcescens? (2016)). Most Serratia marcescen strains are
resistant to several antibiotics because of the presence of R–factors, which are a type of plasmid that
carry one or more genes that encode

Fungal Pathogens
Opportunistic and invasive fungal infections have increased dramatically in recent years. Candida
and Aspergillus spp. are the most famous fungal pathogens that account for majority of invasive and
opportunistic fungal infections, respectively, occurring worldwide. 1This scenario is being observed
among individuals with suppressed immune systems brought about by the use of cytotoxic drugs,
immunosuppressive therapy, or human immunodeficiency virus infection.2 These infections have
also been observed in some iatrogenic or nosocomial clinical settings. Autopsy data indicate that
more than half of the patients who die with malignancies are infected with Candida spp.,
approximately one–third with Aspergillus spp., and increasing numbers with Cryptococcus ... Show
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Log P values of designed molecule and Fluconazole were found to be 2.49 and 0.99 respectively.
(Calculated using Chemdraw software). (II) Tertiary amino moiety as bioisoster was selected to
replace tertiary alcohol of Fluconazole. Compared with tertiary alcohol, the tertiary amino group
could not only be liable to form hydrogen bonds, but also accepts proton or form quaternary salts
which results in the increase of water solubility or coordinate with metal ions which probably lead to
enhance affinity, selectivity and potency in biological properties.18 (III) Several studies from the
past have demonstrated that incorporating halobenzyl moiety into organic molecules could greatly
improve the pharmacological properties.19–21 An enhanced pharmacological action results from an
increased rate of absorption, transport of drugs in vivo, and a higher lipid solubility.22 The greater
flexibility of the benzyl moiety as compared to phenyl group may show improved molecular
biological

Opportunistic Disease Essay
Introduction
An opportunistic infection is an infection that normal immune systems can usually fight off but
weakened immune systems cannot. The germs take this opportunity to enter the body and cause an
infection. The immune system is the body's natural disease–fighting system.
What causes opportunistic infections?
Many types of bacteria, viruses, and fungi can cause opportunistic infections. The types of infections
that you are at risk for are related to the reason your immune system is weak. For example, the
opportunistic infections most likely to affect a person with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) or
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) are different from those most likely to affect a person
who has recently had an organ transplant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Wash your hands frequently with soap and water. If soap and water are not available, use hand
sanitizer.
General instructions
Make sure you are up–to–date on recommended vaccinations. Ask your health care provider what
vaccines are recommended for you.
Take over–the–counter and prescription medicines only as told by your health care provider.
Be careful around animals. Make sure pets are vaccinated and that cats are indoor only. Wash your
hands after touching any animals, and wear gloves when changing cat litter or working outside in
the soil.
Practice safe sex. Use condoms every time you have sexual intercourse, and make sure to use them
correctly. This will help to prevent exposure to STIs (sexually transmitted infections).
If you use IV drugs, do not reuse or share needles. If you need help to stop using drugs, talk with
your health care provider.
Keep all follow–up visits as told by your health care provider. This is important.
Contact a health care provider if:
You feel ill. It is very important to visit your health care provider right away if you have any signs or
symptoms of infection. Monitor yourself for certain symptoms, such

Staphylococcus Epidermidis Research Paper
Nowadays seen as an important opportunistic pathogen "Staphylococcus epidermidis is one of
thirty–three known species belonging to the genus Staphylococcus" (5). It can be found within the
mucous membranes, as a part of the skin flora, and in animals. If S. epidermidis comes in contact
with a person who has a compromised immune system, it may cause infection merely to those inside
of hospital settings. It like to live on the surface, but once inside a host can cause serious problems.
There are many different strands of Staphylococcus, but this particular bacterium was "first
differentiated from other forms of Staphylococcus in 1884 by Friedrich Julius Rosenbach" (6). S.
flexneri causes dysentery that results in the destruction of the epithelial

C-Diff Research Paper
Clostridium Difficile also known as C–Diff is a bacterial infection of the gastrointestinal tract of the
human body. C–Diff is a gram positive bacillus, which is spore forming. C–Diff is one of the many
superbug that health care workers and hospitals battle. There is a very large push by the Centers for
Disease Control (CDC) to educate on hand hygiene and room decontamination for patients that have
tested positive for C–Diff in a health care setting. This is because the spread of the disease is
through the fecal–oral route, and with spores being able to live on contaminated surfaces for a long
period of time.
C–Diff is an opportunistic infection, it will affect an individual whose flora in the intestines has been
compromised by the treatment of antibiotics for a different infection like pneumonia, MRSA, etc...
Antibiotics do not know what bacterial are good and what is bad. They kill all bacteria. This gives
the C–Diff spores the opportunity to then take over the flora in the intestine that are being killed by
the current regiment of antibiotics. C–Diff affects the flora of the large intestine ... Show more
Symptoms range from mild to severe infections. A patients will present with watery stools,
dehydration, and mild to severe abdominal cramping, blood or pus in the stool, leukocytosis and
even kidney failure. Detection of C–Diff is very easy for an experienced health care worker all you
need is a good nose. C–Diff has a very familiar smell that one will remember. For laboratory testing,
physicians will usually order a stool sample be taken. Stool can be tested for the presence of C–Diff
toxins A and B. A microbiologist will run either an Enzyme Immunoassay (EIA), Polymerase Chain
Reaction, or a Cell Cytotoxicity Assay. Each of these test look for C–Diff toxins in the human stool.
Many hospitals will run the EIA and Cell Cytotoxicity Assay to collaborate positive

