Restoration Of Function After Spinal Cord Injury

Restoration Of Function After Spinal Cord Injury
Neuroprosthetics: A new dimension in restoration of function after spinal cord injury
Submitted By
Pavanpreet Kaur Sandhu
Pxs112930@utdallas.edu
Neuroprosthetics: A new dimension in restoration of function after spinal cord injury
Abstract
The deformation in the structure of spinal cord after an injury causes the conduction of impulse to be disrupted and the body functions are lost. This
happens relying on the severity of the injury. There are different devices which have been developed or are under development to restore the body
functions after a spinal cord injury. Neuroprosthetic treatment has a promising future and it is a technology which can be used to restore motor and
autonomic functions and also to get the sensory feedback. Described here are the neuroprostheses which are currently in different stages of
development be it preclinical, commercialization or testing and it involoves functional electrical stimulators, epidural and intraspinal microstimulation,
bladder neuroprosthesis, and cortical stimulation for restoring sensation. Following the brief background of the SCI and neuroprosthesis is the
chronology of the developments related to neuromuscular excitation. The electrical stimulation in the form of functional electrical stimulation (FES) is
discussed in detail which can help facilitate and improve upper/lower limb mobility along with other body functions lost due to injury. The applications
and the future directions are
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Multiple Sclerosis Case Study
Pathophysiology
Multiple sclerosis is a disease where your immune system attacks the protective barrier around your nerves, called myelin sheaths (Mayo Clinic Staff,
2014). Your immune system falsely recognizes these sheaths as being intruders in the body causing it to attack them leading to nerve damage (this is
called an autoimmune disease). With this nerve damage, there is disruption of the signals being sent from your brain and travelling to the rest of the
body impairing movements, causing pain or numbness and a variety of other symptoms. Over time, the actual nerves begin to lose function and
disintegrate (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014).
Two other characteristics are involved in the disease process: inflammation and the formation of lesions or plaques in the centralnervous system – or
CNS (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). Lesions are formed when oligodendrocytes – myelin–building cells – are lost causing the myelin sheath to thin or even
completely breakdown leaving the nerve axon exposed and unable to send effective signals to your muscles (Huether and McCance, 2008). The
oligodendrocytes attempt to remyelinate the axons but with multiple attacks, the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What most clinicians say regarding "attacks" is that a patient may have them months or even years apart (Medscape, 2014). A patient may complain of
leg pain and several months later have visual disturbances (Medscape, 2014). The most common symptoms seen in MS patients are as follows: sensory
loss, muscle cramping and spasms, bladder/bowel/sexual dysfunction, optic neuritis (loss of vision, muscle movements impaired), tremor, trigeminal
neuralgia (facial weakness, typically bilateral), facial myokymia (twitching of facial muscles), eye symptoms, heat intolerance, fatigue, dizziness, sleep
disturbance, pain, cognitive impairments (concentration, memory, attention span and judgment), depression, and seizures (Medscape,

Back Pain Case Studies
o Pain commences most commonly with an incident of trauma (e.g., blow to the back);or occurs spontaneously with (i.e., metastatic cancer to bone), or
without apparent cause (e.g.,idiopathic back pain)3 o Pain may impair ambulation, be associated with paresthesias, or be intermittent in nature o Pain
may occur with cough, sneeze, during Valsalva maneuver (straining at the stool)3 o Patients are generally quite fearful that thepain may be a indication
of serious medical illness or that it will impact lifestyle and work performance o Pain may be localized to the lower back or extend into the posterior
thigh or buttocks area (e.g. paresthesias indicating a neurologic aspect of the condition)3 o History of previous back pain, and medications or ... Show
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– Smoking increases risk of sciatica
Primary diagnostic tools3 o History and physical exam are primary tools followed by x–rays or other imaging exams and possible neurological tests
lmaging6 o X–rays are first approach usually; visualizes bony structures and alignment but will not visualize muscles or ligaments
– Imaging studies will either show no abnormalities or varying degenerative changes expected as part of the normal aging process o MRI is used to
evaluate for infection, tumor, inflammation, disc herniation or rupture, or neuroformaminal stenosis o CT is used to demonstrate disc rupture, spinal
stenosis, or tumors – CT is usefulin the emergent situation when quick assessment is desirable;or when MRI is contraindicated (i.e., cardiac
pacemaker, metal implants, tool and dye workers) o Radioactive bone scans are used to evaluate for metastatic disease, infection, osteoporosis o
Myelogram will enhance images to visualize the spinal cord and nerve roots especially in the case of previous surgical intervention o Discography
combined with MRI is often used for pre–planning of surgery to correlate the symptoms with a speciAc disc level
Functional testing

Pediatrics: Cranial Nerve Examination Essay
Oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), Abducens (VI) cranial nerves Although each of these nerves control separate extraocular muscles, they are normally
examined together due to their close functional interrelationships. Look Similar to other cranial nerve examination, start with inspection of the eyes.
Look at –The position of the head position: If diplopia is present, the head turned or tilted to minimize double vision. –Inspect for ptosis and eye
position. –Ask the child to look at an object about five feet away. Examine the pupils for size, shape, and symmetry. Oculomotor nerve palsy causes
mydriasis. Sympathetic palsy leads to miosis. Ciliary ganglion malfunction within the orbit produces Adie's pupil with middilated pupils... Show more
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For testing the left eye, cover the child's right eye and repeat the procedure. Absence of movement of either the right or left eye means the child
does not have manifest strabismus. If the deviating eye moves inward after the other eye is covered, the child has exotropia. On the other hand, if
the deviating eye moves outward, esotropia said to be present. o Alternating cover test: As before, ask the child to concentrate on an object that is
ten feet away. Cover the child's left eye with an opaque sheet for one to two seconds and then move quickly to the right eye. Hold the occluder in
place for one to two seconds and repeat the cycle at least 3 times. As you unveil, observe the eye that is being uncovered to detect a refixation
movement. Absence of movement means the child does not have latent strabismus. If the deviating eye moves inward after the other eye is covered,
the child has exotropia. On the other hand, if the deviating eye moves outward, esotropia said to be present. Ocular Movements –Spontaneous:
Spontaneous movements of the eyes can be nystagmus or ocular bobbing. o Nystagmus is an involuntary rhythmic oscillation of the eyes in any
direction (horizontal, vertical or rotatory) and is characterised by a slow initiating phase and a quick corrective phase. The direction of nystagmus is
defined by the direction of its quick corrective phase. To assess the nystagmus, ask the child to follow the fingertip held about one foot