The Movie And The Band Played On
AIDS brought on many ethical implications. As research was conducted AIDS became well known.
The movie And the Band Played On tells the story of the discovery of HIV and AIDS and the
political issues that went along in the scientific community. During the movie it showed how each
patient with AIDS were treated like they were not part of the human race. The CDC tried their best
to gather enough money for their research. Back then people were uneducated on what exactly the
nation was up against. At the beginning of 1982 there were 447 deaths related to AIDS by 1983 the
death rose to 1476 (The AIDS Epidemic 1981–1987, 1981). In June of 1981 the CDC reported an
occurrence of PCP which is known as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in homosexual males in
California (The AIDS Epidemic 1981–1987, 1981). Back in the 80s there was very little known
detail in about AIDS. There was controversy in the movie of who should get credit for the finding of
AIDS either Dr. Robert Gallo or Dr. Gottlieb. This was an ethical implication that was ongoing
throughout the movie. Don Francis who was part of the CDC wanted to help find what exactly this
unknown contagion was that was killing so many others. Another ethical implication was when the
gay society was treated as if they were the cause of the AIDS epidemic. AIDS did occur in most the
gay society but when women and children started contracting the disease the CDC linked it back to
the blood banks. The blood bank executive fried back and

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Research Paper
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is an important Gram–negative opportunistic pathogen that
has the capability to create variable clinical infections including, but not limited to, wound
infections, urinary tract infections (UTIs) and blood stream infections (BSI), particularly in
hospitalized and immunocompromised patients (1, 2). P. aeruginosa was the second most common
cause of hospital–acquired pneumonia, third and fifth common cause of hospital–acquired UTIs in
USA and Europe, respectively (2– 4). It has been demonstrated that P. aeruginosa due to low
permeability of outer membrane in combination with efflux pump overexpression is intrinsically
resistant to a variety of antibiotics (5). Expression of Different classes of extended–spectrum

The Difficulties of Treating MRSA Essay
The Difficulties of Treating MRSA
MRSA is difficult to treat because of it's resistance. Acquired immune processes include the body's
adaptive response to antibiotics. ie when given the body makes specific antibodies to combat MRSA
by destroying it's outer membrane. Antibiotics can be given orally or through injections. The main
antibiotics used are vancomycin and rifampicin and they are most effective when used in
combination. If it's used early then it can eradicate the infection within 48 hours. Moreover, as a
preventative measure it may be given immediately after surgery (particularly invasive techniques.)
Vancomycin is considered the "last line of defence" but alone it may be ineffective as, ... Show more
Modulations of antibiotics policies alone do not ultimately eliminate MRSA from clinical settings.
Thus, another method for the cytoxicity of MRSA is described by Von Eiff et al. They describe how
S. Aureus can be killed in vitro by shock–waves. They also suggest osmolyte stimulation of innate
anti–microbial defence systems and bacteriophhage therapy to eliminate the weaker strains of
MRSA. Therefore, concentrate efforts on a narrower range of MRSA so MRSA as a whole is more
likely to be significantly reduced if not eradicated completely.
Other alternatives to anti–biotics include surgery. This may be via thorough the excision of all
infected tissue and bone (which is a compulsory procedure,) the management of dead space with
"packing" or drains.
However, anti–biotics used in combination with surgery is often necessary for a more long–term
"cure." On–top of this the management of MRSA requires infection control, offloading, adequate
vascularity, and meticulous wound care.
A surgical option could be through maggot therapy. This is the debridement of necrotic tissue with
sterile fly larvae and clinical trials suggest it is very effective in relation to MRSA. Maggots can
provide a cost–effective alternative to conventional treatments, but the therapy become very
unpopular with the introduction of antibiotics. However, with the treatment of chronic wounds

Write An Essay On Crocodilians
Antibiotics from natural sources
Several antibiotics known to man have been already discovered since the 1940's, in which most of it
are obtained from natural sources (Chaeychomsri et al., 2010). Synthesizing large amounts of
antibiotics nowadays have given way to the bacteria, as well as viruses to develop immunity to a
certain antibiotic strain, thus poses a threat of bacterial resistance, as these bacterial and viral species
tend to become resistant to several antibacterial agents as a result of chromosomal and genetic
mutation and adaptation to the agent (Neu, 1992). Due to this setback, many scientists have also
initiated solutions that could be derived from natural sources, which led to the exploration and
research on several animals, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Crocodilians are opportunistic, top trophic carnivores inhabiting a semi–aquatic environment.
Similar among all non–avian reptiles, crocodilians are ectothermic, and thus lack the necessary high
metabolic rate and insulation in contrast to that of endothermic species (Coulson & Herbert, 1981;
Seebacher & Franklin, 2005).
As such, all their physiological processes are directly associated with temperature, as well as their
immune function, their feeding regimes as well as their assimilation, reproduction, growth and
development (Lance, 2003; Lang & Andrews, 1994).
To achieve optimal physiology, crocodilians must regulate their body temperature through
behavioural means (i.e. basking and submergence), as they are considered as poikilotherms, which
base their body functions to the environment (Smith, 1975). In association with all jawed
vertebrates, the crocodilian immune system is dichotomous, which is composed of both innate and
adaptive (acquired) immunity (Dzik,

Osteomyelitis Research Paper
Abstract Osteomyelitis is a broad and debilitating disease typically triggered by a variety of
conditions. Osteomyelitis starts off as inflammation seen within bone and bone marrow that can
quickly progress into a large, subclassified infection. The length of time the infection has been
present in the body and whether or not there is a pus formation or increased density among the
infected bone is commonly used to classify severity. Pyrogenic bacteria or mycobacteria
systematically attack the route and anatomic location of the infection evolving acute conditions into
chronic ones. "Staphylococcus Aureus is a gram–positive, round shaped, non–mobile cocci typically
found in clusters inside these wounds. Staphylococcus Aureus is one of the most common causes of
infections after injury or surgery and affects nearly 500,000 patients in hospitals each year.
Staphylococcus Aureus belongs to the family Staphylcoccaceae and survives by affecting all known
mammalian species including humans" (www.news–medical.net). Osteomyelitis can start in one
area of the body while spreading through the blood stream into other bone regions. Typical
treatment options for Osteomyelitis includes antibiotics, removal of ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Bones can become infected with Osteomyelitis through the blood stream by an open fracture or
surgical wound. "Only two out of every 10,000 people acquire Osteomyelitis in a lifetime. The
condition affects children and adults but in different ways. Certain conditions and behaviors can
weaken the immune system increasing an individual's risk of obtaining Osteomyelitis such a
diabetes mellitus, alcoholism, hemodialysis, rheumatoid arthritis, HIV/AIDS, sickle cell anemia, or
a lack of blood supply (www.wedmd.com). In children, Osteomyelitis is usually acute and very easy
to treat showing signs in the bones of the arms and legs. In adults, Osteomyelitis can also be acute or
chronic and can persist due to a reoccurring medical

The AIDS Plague In The 20th Century
Introduction The Human evolution would not have been complete without science, life forms, cars,
fantasy, skydiving or the niches microorganisms call home would still be a mystery, Infection and
diseases would not be easy to diagnose, and research work will neither improve until man decided to
take a stand and make a change. Where and how would a Disease with so much Power shut down
our immune system and leave us like walking corpse, this kind of Disease was either sent down as a
spell or from the hands of unclean people this would be questions that would basically cause a
whole community to drink hot tea in the dead of the night from roots and shrubs to cure an infected
person of a disease undiagnosed as Hiv but with fevers symptoms ... Show more content on
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With such badly compromised immune systems people with AIDS get a growing number of serious
sicknesses, they are called opportunistic diseases. With no treatment, the AIDS patients predictably
survive about three years. The most usual Symptoms of AIDS are fever, chills, swollen, sweats,
lymph glands, weight loss, and weakness. The diagnosis of AIDS is when the CD4 cell counts drops
below 200 cells/mm or if they acquire certain opportunistic diseases. Being infected with the HIV
can increase the viral load in