Diffusion Restriction Of Fulminant Subacute Sclerosing...
Diffusion restriction in Fulminant Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis: Report of a new finding. Introduction: Subacute
SclerosingPanencephalitis(SSPE) is a fatal form of progressive encephalitis caused by abnormal persistence of measles virus infection in central
nervous system(ref).SSPE usually occurs in young children and adolescents; however it is also known to affect adults and pregnant women(ref).
The clinical picture is characterized by behaviour abnormalities, cognitive decline, myoclonic epilepsy and seizures(ref). Diagnosis of SSPE is
dependent upon a combination of clinical features, characteristic EEG abnormalities and elevated antimeasles antibody titre in serum and
CSF(ref).Brain biopsy is needed for diagnosis in early stages of disease in absence of clinical and EEG abnormalities.MRI findings in SSPE have
been described in various previous studies (ref). Most of the available studies in literature have shown increased diffusion in the involved areas
(ref).We report a case of fulminant SSPE which showed atypical findings on diffusion weighted sequence on serial imaging. Case report: A 15 year old
girl presented to our Institute with 5 months history of slowly progressive cognitive decline characterized by behavioural changes, slowing of daily
activities and deterioration of her handwriting. She also had intermittent, involuntary jerky movements of head and bilateral upper limbs since 4
months. Initially, she was evaluated in an outside hospital and MRI was

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease, is a disease of the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control
voluntary muscle movement. Jean–Marie Charcot was the first to recognize ALS as a distinct neurological disease with its own unique pathology. In
ALS, nerve cells degenerate and deteriorate, and are unable to transmit messages to muscles. In around 90% of the cases of ALS, the cause remains
unknown. Studies have concentrated on the responsibility of glutamate in motor neuron degeneration. Glutamate is one of several neurotransmitters in
the brain. While there is no known cure for ALS, strides in medicine have allowed for the development of a wide variety of medications to treat the
various... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The predicament of the patient gradually declines. Once the disease progresses to the stage where muscles in the chest area stop working, it grows
increasing difficult or nearly impossible to breath.
History of ALS
Jean–Marie Charcot was the first to recognize ALS as a distinct neurological disease with its own unique pathology (Kumar, Aslinia, Yale, and Mazza
2011). Studies conducted from 1865 to 1869 by Charcot and his colleague Joffroy found that lesions in the interior of the lateral column in the spinal
cord gave rise to chronic progressive paralysis and contractures (no atrophy of muscles), while lesions of the anterior horn of the spinal cord resulted in
paralysis devoid of contractures (with atrophy of muscles). These discoveries reinforced Charcot's hypothesis, at the time, was that the motor
component of the spinal cord contained a two–part system, and that the location of the lesion results in a varying clinical presentation. Charcot did not
propose the term "amyotrophic lateral sclerosis" until 1874 when his lectures were accumulated into a compilation of his research entitled "Oeuvres
Completes". In many parts of the world, ALS is still known as Charcot's disease. While numerous molecular and genetic discoveries have allowed for a
greater understanding of this disease, his innovative descriptions of the associated clinical and

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Erica Jackson The Center for Allied Health Nursing Education Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 7/15/2013 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a
terminal disease, also known as Motor Neurons Disease, Charchot Disease and Lou Gehrig disease. ALS destroys the Central Nervous System (CNS)
and causes damage to the upper and lower motor neurons in the brain. Signs and symptoms are characterized as: muscles weakness, muscle atrophy,
twitching and reduced muscle reflexes. Eventually the patient will become paralyzed and rely on a tracheostomy and ventilator for breathing (ALS
Association [ALSA], 2010). With ALS, this disease process only last three to five years after being diagnosed, but patients with medical management
have... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The NeuRx DPS is implanted using a laparscope in an out–patient setting. The device is made up of five electrodes, four of which are implanted in the
diaphragm. The fifth electrode is placed under the skin with an electrode connector. It then groups the five electrodes together to exit the skin into
a holder that holds the electrode connector in place on the skin. The electrode connector connects a battery powered external pulse generator
(EPG). The EPG then is able to sends electrical signals to the diaphragm. By acting as nerve impulses from the brain it sends out a message to the
brain along the nerves to contract the diaphragm. This action helps by exercise and stimulate the intercostal muscle, allowing the ALS pt to have
clear symmetrical lung sounds. Patients are able to control the EPG with two buttons, on and off. No other setting will need to be changed (U.S.
Food and Drug Administration [USFDA], 2011). The NeuRx DPS can only be used in patients over 21 years of age and only patients who are able
to breathe on there own, without the need of ventilator support. FDA approved the NeuRx DPS device under the Humanitarian Device Exemption
(HDE) program. Approval date for the NeuRx DPS was approved on September 28, 2011 ( USFDA, 2011). ALS was first founded by a Jean–Martin
Charcot. Charcot was a neurologist

Neuroplasticality And Rehabilitation Essay
Neuroplasticity and rehabilitation
Neurorehabilitation is the process of attempting to restore the cognitive or motor function for patients with disorders of the nervous system. This
process involves approaches intended to reduce impairments and disabilities, and ultimately improving quality of life. Neuroplasticity is the brain 's
ability to remodel or reorganize itself by forming new neural connections. This allows the neurons to compensate for injury and disease, and to adjust
their activities in response to new stimulations or changes in their environment. It encompasses alterations in neural pathways and synapses, in
response to changes in behavior, thinking and emotions, as well as remapping due to injury. Examples are memory, learning new skills, and recovery.
For a long time, the common consensus among neuroscientists was that neurons were relatively immutable after a certain age in early childhood. It is
now believed that the brain remains plastic throughout adulthood as well, and that neurogenesis may persist well into old age. Research indicates that
experience can actually change both the brain 's physical structure and functional organization. For example, if one hemisphere of the brain is damaged,
the intact hemisphere may take over some of the impaired side's functions. The brain compensates for damage by reorganizing and forming new
connections between intact neurons. To reconnect again, the neurons need to be stimulated through activity.2
Brain

Case Study Paper On Stroke
1.Introduction
1.1. Introduction
Stroke is a leading neurological disorder and causes long–term disability worldwide. The World Health Organization estimated that 15 million
individuals1 are suffering from stroke annually worldwide, most of them are from developed countries and Stroke is the third leading cause of death
and primary cause of disability. Despite advanced medical treatment intervened still 58% of patients still die or end up with severe disabilities.
Following stroke the disability is sever in older population comparing to normal survivors. After 6 month of post–stroke, the 50% of survivors
represents hemiparesis, 30% were unable to walk without support, 26% were dependent on Activities of daily living and 26% were hospitalized ... Show
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After ensuring patency of airways, adequate general circulation and checking blood glucose levels, CT scan is done to differentiate between ischemic
stroke and hemorrhagic stroke, the commonest being an ischemic stroke.
General modalities of treatment are (1) medical support, (2) intravenous thrombolysis, (3) endovascular revascularization, (4) antithrombotic treatment,
(5) neuroprotection, and (6) rehabilitation, often in stroke centers. Modalities 2–4 are for ischemic stroke only.
Medical treatment specific to stroke is to ensure sufficient cerebral perfusion to the surrounding ischemic penumbra. High blood pressure is treated
according to specific norms; routine lowering is detrimental. Fever and blood glucose levels are controlled and if there is increased intracranial
pressure, it is treated. All these factors are shown to have a significant role in the outcome of stroke patients.
Thrombolysis is induced by the use of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) within 3 hours of onset of stroke is approved in most countries.
Use of intravenous rtPA has proven to improve clinical outcome in ischemic stroke and is cost–effective and