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Research Paper
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a motile, rod–shaped, gram–negative organism. It is an opportunistic,
nosocomial pathogen. P. aeruginosa is reported to affect around 3700 to 4000 people per year.
Although P. aeruginosa is ubiquitous in the environment in things such as soil, water, and plants, it is
also commonly acquired in hospitals; especially in intensive care units. It rarely occurs in a healthy
person. The infection occurs in people who are already hospitalized or have a weak immune system.
An example includes, how a patient who is receiving chemotherapy for cancer, has an increased risk
of contracting the infection. It can be contracted through simply breathing it in through breathing
machines. If it affects the lungs, it will cause pneumonia. Pneumonia is associated with difficulty of
breathing.
P. aeruginosa may enter into the patient's bloodstream in a few ways. It starts when health workers
who are working with the patients do not wash their hands. It is then passed to the patients through
breathing machines, intravenous tubes, cuts or wounds. Once it has entered the body, is adheres to
tissue surfaces using its flagellum ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The most common medium is blood agar. P. aeruginosa has very simple nutritional requirements.
When grown on blood agar, it is known to form round colonies with a fluorescent greenish color
under ultraviolet light due to the production of pyocyanine. It also gives off a sweet odor and shows
a B–hemolysis. P. aeruginosa is known to produce acid, but no gas when in glucose. It is not an
active fermenter of carbohydrates. The optimal growth is 37˚ C. It is oxidative and non fermentative.
Although an aerobic atmosphere is necessary for optimal growth, it sometimes can be grown
anaerobically if nitrates are present in the medium. It is easily differentiated from other bacteria
when grown properly with no

Opportunistic Infections: Brain
Opportunistic Infections: Brain
Cytomegalovirus – Although this virus can affect the entire body, it commonly occurs in the
stomach, causing fever, bloody diarrhea and stomach pain.
Mycobacterium Avium Complex – This is a bacterial infection that can cause persistent fever, night
sweats, fatigue, weight loss, anemia, abdominal pain, dizziness, diarrhea and weakness. The bacteria
that cause this infection is found in water, dust, soil and bird droppings.
Cryptoccoccal Menigitis – This is a yeast–like fungus infection that usually involves the brain and
lungs, although it can affect almost any organ. The fungus that causes this condition is found in soil
throughout the world. It is most common in soil contaminated by bird droppings. This disease most
often occurs when a person's CD4+ T cell count falls below 100 cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In people with HIV and AIDS, encephalopathy is usually caused by an infectious agent, such as a
bacteria, virus or prion.
Encephalopathy most often occurs when a person's CD4+T cell count falls below 50 cells per cubic
millimeter of blood. Toxoplasma–seropositive patients who have a CD4+T cell count of less than
100 cells per cubic millimeter of blood should be treated with prophylaxis to prevent developing
encephalopathy.
Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML) – Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy
is a rare disorder of the nervous system caused by a common human polyomavirus, JC virus. It leads
to the destruction of the myelin sheath that covers nerve cells. The myelin sheath is the fatty
covering that acts as an insulator on nerve fibers in the brain. Symptoms include mental
deterioration, vision loss, speech disturbances, inability to coordinate movements, paralysis and
ultimately coma. In rare cases, seizures may

Wound Healing Case Study
Wound healing is an intricate process, whereas the skin may heal itself after an injury. At the time of
injury, the inflammatory phase begins and is noted as a significant time, because this process
prepares the wound environment for recovery. Since Mr. Jones laceration is five days old, suturing
the laceration may not be appropriate. The wound was not stitched and allowed to heal by primary
intention (first intention), because scarring is minimized during this process and no tissue loss is
noted. Mr. Jones wound will have to heal by primary intention. Cleaning the laceration daily and
applying a clean dressing will invoke healing. Since Mr. Jones will be a risk for infection, the
continuation of antibiotics will be beneficial. Mr. Jones ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is a disease of the immune system caused by
HIV, which is a retrovirus that causes acute immunosuppression. HIV can produce an increase in
fatal diseases which includes wasting syndromes and central nervous system disintegration. People
with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) develop opportunistic infections once the
immune system becomes severely compromised. A patient's CD4 T–cell is directly related to the
risk of developing an opportunistic infection. Additionally, HIV most frequently infects CD4 cells.
The CD4 cell count is a key gauge of the health of the immune system. CD4 levels lower than 200
will be at risk for an opportunistic infection. .Patients with AIDS routinely receives a test called the
CD4 test. This blood test is taken to count several types of cells. Moreover, this test do not count
CD4 cells, it is a calculation based on total white blood cells and the proportion of cells that are
CD4. The blood sample is tested to count several types of cells. Interpretation of this test does not
count the CD4 cells directly. Instead, the laboratory makes an estimate based on total white blood
cells and the percentage of cells that are CD4. Therefore, the CD4 count is not exact. When the CD4
cells has gone down, it is indicative of a weakened immune system. The lower the CD4 cells, the
more probable the patient will become sick. A patient loses the ability to fight infection when the
CD4 cells have gone down. Once the patient has lost the ability to fight off germs, an opportunistic
infection such as pneumonia, skin infections, oral disorders, diarrhea, AIDS related dementia,
Kaposi sarcoma, and CNS disorders may occur. Routinely patients are advised to check CD4 cells
every three to six months when initiating antiretroviral treatment and once levels has increased, test
every six to twelve

Pulmonary Infections
II) Pulmonary infections:
1–Bacterial infection:
The bacterial infection in lung usually starts with the introduction of organisms into the airways.
The routes by which bacteria can reach air spaces are inhalation of an aerosol, aspiration of
respiratory or gastrointestinal secretions, or bacteraemic spread. The common bacilli include
Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, anaerobic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus,
enteric gram–negative bacilli, Pseudomonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Mycobacterium tuberculosis
and Legionelia spp.(32,33)
1.1–Tuberculosis (TB):
TB can involve various organs but the most common organ involved is lung. Primary pulmonary TB
usually affects the lower lobes of lung or the anterior segment of an upper lobe. ... Show more
The fungus is ubiquitous and is especially abundant in avium, particularly pigeon excreta. Although
the disease occurs in apparently healthy individuals, it is more often seen as an opportunistic
infection especially in patients with haematologic malignancies, AIDS or patients with defective
cellular immunity. The pulmonary lesions include diffuse miliary lesions or patchy consolidation of
mucoid nature.(32,36)
3.3– Candidiasis:
Candidiasis comprises of superficial, mucocutaneous, or systemic fungal infection caused by yeast
like fungi of the genus Candida. Candida albicans is the most common type. Pulmonary
involvement can be a)endobronchial/ primary pulmonary candidiasis acquired by aspiration of
Candida spp. from oral cavity or upper respiratory tract, b)hematogenous pulmonary candidiasis and
c)embolic pulmonary candidiasis in children with indwelling venous catheters.
4–Bacterial infections that resemble fungal infections:
4.1.Nocardiosis:
Nocardiosis is a localized or disseminated infection caused by aerobic, filamentous, branching
gram–positive bacteria. It is an uncommon infection in immunocompetent hosts. Pulmonary lesions
may be large cavitating abscesses or diffuse fibrino–suppurative

Impetigo: Contagious Bacterial Infection
Impetigo
Tionna Anderson and Mattie Pierce
Honors Human Anatomy and Physiology– 3B
Impetigo is a contagious bacterial infection that occurs in the epidermal layer of the skin. It is
caused mainly by staphylococcal and streptococcal bacteria. The two bacteria mentioned in the
previous sentence are types of coccal bacteria, which is round or spherical in shape; streptococci
occurs in chains while staphylococci occurs in clusters or groups. This infection arises most
commonly around the nose and mouth and is most prominent among children. There are two types
of this skin disease: bullous and nonbullous impetigo. Bullous impetigo is only created from staph
bacteria, and cells are formed that lessen adhesion between the dermis ... Show more content on
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One of the most common forms of treatment is antibacterial cream. Topical ointments, such as
Mupirocin and Retapamulin, would be applied to mild forms of impetigo. Oral antibiotics would be
prescribed if the infection becomes extremely severe. Generally, Neosporin would not be potent for
the treatment of impetigo. If the medications are taken accordingly and effectively, the infection
could be healed in a week. The patient could also use gentle washing as a remedy. The person would
softly wash his or her skin with antibacterial soap and repeat the process several times a

Candida albicans Essay
Candida albicans
Candida albicans is a dimorphic fungus. This means that that C. albicans has to different phenotypic
forms, an oval shaped yeast form and a branching hyphal form. C. albicans normal habitat is the
mucosal membranes of humans and various other mammals including the mouth, gut, vagina, and
sometimes the skin. Normally C. albicans causes no damage and lives symbiotically with the human
or animal host, even helping to breakdown minute amounts of fiber that are eaten in the host's diet.
The normal bacterial flora of the gut, mouth, and vaginal mucosa act as a barrier to the over growth
of fungal infections like C. albicans. Loss of this normal flora is one of the main predisposing
factors to an infection by C. albicans. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
albicans can gain an advantage over the normal bacterial flora. Two common substances are steroids
and birth control pills. These both act to alter the host's body chemistry in a way that is favorable to
the over growth of C. albicans. If the host is immunocompromised to begin with as in the case of
AIDS patients or organ transplant receivers that are on immunosupresive drugs C. albicans
infections are very prominent. A common symptom among AIDS patients is oral thrush, where there
is a huge over population of C. albicans on the back of the hosts tongue, it appears as white
speckles.
When C. albicans becomes pathogenic, or switches it's phenotype to the hyphal form to invade the
host cell epithelium, be it the mouth or the gut or the vagina; these infections are superficial and can
usually be treated with common anti–fungal agents like fluconazole, diflucan, azole–related anti
fungal drugs, amphotericin B, fungizone ( I think this is the same as amphotericin B). However in
severely immunocompromised individuals like transplant patients or AIDS patients C. albicans can
become systemic. That is the fungus will travel through the blood stream and infect any major organ
it can. When C. albicans has become systemic it is almost always fatal because of the similarity
between the host cells and the fungus, and the lack of a reliable anti fungal drug.
Common symptoms of an oral C. albicans infection include burning pain,