An Autoimmune Disorder Of The Central Nervous System
Multiple Sclerosis
Brandi McKinney
PTH 246
Jean Hamrick
June 25, 2015
Introduction
Multiple Sclerosis, an autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system, was first discovered in 1868 by Jean–Martin Charcot.1,2 He defined it by
its "clinical and pathological characteristics: paralysis and the cardinal symptoms of intention tremor, scanning speech, and nystagmus, later termed
Charcot's triad."2 In Physical Rehabilitation, O'Sullivan, Schmitz, and Fulk defined multiple sclerosis as "a chronic disease of the central nervous system
characterized by inflammation, selective demyelination, and gliosis of neurons of the brain and spinal cord."2 This results in disruptions in the
conduction of nerve impulses.2 The National Multiple Sclerosis Society states that more than 2.3 million people are affected by MS worldwide.1
There is no cure for Multiple Sclerosis, but several treatments can be given to help reduce complications and expand the individual's lifespan. This
paper will discuss the anatomy of a neuron, predisposing factors and causes of MS, the disease course of MS, common signs and symptoms, how to
diagnose and evaluate for MS, psychological effects of the disease on the patient and his/her family, possible treatment options, cost association with
treatment and disability, and special needs and resources in the community to assist patients with MS.
Anatomy
In order to understand how MS affects the body, one must have a general understanding of the anatomy of

Nick's Story Essay
A.Which symptoms that Nick has described so far are relevant to the nervous system? Are his symptoms sensory, motor, or both?
Nick has complained of burning and prickly pain in feet, clumsiness, dizziness when sitting or standing, and vision problems. These are symptoms of
both sensory and motor nerve damage.
B.Do you think the symptoms Nick describes are likely caused by peripheral nerve damage? Could they be caused by damage to the central nervous
system?
I believe there has been peripheral nerve damage because of the symptoms that he exhibits. It seems that his receptors are not effectively communicating
back to the central nervous system; in addition he is losing his somatic reflexes in his feet, both indicating damage to his ... Show more content on
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The posterior and lateral parts of the hypothalamus control the sympathetic division which constrict blood vessels and raise blood pressure. The
anterior and medial parts of the hypothalamus control the parasympathetic division which lowers blood pressure.
F.After becoming comatose, Nick was sweating profusely, and had rapid heart and respiratory rates and elevated blood pressure. Which area of thebrain
interacts with the autonomous nervous system during physical stress to initiate these responses?
The hypothalamus .
G.Nick has digestive symptoms indicating reduced gastrointestinal mobility. What autonomic receptors regulate closing of sphincters and relaxation of
organ walls?
Pelvic splanchnic nerves.
H.Why would the term polyneuropathy be appropriate for the symptoms that Nick was experiencing?
Because his symptoms indicate that several different nerves and neural pathways were damaged.
I.What symptoms noted by Nicks primary care physician indicated a polyneuropathy?
Knowing that Nick was struggling to manage his diabetes definitely sent a red flag, additionally vision problems, feet problems, and balance issues
indicated polyneuropathy.
J.Why are Nicks generalized symptoms more indicative of a peripheral polyneuropathy than a central nervous system lesion to the brain or spinal cord?
Because certain individual signals aren't being interpreted and responded to effectively.
K.Which of

Multiple Sclerosis ( Ms ), Autoimmune, Inflammatory...
Jessame Dioquino
BIOL 200B
Professor Mirzatoni
March 8, 2016
Multiple Sclerosis Multiple sclerosis (MS) is autoimmune, inflammatory disease involving the central nervous system (CNS). This disease is a result
of the immune system attacking myelin proteins. Usually affecting younger people between the ages of 20 and 50 years, multiple sclerosis slowly
destroys the myelin sheath that are located in the CNS causing them to eventually create scleroses, or hardened lesions. Symptoms of multiple
sclerosis can be different, but visual, sensory, and motor signs are usually affected with this disease. Some early symptoms care problems like
blurred or double vision, numbness, loss of balance, and weakness in arms or legs, as well as fatigue, muscle spasms, speech problems.
Approximately 400,000 people in the United States and 2.5 million people worldwide are affected by multiple sclerosis (Hersh and Fox, 2014).
Educating ones self about multiple sclerosis is important because it has many unanswered questions. There are many theories and treatments that may
seem like they work, but there is no cure or definite reason why MS happens. Multiple sclerosis is also a disease that affects many people and is very
hard to treat. The Central Nervous System is the control center of the nervous system. Containing the brain and the spinal cord, the central nervous
system interprets signals that are created by neurons through sensory inputs and prescribes them into motor outputs. Multiple

Multiple Sclerosis Essay
Multiple Sclerosis
Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the central nervous system. It most commonly occurs in individuals between the ages of twenty and forty (1) and in
higher numbers of women than men (2). In Multiple Sclerosis (or "MS") a loss of the nerves' axon coating myelin prohibits the nerve axons from
efficiently conducting action and synaptic potentials. Scar tissue (called plaques or lesions) forms at the points where demyelination occurs in the
brain and spinal cord, hence the name "Multiple Sclerosis"or "many scars" (3). The demyelination found in MS is thought to be caused by an
autoimmune process, in which the body's immune system attacks its own healthy tissue (4). Other diseases thought to have an autoimmune basis are ...
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All of the activated T–cells then release cytokines and adhesion molecules that enable the T–cells to adhere to and cross over the blood–brain barrier,
which normally prohibits the flow of substances into the brain (8,9). The proteins in these T–cells bind to myelin fragments on microglial cells and
undergo a secondary activation (10), after which they multiply and release more cytokines, further invading the nervous system (11) and inflaming and
damaging the blood–brain barrier. The greatly weakened barrier becomes easily permeable, allowing additional immune system cells, such as B–cells
and cytotoxic T–cells to cross over (12). Once through the barrier, B–cells produce antibodies which bind to the oligodendracytes (the cells of the CNS
which create myelin) and the myelin itself. Associated macrophages procede to destroy the myelin and may also damage the oligodendracytes (13).
Myelin, found only in vertebrate nervous systems, is a fatty substance that surrounds the axons and long dendrites of nerves in the brain and spinal cord
tissue (4). By lowering the rate at which the axonal membrane absorbs nerve impulses, myelin acts as an insulator, allowing NS potentials to travel
rapidly through the nervous system and maintain communication between the brain and the rest of the body (2). This communication between the
brain and the rest of the CNS and peripheral nerves is a central

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, or ALS, is a neurodegenerative disease associated with the breakdown and loss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal
cord. Voluntary muscle control degenerates until the body eventually loses function. To better understand how ALS works, the medical terminology
can first be translated into a more basic understanding. 'A–' meaning not, "myo–" meaning muscle, and "–trophic" meaning nourishment or growth
[source]. Due to the loss of motor neurons, the muscle loses nourishment and atrophies, or wastes away. "Lateral" means that this condition usually
affects only one side of the body and "sclerosis" means hardening and buildup of fibrous (scar) tissue. The disease is progressive and is 100% fatal.
ALS was first... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
After diagnosis, prognosis is grim. The average time patients live after diagnosis is about 2–3 years due to respiratory failure. Although, about 20%
will live up to 5 years, 10% up to 10 years, and 5% of patients will live for 20 years or more [source]. While the prognosis is grim, there are treatments
and medication available to slow progression and relieve symptoms. Treatments suggested are support (nutritional and physiological) and therapy
(physical, speech, and occupational). Fortunately there is one medication, called Riluzole, that is FDA approved for ALS sufferers. Studies conducted
on Riluzole have found it may slow progression because of its ability to decrease glutamate levels and excitation in the brain. Although it was found to
have modulating affects throughout the body (both central and peripheral nervous system), it is not consistent throughout the population and may only
have limited benefits [article citation]. Studies have further showed that the prolonged effect of Riluzole is only temporary (increasing life by a few
months) and is not a long term solution [article

Speech Disorder: How Dysarthria Causes
ASHA defines dysarthria as "A neurological motor speech disorder affecting the strength, range of motion, speed, and precision of the speech
musculature" (ASHA, 2017). There are several congenital and acquired causes for this disorder including: traumatic brain injury, tumors, degenerative
diseases, strokes, toxic and metabolic conditions. The damage causes paralysis, weakness, or lack of coordination of the the muscles involved in
articulating speech, which results in reduced intelligibility. Dysarthria affects the respiration, phonation, resonance, prosody, and articulation of speech.
Spastic dysarthria; results from a lesion in the upper motor neurons and causes spasticity of the muscles. A lesion in on the lower motor neurons
resulting

Syrinx Case Study
fluid–filled cavity or syrinx within the spinal cord. The sagittal T2 MRI reveals a syrinx centered at C7, extending between C6–T1. Given the location
of the syrinx, areflexic weakness in the upper extremities and dissociated anesthesia (loss of pain/temp with preserved position and vibration) in a
"cape" distribution in the lower extremity is often present. Given the patient's right lower extremity and bilateral upper extremity physical exam
findings, the focus of the syrinx (comparable to a fluid–filled balloon) most likely is on the right side of the spinal cord below C7 and extends to
compress the spinal cord bilaterally above. Given the lesion's location, right lower extremity weakness along with increased knee and ankle reflexes
with ankle clonus and a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP) is an autoimmune process that is characterized by progressive areflexic weakness and mild
sensory changes. Sensory symptoms often precede motor weakness. About 20% of patients end up with respiratory failure[3]. Many variants exist. Two
thirds of patients with AIDP recall an antecedent upper respiratory or gastrointestinal infection or syndrome from 1–6 weeks prior to the onset of
weakness[3].
Choice "B" is not the best answer. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most common degenerative disease of the motor neuron system. It
manifests as weakness without sensory loss. The diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is primarily clinical. When the disease has
progressed far in its course and involves many parts of the body, the patient's appearance and the findings on the neurologic examination may provide
sufficient evidence to establish the diagnosis. ALS may be suspected whenever an individual develops an insidious loss of function or gradual, slowly
progressive, painless weakness in one or more regions of the body, without changes in the ability to feel, and when no other cause is immediately

Formalin-Prepared Optic Nerves : Case Study
ll Formalin– prepared optic nerves (ON) was mainly used as the materials and sources of information in the study. To identify the human ON areas
where demyelination has occurred, Jennings and Caroll used luxol fast blue (LFB) and hamatoxylin and eosin. Cat ON, on the other hand, were stained
with toluidine to distinguish the myelin sheaths in preparation for electron microscopy processing. After this, immunohistochemistry was effectually
conducted in order to differentially mark the neuroglia. The digital images formed were then examined and evaluated to quantify the data. Results
revealed the presence of oligodendroglial cells in MSON lesions, which further confirms the link between remyelination as a result or consequence of...
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Subpial cortical demyelination (SCD) has been recently found to manifest among 90% of progressive MS patients and is even present to people with
early MS. In order to determine whether recurring incidents of inflammatory SCD can significantly change the pattern of oligodendroglial
repopulation and lead to demyelinated cortical lesions, the study compared NogoA+ and Olig2+ oligodendrocyte cells. The presence and activities of
these cells in patients with early cases and mature stages of MS are examined and carefully analyzed. Results demonstrated a considerable decrease in
the NogoA+ and Olig2+ cells for individuals with chronic MS, but those in the early stages of MS showed a different result. Moreover, during the
demyelination phase, repeated stimulation of SCD in the experimental rats stemmed to a transitory loss of NogoA+ but did not have a similar effect on
the Olig2+ cells. This was followed by the complete repopulation and remyelination of the oligodendroglial cells, notwithstanding the four preceding
periods of demyelination. These results indicate successful remyelination in subpial cortical lesions among the rats even after repeated SCD, an
indication only apparent to early MS but not to chronic cases. Furthermore, the data obtained demonstrated that the four cycles of continuous
demyelination and remyelination process did not effectively sustain an independent remyelination that has been observed in chronic MS lesions. The
results of the

Patellar Lab Report Essay
Introduction There are two groups of reflexes in the human body, with two ways to categorize each of them. Reflexes can either be inborn and
connected through the nervous system, or they can be learned through practice. Another way to explain a reflexive category would be autonomic
reflexes or somatic reflexes. Autonomic reflexes are those which are unaware to us and act on visceral organs of the body, whereas somatic reflexes
involve skeletal muscle stimulation. Both types of reflexes are put into effect via the nervous system. (1)
The Patellar reflex, or Knee–Jerk reflex, is used to test the nervous tissue in the spinal cord from L2–L4. The patellar reflex is known as a "reflex arc".
It is a negative feedback circuit that is made of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At the same time the subject's patellar tendon was sharply tapped.
The final element that was tested against the baseline reflex was the influence of fatigue on the strength of the reflex response. This was achieved by
having the subject run up and down three levels of stairs three times in the Frost building stairwell of Holyoke Community College. The subject
immediately came back to the original sitting position on the edge of the lab bench with legs dangling freely, and the patellar tendon was tapped once
more.
One subject was used, and was seated in the same position for each of the three tests performed. Because the patellar reflex is immediate, a video was
taken during each tap with the hammer to visually compare the strength differences for each influence that was put into effect. This provided a steady,
unwavering result with the option of repeated viewing for the conclusion of the experiment. After all three stages of the experiment were completed,
the videos were reviewed for comparison between the baseline reflex and the three changing factors, along with any discrepancies and problematic
areas that may have altered the results. The strength of the reflex was recorded as either equal to, more vigorous than, or less vigorous than the
baseline reflex and the results were put into a simple chart.
Results
When testing the effects of muscle