Influenza Viruses Are Responsible For An Average Of The...
Abstract
Influenza virus infection remains one of the largest disease burdens on humankind. Influenza–
associated bacterial co–infections contribute to severe disease and mortality, during pandemic and
seasonal influenza episodes. The mechanisms of severe morbidity following influenza–bacterial co–
infections mainly include failure of an antibacterial immune response and synergy of the pathogens.
Moreover, the failure to resume function and tolerance is one of the main reasons for excessive
mortality. In this review, some new advances of the mechanisms of severe disease associated with
bacterial co–infections following influenza virus infection are discussedreviewed. Analysis of these
mechanisms should help to develop novel approaches for the prevention and treatment of severe
influenza virus co–infections.
Keywords: co–infection; influenza; bacteria; resume function; tolerance; mortality. Background
Despite modern medical and public health standards, influenza remains one of the main principal
lethal infectious diseases worldwide [1]. Influenza viruses are responsible for an average of 400,000
deaths per year globally [2, 3]. During previous influenza pandemics (H1N1, 1918; H2N2, 1957;
H3N2, 1968; and H1N1, 2009) and seasonal epidemics, many cases of influenza virus–related
deaths actually occurred due to bacterial co–infections [4–11]. Since the 1950s, researchers have
increasingly focused on concomitant infections with influenza viruses and a range of bacterial
agents.

Microbial Synergy
Microbial synergy increases the net pathogenic effect and wound infections severity, which show a
correlation between microflora of the gut, skin or oral cavity and pathogens infect wounds (Bowler
et al., 2001). Staphylococcus aureus is a commensal gram–positive cocci that considered as a
leading cause of wound infections and a potential cause of life–threating infections as sepsis,
endocarditis, toxic–shock syndrome, osteomyelitis and pneumonia (Breathnach, 2013). It is an
opportunistic pathogens possess many virulence factors, including formation of biofilm that resist
host immunity (Foster et al., 2014). Methicillin–resistant S. aureus has a gene known as mecA
responsible for resistance to methicillin which revealed high prevalence of infections lately ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
aeruginosa is one of the most common isolated strains exhibited natural resistance to antibiotics, in
addition to its ability to develop resistance to further drugs (Yezli et al., 2014). A gram–negative
Escherichia coli colonizes the gastrointestinal tract of human as normal flora and some of them
acquired a virulence features that confers their ability to cause infections (Croxen et al., 2013). It is a
major cause of urinary tract, enteric diarrhoea and systemic infections as bacteraemia, cellulitis,
nosocomial pneumonia, infectious arthritis, peritonitis and the leading cause of neonatal meningitis
(Pitout, 2012). Recently, E. coli has a global dissemination as one of the most predominant isolates
with resistance to β– lactam and other antibiotics (Yezli et al., 2015). Enterococcus species are
gram–positive cocci spread in an intestinal tract, airways, skin and other mucosal surfaces that the
most important species are E. faecalis and E. faecium (Savini et al., 2012). Enterococci become one
of the infection sources acquired in hospitals that cause urinary tract infections, bacteraemia,
endocarditis, wound infections, meningitis as well as intraabdominal and pelvic infections (Agudelo
Higuita and Huycke,

Essay on Diversity Awareness
Diversity Awareness Differences in our society are many, including age, religion, physical and
mental abilities, gender, sexual orientation, income, family or social status, and physical appearance.
Anyplace where differences are found leaves room for stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalizations
about people usually based on inaccurate information or assumptions rather than facts. (Wei, 1996)
Stereotypes do not take into account the great diversity of people within a group of people. Nor do
stereotypes consider the present circumstances of the individual. Even worse, stereotypes can lead to
prejudicial or discriminatory behavior. Most of the observations I made concerning my
stereotypypical behavior circled around rich ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
My hometown is nothing like the Oxford community; almost everyone in my hometown works in
trade industries which never allow one to live a lavish life. For every arrogant rich person there is a
caring philanthropist that helps people like me and does not flaunt their money. Although the
generalizations I have formed about rich people will be hard to disown, I think that they should
disappear with more contact with members of this group. (Husain, 1996) I also believe that once I
graduate from college and become acquainted with rich people outside of Oxford, I will form new
opinions of them. The second group that I often stereotype are the Asian students at Ole Miss. It
seems that wherever you go around campus you never see them with people of different ethnic
backgrounds. I often see them as antisocial individuals that spend all their time in the library. I have
not been around many Asians and how I perceive them is through the few that attend Ole Miss. I
believe that culture has a lot to do with why I formed the generalizations of Asians. The media often
notes that Asians are academically superior to Americans. Members of the Anglo and African
American ethnic groups often agree that Asians are less than we are to try to gain stature upon one
group. I also noted that

Chanda's Secret- Stigma
Sang 1
Sang To Meeraal Shafaat Interpreting Texts 20th December 2012 Final draft AIDS– The stigma of
life Since the invention of medicine, never have human beings needed to face as a big challenge as
the present: The AIDS epidemic! When people have HIV virus and it continues to develop seriously,
the HIV virus badly damages their bodies' immune systems, which leads them to the risk for
opportunistic infections, meaning they easily get sickness without any protection. In this period,
their disease will turn into AIDS, which has taken countless lives of people and left the pain for
many families in society. Surrounding this incurable disease, there are plenty of intractable
problems. Especially the perceptions about AIDS of community and ... Show more content on
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These patients not only have to fight against the disease that is taking their lives day by day, but they
also have to fight back the community's prejudices of their unwanted diseases. Victims of AIDS
have to face the death without anyone standing by such as Jonah after being abandoned, he just
receives an excuse from Mary, "Sorry, old friend." (108) Actually, no one can understand the death
in the coldness, loneliness, and shame they are suffering. Because of having a disease that people
fear and see them as stigmas that need to be prevented from their lives, they are shunned by relatives
and all people around them. They feel empty. They are humiliated. There is only a world that is
indicative of their own to cope with illness; they crave the voice, laughter and someone's care more
than ever, but it is just their dreams. The patients know that living with a serious, stigmatized and
potentially life–threatening illness can be extremely stressful and difficult, they also scare that
society will alienate their family. To avoid the bad reputation of the family being involved infected
patients, whether voluntary or forced, most of them have to leave their family. Jonah's death is
probably caused by his pessimistic thoughts about life, no one even look at him and his life means
nothing. As a result, not until the disease kills him, his survival ends in the bottom of an abandoned
well. In contrast,

Tuberculosis Is The Most Common Opportunistic Infection...
Tuberculosis (TB) is the most common opportunistic infection and cause of death among people
living with Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Olaniran, Hassan–Olajokun, Oyovwevotu &
Agunlejika, 2011). HIV–positive patients have about a 20–37 folds higher chance of developing
Tuberculosis than their HIV–negative counterparts (Kamath, Sharma, Pattanshetty, Hegde &
Chandrasekaran, 2013)
The interaction between these two diseases has synergistic effect leading to excessive burden on the
patient, their support network and the society at large. According to Siika,Yiannoutsos, Wools–
Kaloustian, Musick, Mwangi, Diero & Carter (2013), TB accounts for about 26% of all HIV/AIDS–
related deaths with more than 90% of the deaths occurring in developing countries, mostly in Sub–
Saharan Africa. HIV–TB co–infected patients have been shown to have worse treatment outcomes
(high mortality, Defaulter, Failure, etc.) than when treating TB alone. WHO has worked to provide a
national programs and stake holders with guidelines on how to implement and scale up collaborative
TB/HIV management activities that can be tailored to each adapting country's unique context. The
purpose of the paper is to critically appraise this generic guideline using the Appraisal of Guidelines
for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) Instrument particularly evaluating the process and outcome
measures related to this guideline.
Reasons for the Chosen Guideline as a "Good Fit"
This clinical guideline was developed as a

Salmonella Essay
Gastrointestinal diseases are pervasive problem that is caused by ingestion of contaminated foods or
water in which an extensive etiological agents known as enteric pathogen are present, [1].
Salmonella is one of the most opportunistic gram negative, facultative anaerobic food borne
pathogens that represent a major health problem and a substantial cause of food poisoning[2].
Salmonellosis caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) stance as the
second most prevalent cause of acute gastroenteritis that affecting one million illnesses in the United
States, with 19,000 hospitalizations and 380 deaths[3]. Infection begins with the ingestion of
contaminated food or water then characterized by attachment of the bacteria by fimbriae or pili to
cells lining the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in their cell wall leads to the monocyte activation and production of
RA–associated cytokines interleukin (IL)–1 and IL–33 through the TLR pathways. HLA–B27 has
been shown to be a predisposing factor to increases the risk of developing arthritis that is more
likely to be severe and prolonged[8]. However, there is strong evidence found between reactive
arthritis and Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) B27 genotype (Major histocompatibility complex) in
humans that are present on the surface of all body cells that contain a nucleus, and high
concentrations were found in in leukocytes. HLA–B27 has been shown to be a predisposing factor
in individuals with reactive arthritis and also affect the elimination of the infecting bacteria. Despite,
HLA–B27 is not trigger the initial infection itself, but it increases the risk of developing arthritis.
Overall, burden rates of Salmonella–associated arthritis to vary between 6% and 30% followed by
the other enteric infection reported to be between 1 and 4% in adults with Campylobacter or
Shigella