Cerebral Palsy's Case Study
My longtime friend, Patrick, who recently graduated from college, has Cerebral Palsy (CP). As a result of taking Understanding the Brain: The
Neurobiology of Everyday Life I realized I had never taken the time understand his disorder and how it affects his life. Patrick, who is confined to an
automated wheelchair, was happy to be interviewed and explain his perspective and experiences. While CP was not directly covered in Professor
Mason's Understanding the Brain lectures, the course content provided sufficient knowledge to quickly understand CP from a neurological
perspective. I discuss CP from how it's diagnosed to the spectrum of causes, as well as the range of symptoms on the nervous system. I describe how
this course and Patrick taught ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CP is a congenital (existing from birth) group of disorders that can affect a person's ability to move, muscle tone and posture. It is a
neurodevelopmental disorder of the brain which occurs during a critical period of development, usually before or soon after birth. Diagnosing CP
in babies can be a bit difficult and can often takes years before a solid diagnosis is made. In Patrick's case, I found out from his mother he was
diagnosed at nine months. Baby Patrick exhibited stiff muscles, unable to hold up his head up while lying on his stomach and he couldn't sit up or
independently roll over by 6 months. So why did he have CP and was going to get worse?
What causes Cerebral Palsy? 40% to 50% of all children who develop CP were born prematurely. Patrick was born 10 weeks premature. CP in
babies that go to term can be due to a problem with the placenta, birth defects, low birthweight, breathing in meconium (dark greenish mass
accumulated in the fetal bowel), emergency Caesarean section, and birth asphyxia. 2% of CP cases are genetic. In Patrick's case the doctors reported
there was an issue with the placenta which caused hypoxia (not enough O2) to the brain. CP is a non–progressive disorder therefore whatever damage
was done to the brain will not get any

Neurons: Part of the Nervous System
Neuron (Greek.. ОќОµбї¦ПЃОїОЅ = fiber nerve) is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system, obtain to an important class of highly
specialized cells , able to receive, absorb, process, transfer and respond information using electromagnetic signals (nerve impulses). Neuron as the basic
unit of the nervous tissue was described in 1835 by Jan Evangelista Purkynije, the term neuron was established by Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer and the
concept of neurons as the basic structural functional unit of the nervous system has been developed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal in the early 20th century.
Y Cajal suggested that neurons are cells which communicate with one another (neuron doctrine). They communicate with nerves, muscles, or gland.
Depending on these impulses they can be classified as afferent=sensitive neurons (bring impulses from receptors to the appropriate centers in the CNS)
, efferent=motor neurons (lead to excitation of CNS effectors such as muscles and interneurons), associative neurons (located in the CNS, they
integrate the data provided by the sensory neurons and send them to motor neurons) .This cell has a cell body, soma (center of cell metabolism,
receives impulses , integrates and transmits information, contains protoplasm (cytoplasm, nucleus and organelles (ESR active ribosomes , Golgi
apparatus )), one axon (usually long process of a neuron , adapted for the excitation and the information from the cell body) and many dendrites (short,
branched processes of

Glucocerebrosidase Enzyme Essay
Glucocerebrosidase enzyme (GCase) with alpha–synuclein (SNCA) interaction is a specific significance to PD because it is a single
glucocerebrosidase (GBA) mutation is that carries an increased risk of cognitive impairment. Synuclein alpha is linked to the cognitive impairment and
psychosis of PD and DLB. The lost function of GBA has been found in postmortem brain of individuals that were diagnosed had a global defect in
lysosomal enzymes with those with PD. The GBA gene within the brain increases the risk of individuals of having PD due to the mutation of the gene.
These genes will reflect the low activity of lysosomal hydrolase ОІ–glucocerebrosidase (GCase) where the accumulation of О±–synuclein occurs in the
anterior cingulate and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Participants were asked if they were currently and regularly exposed to certain acids, solvents, coal, stone, dust, asbestos, and chemicals. They were
deemed farmers if their job coded according to the US Census of 1980 as "farmer". These individuals were then categorized by duration of their
self–reported exposure. Out of the 7,864 participants there were 1,956 people were deemed as farmers, fishermen, and ranchers. One similarity
among those exposed in this particular study was that those exposed had lower educational levels than those who were not. [13]. Also, both men and
women who were exposed had a 14% higher rate of being a "farmer".
A by–product of heroin synthesis called 1–methyl–4–phenyl–1,2,3–tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) has been identified as a factor of inducing syndromes of
Parkinson's disease in humans (Bin Liu, 2003). Another study suggested that degeneration of MPTP may be caused by oxidative stress (Du–Chu Wu*,
2002). Dopaminergic neurotoxicity has been reported in animals and thus predicted as a risk to humans. Paraquat is a highly toxic pesticide that is
used as an herbicide that targets weed and grass control. It is not supposed to have a human counterpart. However, there has been evidence that says
that exposure to paraquat is indeed correlated with the development of PD. (Bin Liu, 2003). A lethal dose of paraquat for a human is said to be 2.5
grams [14]. Research within the last ten years has

Case Study : Wearing On Her Nerves
Marigold Kotey
12/03/15
Case Study #4: Wearing on Her Nerves
Dr. Fundaro
Part I
1.What components of the nervous system are involved in physical sensation? How does sensory impulse move throughout the body?
The components of the nervous system that are involved in the physical sensation is the peripheral nervous system, which is divided into two groups
they are, sensory and motor divisions. The sensory impulse moves through the body by stimulating a receptor in the skin, and it goes through the
sensory neurons and also travels through the afferent fibers, the spinal cord and also into the brain.
2.What components of the nervous system are involved in skeletal muscle movement? How does motor impulse move throughout the body? What is a
"motor unit"?
The components of the nervous system involved in the skeletal muscle movement is the motor division. The motor impulse moves through the body by
traveling through efferent fibers. A motor unit is aneuron and also that is where all the other muscle fibers are connected.
3.What movements are involved in the action of standing up? What muscles need to contract to perform these actions?
The movements involved in the action of standing up is when the muscles contracting. The muscles that are needed to perform these actions are the
glutes, hamstrings, and the quadriceps.
4.What are the different levels of organization of a muscle down to myofilaments? What is a "sarcomere" and how are its proteins organized?
The different

Pierre Flourens Psychology
Whitney Noonan
3/3/2016
Psychologists study the brain and the nervous system because these parts of the body are essential to the way that people behave, think and feel.
Psychology is the scientific study of people's behavior and their mind so studying the brain and nervous system is always going to be a crucial element
for psychological study. Studying the nervous system means studying its two major systems: the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and
spinal cord, and the cerebral cortex, which is involved in higher cognitive, emotional, sensory and motor functions. The peripheral nervous system is
divided into two additional sub–systems. These sub–systems are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous
system has the primary function of regulating the actions of the skeletal muscles while the autonomic nervous system works to regulate involuntary
activity, such as the heart rate or breathing.
The study of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Pierre Flourens promoted the idea that the cerebral cortex is not functionally subdivided. Flourens used the experimentation method the conduct his
research. He used dogs and pigeons as his subjects because he assumed that the brains of lower animals were very similar to the human brain. For
his experiments, Flourens would destroy a part of the brain and note the behavior change (if there was one). By doing this, Flourens found loss in
coordination and equilibrium when the cerebellum was removed. Paul Broca was the first to find localization of function in the cerebral cortex.
"Tan" was a man who suffered from speech inability. When admitted to the hospital, Tan, was placed under Broca's care. By examining Tan, Broca
discovered that the left frontal lobe (Broca's Area) must be where language and speech ability must be in the brain. Not long after, Tan died and a
biopsy of his brain revealed a large lesion in the frontal

Overactive Bladder
The bladder, an organ located in the lower abdomen or pelvis, has the function of storing urine and removing it from the body through a
communication circuit in the spinal cord and brain. That is why when conditions that affect the nervous system also can affect the functions of the
bladder. When this happens it is known as neurogenic bladder. The main problems of bladder control that are associated with a neurogenic bladder
are two and differ depending on the nerves involved and the nature of the damage. If the bladder becomes overactive it is called (spastic or
hyperreflective) or if on the other hand, it becomes underactive it is called (flaccid or hypotonic).1 Overactive bladder causes a sudden urge to urinate.
This urge can be difficult to stop leading to involuntary loss of urine (urge incontinence).2 The symptoms of a spastic... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
3 Patients with an underactive bladder may contain unusually large amounts of urine but have a decreased sensation of when the bladder is full and are
unable to contract the muscles sufficiently and as hard as it should, resulting in incomplete emptying of the bladder. 3 In the urine storage phase, the
bladder is passively filled and subjected to low pressure. In contrast, for micturition, coordination of detrusor contraction is required with the relaxation
of the internal and external urinary sphincter. To achieve this normal urination with urinary continence, control by the central nervous system, which
coordinates the activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system with the somatic nervous system, is required. Therefore, damage or
diseases of the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous system can lead to neurogenic bladder dysfunction.

Spinal Cord Injury Report
1 Specic Aims
Spinal cord injury (SCI) represents a major clinical, social and economical problem that has currently no cure. In the United States, an estimated of
276,000 people live with a SCI [1]. It is now widely accepted that in individuals with incomplete spinal cord lesions there is some preservation of
sensory and/or motor functions caudal to the level of injury that oer a pathway to recover some locomotor functions [2].
Increasing experimental evidence of axonal sprouting, long–term changes in spinal re exes and synapses, and modication of synaptic strength represent
the neurological bases for spinal cord neuroplasticity [3].
In spite of many studies on animals and human subjects, the mechanisms that promote neuroplasticity
and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As previously shown [19], [23], there is a voluntary response in incomplete SCI due to epidural stimulation and stepping training sessions, thus we
expect to see a voluntary response in all groups. Due to the motor tasks proposed, we anticipate that the voluntary response is augmented in both
intervention groups compared to the control group, and it is also increased within each group over time.
Potential Problems and Alternative Strategies: Due to the limitations encountered after a spinal cord injury and the variability in responses due to injury
level, the training protocols proposed might be challenging.
Full body weight standing and increased load bearing during walking on an inclined treadmill would be one of the challenges encountered due to the
rapid bone density decrease and muscle atrophy in the rst two years after a spinal cord lesion [49]. To overcome this, we target individuals at the
beginning of the chronic stage of a SCI (6 months) when this degradation is not advanced. This intervention might
4
actually contribute to maintaining bone and muscle health, since the rapid bone degradation is

Essay about What Is Flaccid Dysarthria?
Flaccid dysarthria results from damage to the lower motor neurons (LMN) or the peripheral nervous system (Hageman, 1997). The characteristics of
flaccid dysarthria generally reflect damage to cranial nerves with motor speech functions (e.g., cranial nerves IX, X, XI and XII) (Seikel, King &
Drumright, 2010). Lower motor neurons connect the central nervous system to the muscle fibers; from the brainstem to the cranial nerves with motor
function, or from the anterior horns of grey matter to the spinal nerves (Murdoch, 1998). If there are lesions to spinal nerves and the cranial nerves
with motor speech functions, it is indicative of a lower motor neuron lesion and flaccid dysarthria. Damage to lower motor neurons that supply the
speech ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lower motor neuron damage can result in respiratory weakness, inability to coordinate respiration for speech, and insufficient ventilation (Hageman,
1997). Poor breath support is a characteristic of flaccid dysarthria that negatively impacts intelligibility. According to Brown et. al. (as cited in
Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2011), targeting respiratory support can improve characteristics of flaccid dysarthria such as short phrases,
loudness, phonatory disturbances, impaired prosody and imprecise comments. Thus, respiratory treatment for flaccid dysarthria can be implemented
using glossopharyngeal breathing. Originally, glossopharyngeal breathing was designed for post–polio patients to increase alveolar ventilation (Dail,
1951). Similar to post–polio patients, glossopharyngeal breathing can be used to optimize the speech and voice of a person with characteristics of
flaccid dysarthria (Johansson, Nygren–Bonnier & Schalling, 2012). Glossopharyngeal breathing can be used as an alternative method of respiration in
which air is insuffilated into the lungs (Johansson et. al., 2011). The maneuver is utilized as a strengthening exercise to increase vital capacity
(McKeever & Miller, 2002). Vital capacity is the amount of air that can be exhaled following maximum inhalation. If vital capacity is increased, then
expiration is more relaxed, which allows for sufficient breath support for speech (2011). Individuals with respiratory weakness have

Speech Language Pathological Analysis
As a Speech Language Pathologist it is important to be familiar with the functional and anatomic organization of the nervous system. This helps
facilitate a useful intervention program and understanding the practical skills of the client (Bhatnagar, 2013). This is especially important with a client
who has experienced a brain lesion either due to stroke or traumatic brain injury. The localization of the lesion, the stimulation mapping of specific
neurons and pathways, laterality, and understanding the functionality of each region of the brain can explain the manifestations of a disorder. A client
who is 65 years old and right handed demonstrates receptive aphasia manifestations after a left posterior superior temporal gyrus and left inferior
parietal lobe infarct. Knowledge about the anatomy and function of the nervous system comes in handy to explain his characteristics. Given that the
client is right handed the laterality explains that his language is dominated by the left hemisphere, which is where the lesion occurred. It is estimated
that "90% or more of neurologically normal right–handers are left–hemisphere dominant for language" (Loring,et al., 1990). The middle cerebral artery
which circulates blood to the entire lateral surface of the brain especially the language cortex was affected in this client during a stroke. (Bhatnagar,
2013). The brain is compartmentalized into areas for processing specific ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Understanding the functionality of each area of the brain leads to the explanation of characteristics in a disorder. Noting and identifying the localization
of a lesion can facilitate in diagnosis. Therefore a Speech Clinician should be aware of these contributing factors to help implement an intervention that
is practical for their