The Epidemic Of Infectious Diseases Essay
For thousands of years, infectious diseases have had a strong influence over human populations by
challenging the immune system to continuously adapt to new virulent strains. With the advantage of
reproducing more rapidly than the human immune response, microorganisms that cause even minor
infections can prove to be fatal (Parham, 2015). Over time, outbreaks such as 'The Great Plague'
have threatened to bring an end to society. Without the ability to contain these diseases
geographically and provide means of prevention, they run the risk of wiping out the human race
completely. When considering economic costs, the vast numbers of individuals who fall ill due to an
epidemic can increase healthcare costs as well as decrease labour markets. Indirect costs as a result
of public actions, such as fleeing the area of outbreak, can contribute to economic damage (Barker
& Bacon, 2015); not to mentioned the increased likelihood of transferring the disease from one area
to another. Two infectious diseases that are of continuous interest today, HIV/AIDS and Ebola, will
be contrasted in terms of their outcomes and possible alternatives to tackling similar diseases in the
future. Both an economic and social lens will be utilized in order to provide an analysis that covers
all implications of the disease.
Beginning in the early 20th century in Africa, a retrovirus known as the Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV) presented itself; characterized by an attack on the hosts' immune system

Human Immunodeficiency Virus : A Type Of Cancer And Other...
In early 1981, several young men reported that they are having several infections like pneumonia,
Kaposi's sarcoma a type of cancer and other opportunistic infections. (A timeline of aids) Several
people lost their life too. At that time medical world was not aware of what causes those infections.
Only thing known was the symptoms were seen mostly in gay men. In September 1982 CDC named
those symptoms as Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or AIDS. (Holland, 2013) Later studies
done by Dr. Robert C. Gallo, M.D, and others found that a virus called Human Immunodeficiency
Virus or HIV caused AIDS.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV is a Lentivirus. HIV like all other viruses attacks the
immune system. In case most of viruses our immune ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Not everybody's progress is in same rate; it depends on their immune system and lifestyle. There is
no cure available for AIDS available this time; there are some medical treatments that can help to
prolong their life. Case of NBA player Magic Johnson is an example. He was contracted HIV in
1991, contrary to the beliefs, he is still remaining health and leading a healthy life.
According to CDC, HIV infections continue to be a major epidemic and in 2013 there were
1,144,500 HIV infected people in USA. Main preventive measure to reduce HIV infections is
increasing awareness because there is no effective treatments or vaccines available till date. There
are several initiatives from government and other organizations to increase awareness about HIV
and to improve health of people who live with HIV. "Healthy People" is one of them. "Healthy
People" is a national agenda that communicates a vision for improving people's health and attaining
a healthy lifestyle. This initiative sets specific measurable goals with specific targets to achieve by
certain time. The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) manages "Healthy
people" and it is a division of U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The current
version is "Healthy people 2020". (HIV) The current version is initiated after the release of National
HIV/AIDS strategy by white house in 2010 and success of healthy people 2010.
Healthy people

S. Marcenscens Research Paper
I was given unknown 18, after the gram stains and biological tests I concluded that unknown 18 is
Serratia marcescens. S. marcenscens is a rod shaped, motile, gram–negative bacteria, it was first
isolated in 1819 by Italian pharmacist, Bizio. The S. marcenscens first isolated came from polenta
that was taking on an unusual bright red color. Initially S. marcenscens was believed to be
nonpathogenic and was commonly used as a biological marker because of its unique red color
(Merlino, 1924). It was not until the 1950's that S. marcenscens was discovered to be pathogenic in
humans (Wheat et al, 1951). S. marcenscens is an adaptable bacteria found in many different
environments including water, soil, gastrointestinal tracts of many animals, but grow particularly
well on starchy food sources (Petersen and Tisa, 2013). S. marcenscens when first isolated it was
believed to be non–pathogenic, but S. marcenscens is responsible for nosocomial human infections,
plant infections, insect and nematode infections, among many more (Petersen and Tisa, 2013). S.
marcenscens is opportunistic and is known to cause nearly every possible infection imaginable
including, urinary tract infections, upper respiratory infections, ... Show more content on
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Wheat at the Stanford University Hospital recorded eleven cases of S. marcenscens causing an
infection in humans in just six months (Wheat et al, 1951). The number of infections caused by S.
marcenscens has been increasing since then (Hejazi and Falkiner, 1997). According to Petersen and
Tisa (2013), there are many factors that make S. marcenscens such a ubiquitous and adaptable
microorganism. S. marcenscens produces and excretes many proteins and compounds that allow it to
adapt to its ever changing environment, including proteases, LPS, hemolysin and many more
(Petersen and Tisa, 2013). These diverse compounds and enzymes excreted by S. marcenscens play
a crucial role in how S. marcenscens interacts with its numerous different hosts and

The Role Of Superficial Yeast Infections In Humans

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