Short Case Study : Spinal Cord
Alex Fulton
Histology
Dr. Morris
October 20, 2015
Short Case Study: Spinal Cord
A 21 year old male patient was taken to the hospital after being involved in a one vehicle–motorcycle accident. The individual complained of pain in
his lower back and suffered numerous abrasions and contusions along with loss of sensation and motor control in his legs. A complete neurological
exam was performed in order to fully assess the patient. The exam revealed that the patient demonstrated nearly normal to normal strength in both
flexing, extending the elbows, wrists, and when flexing his middle finger and abducting his little finger on both hands. It was noted, however, that he
had no movement when medical personnel tested his ability to flex his hips, extend his knees, and dorsiflex his ankles. Stretch reflexes involving the
biceps, brachioradialis, and triceps muscles were found to be normal, while those involving the patella and ankle were absent. Finally, the patient was
found to have normal sensitivity to pin prick and light touch in areas of his body above the level of his inguinal region, but not below that region of
the body .
The spinal cord is composed of gray matter, which is surrounded by white matter. The gray matter is divided into dorsal, lateral and ventral columns.
Each of the columns contain axon tracts related to specific functions. In the dorsal horns, the neurons receive sensory information that enters the spinal
cord via the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves. The

Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy Essay
Cervical spondylotic myelopathy is the common cause of acquired spastic paresis in adults. The patient may present with the subtle findings in their
gait or balance that may have been present over years or with quadriparesis that developed over the time of a few hours. The most unique feature may
be the condition with its subtle and varied presentation, so that its diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion. Furthermore, they usually present with
neck stiffness because of the presence of advanced form of spondylosis. Patients may also experience brachialgia which is stabbing pain in preaxial or
postaxial border of the arms, forearm, wrist and finger as well.
The clinical features alters, depending on the anatomic portion of the cord which is mainly involved. The patients most typically present with insidious
onset of clumsiness or slowness in the hands and lower extremity. They may also complain worsening of and writing in the past ranging from few
months to weeks, difficulty with holding and grasping or diffuse numbness or tingling sensation in hands.
Usually with chronic CSM, patients may be unfamiliar of subtle changes in gait or balance and fine motor movement of the hand. While taking history
it should be elicited weather any difficulty with motor function such as slowness or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
however, cervical spondylotic myelopathy is most common at C5–6 disc level followed by C4–5, C3–4 and C6–7 levels. The C6–7 disc level accounts
for 5% of patients with cervical spondylotic myelopathy. This discrepancy in frequency can be explained by the fact that cervical enlargement of the
spinal cord is located at C4–5 and C5–6 disc levels. Retrolisthesis of cervical spine seen on extension, which is a principal component of dynamic
stenosis, occationally occurs at C6–7 disc because of its anterior tilt. furthermore there is highest loading of C5–6 and C4–5 levels by virtue of
cantilever movements of the skull over the

bio flashcards
The areas of Michael's brain that were injured during his birth affected his control over his voluntary movements. Which part of the nervous system
distributes motor commands to skeletal muscles?
Somatic nervous system
The somatic nervous system controls the contractions of skeletal muscles and is under voluntary control.
Which principle descending motor pathway provides conscious control over voluntary muscle movements?
Corticospinal pathway
The corticospinal pathway is also called the pyramidal system and provides conscious motor control over skeletal muscles.
Which principle descending motor pathway primarily controls muscle tone and balance? the vestibulospinal tract of the medial pathway
The vestibulospinal tract provides ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
it would lead to a quick sensation of pain it would lead to a slow sensation of cold it would lead to a quick sensation of cold it would lead to a slow
sensation of pain
Axons that decussate between the pyramids of the medulla oblongata belong to the ________ tracts. reticulospinal anterior corticospinal
vestibulospinal lateral corticospinal
Which of these are NOT part of the afferent division of the nervous system?
Cranial nerves I, II, and V
Dorsal roots
Ascending tracts of white matter
Ventral roots
The tract carrying sensations of pressure and pain is the __________.
Fasciculus cuneatus
Spinocerebellar tract
Posterior column tract

Lateral spinothalamic tract
The __________ tract carries information for maintaining balance.
Lateral coticospinal
Rubrospinal
Anterior corticospinal
Vestibulospinal
Which of these is not a property of chemoreceptors?
They trigger visceral reflexes
They are found in carotid bodies
They are interoceptors
They are classed as nociceptors
Identify the type of information that travels along the anterior corticospinal tracts
proprioception to the cerebral cortex pain and crude touch sensations visceral motor commands to smooth muscle motor commands to skeletal muscles
A mechanoreceptor in the papillary layer of the dermis that responds to fine touch is a
Free nerve ending
Ruffini corpuscle
Root hair plexus
Tactile (meissner) sorpuscle

Hallucis Longus
Damage or injury to the dorsiflexor muscles (tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, extensor digitorum longus) or along the neural pathway that
controls the dorsiflexor muscles can lead to "foot drop". For instance, the peroneal nerve controls the dorsiflexor muscles that lift the foot which runs
near the surface of the skin on the lateral side of the knee. The funiculi of the peroneal nerve are larger and have less connective tissue than the tibial
nerve. Hence, making the peroneal nerve more susceptible to injury/trauma. Foot drop is typically caused by a pathology affecting the LMN (Lower
Motor Neurons), usually due to a conduction disorder from the deep peroneal nerve (L4–L5). The most common cause of foot drop is L4–L5
radiculopathy,

Causes And Treatment Of Parkinson 's Disease
Introduction
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome associated with tremor, rigidity, akinesia, postural disturbances, so it is also known as TRAP syndrome. It
involves a lesion of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system that, in some cases, it is induced by drugs and toxins. The principle cause of Parkinsonism
is Parkinson's disease, which affects mainly males than women (3:2) over 60 years and it is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder
(after Alzheimer's disease). It affects 0,1% people in general population and 1% of the population after 65 years. Other diseases such as multiple system
atrophy, postencephalitic parkinsonism, progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal degeneration can be related to Parkinsonism. ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
They receive input information from the cortex and send information back to it. The circuits of the basal ganglia are connected with the corticospinal
cerebellar system, with the the motor cortex, with the thalamus and with the premotor and supplemental motor association areas for movement control.
In fact, when associated with the corticospinal system, the basal ganglia control complex patterns of motor activity such as writing a letter, cutting
paper with scissors, vocalization and controlled movements of the eyes. The relations between this circuits are complex, but it has to be said that the
caudate and the putamen send information back to the cortex by passing first at the ventrolateral and ventroanterior nuclei of the thalamus. One thing
that is important to keep in mind about these circuits are the release of neurotransmitters. The image 1 summarizes it. Note the secretion of dopamine,
an inhibitory neurotransmitter in most parts of the brain, from the substantia nigra to the caudate nucleus and putamen. It's also important to mention
that GABA (gamma–aminobutyric acid) is a inhibitory neurotransmitter that provides loops of negative feedback within the central nervous system.
Figure 1 – "Neuronal pathways that secrete different types of neurotransmitter substances in the basal ganglia. Ach, acetylcholine; GABA,
gamma–aminobutyric acid" (found on reference 1,

The Central Nervous System
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Every behavior begins with biology. Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles,
and glands. In this chapter we will begin our journey into the world of psychology by considering the biological makeup of the human being, including
the most remarkable of human organs–the brain. We'll consider the structure of the brain and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain
and to understand how it works.
We will see that the body is controlled by an information highway known as the nervous system. A collection of hundreds of billions of specialized cells
that transmit information between different parts of the body, a collection of... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To improve the speed of their communication, and to keep their electrical charges from shorting out with other neurons, axons are often surrounded by
a myelin sheath. The myelin sheathmyelin sheathA layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that acts as an insulator and allows faster
transmission of the electrical signal. is a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows faster
transmission of the electrical signal. Axons branch out toward their ends, and at the tip of each branch is a terminal button.
Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process (see Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron). An electrical charge moves
through the neuron itself and chemicals are used to transmit information between neurons. Within the neuron, when a signal is received by the
dendrites, is it transmitted to the soma in the form of an electrical signal, and, if the signal is strong enough, it may then be passed on to the axon and
then to the terminal buttons. If the signal reaches the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which
communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells, known as synapses.
Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron
This video clip

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Research Paper
Amvotronhic Lateral Sclerosis
What is It? Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, is a fatal age–dependent degeneration of motor neurons in the
spinal cord, brain system, and cortex.39–12 A Plaracteristic of the disease is the loss of all voluntary motor function, with the exception of Ocular
muscles and sphincter.8 The average age of onset is 55–60 years and the male to female ratio is 1.3 to 1.10 Following onset it is fatal after 3 to 5 years
on average's once respiratory functions are paralyzed." It affects all races' I and is the most common of the human motor neuron diseases3'7' occurring
in roughly one in every 2000 people." There are two types of ALS, sporadic and familial', with approximately 10% being ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Genetic factors not only affect the familial cases, but they also are likely to play a role in some of 4 the sporadic cases.9 Among the familial cases
about 200/s 3'12 contain causative genetic lesions in copper–zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD 1). 3'7 ALS could be an oxidative neurotoxicity brought
on by this mutation in the SOD 1 protein:1'11 A leading hypothesis of the development of ALS is /glutamate excitotoxicity.1В°'12 Concepts of
excitotoxicity may help explain the selective neuronal death that occurs.10 Excitatory neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, can damage postsynaptic
cells with excess concentrations.IВ° Glutamate levels are elevated in serum, spinal fluid, and brain tissue of ALS patients.11'12 It is also hypothesized
that deficiency of nerve growth factor may cause ALS.II Neurotrophic growth factors might rescue the cells that are destroyed in ALS.I "12 Additional
cause for ALS may be derivative of industrial pollutants and occupational exposure to chemicals associated with welding and soldering." Symptoms
ALS is characterized by a combination of both upper and lower motor neuron вњ“ symptoms9'I2 that lead to respiratory insufficiency within a few
years.1В° Lower motor neuron symptoms include weakness, muscle wasting, hyporefexia, muscle cramps, and fasciculations.9'11 Spasticity,
hyperreflexia, Hoffmann sign, extensor plantar responses, hyperactive jerk and gag reflex,

The Work Of The Working Brain
The Working Brain The brain has a large network that's controlled by the senses to the muscular throughout the body it goes through. When the brain is
harmed, it can damage the memory personality and sensation. The damage can lead to illness genetics or traumatic injuries. For instance brain tumors
are very dangerous, it can spread cancer tumor in your brain. Your brain is your body control center, without your brain you wouldn't have a body, all
the brains develop the same way. The most common brain disorders are childhood, degenerative and psychiatric disorders. The brain is the most
complex in the human body. When it comes to anatomy, it starts off as a structure that separates living parts. The brain has specialized areas of the
cortex which is the outer layer part that helps movement. The brain gives us awareness of our surroundings which controls muscle and movements.
There are different divisions when talking about brain diseases in autonomy. The basic that help the brain develop feeling would be the forebrain. The
forebrain is made up of the cerebellum. The midbrain is located near the brain between interbrain and hindbrain. And that helps the connection to the
spinal cord. Dealing with the brain will need guidance. With the brain, have the neurons also known as Motor Neuron Disease (MND) cell
communication processes the entire brain. Sensory brain it surrounds the nervous system. Interneuron and motor carries glands and muscles. Synclines

Mechanisms of Neuronal Repair Following Nerve Damage
Introduction
The normal function of the central and peripheral nervous systems depend highly on the successful functionality of afferent and efferent neurons.
Neurons are cells that have the ability to transmit sensory and motor messages throughout the body. These signals are promoted by electrically
insulating myelin sheaths that surround the axons of neurons. These sheaths are produced by Schwann cells and other glial cells. When a neuron is
damaged, a communicative circuit is compromised and essential signals cannot be transmitted throughout the body. A major site of injury that puts
many essential neurons at risk is the spinal cord, which contains many neurons essential for proper motor functionality. The spinal cord is made up
of nervous tissue within spinal vertebrae. The spinal cord receives sensory information from the skin, muscles, joints, tissues, as well as other
parts of the body, and then relays information to and from the brain. Injury to the spinal cord can cause dislocation of vertebrae, resulting in
various paralyzing disabilities such as quadriplegia (paralysis from the neck down) or paraplegia (paralysis of the lower body). The severity of the
disability depends on the location of the injury (Schwab et al. 2002). There are two main phases of spinal cord injury. The first phase is physical
tissue destruction, which is followed by tissue loss caused by irregular blood supply to the injury site. Because of this disrupted blood supply,

Neuro Case Study: Pathophysiology
| Neuro Case Studies|
Pathophysiology case study week 7: Neurological
Question #1
Brett reached into a clogged snow blower to clear the chute while it was still running. He completely severed one finger and partially severed another
on his left hand. After lengthy surgery to reattach his fingers, he has regained much of his motor ability but has lost some of his sensory function. What
factors are involved that affect the regeneration of Brett's neurons and neuron function?
Clinical answer:
For regeneration of neurons (getting sensory feeling back), his type of injury involves the PNS neurons that were involved, rather than CNS neurons,
so the chances of his neurons regenerating increase.
Nerve generation depends on ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The herniation of the disc occurs when the nuclear tissue if forced out of the center portion of the disc. The tissue of the nucleus can cause the annulus
to rupture when placed under an extreme amount of pressure. This pressure can be caused by a fall, car accidents, blunt force trauma, or degenerative
condition. The pain that a patient feels from a herniated disc is most likely caused from the pressure that the nucleus places against spinal nerves.
Possible symptoms of a herniated disc include pain that radiates through the back and possible down the arms or legs, depending on the location of
the herniation. There can also be noted numbness and weakness of the arms and neck. Some people may not even know that they have a herniated
disc because not all cases present with leg or back pain. Other signs and symptoms of a herniated disc may include muscle spasms or deep muscle
pain. In extreme cases, a patient may present with weakness in both legs and/or the loss of bladder control and bowel control. This is a serious
problem called cauda equine syndrome and requires immediate medical attention.
Treatment for a herniated disc can include either surgical or non–surgical options. There are many tests that can be performed such as x–rays, CT scans,
MRIs, myelograms, and nerve tests. All of these tests can be performed to help diagnose the location and degree of herniation. Some of the
non–surgical treatments include

Skeletal Muscle Research Paper
How does the nervous system tell the leg muscles to contract?
The nervous system is made up of three vital parts; the brain, spinal cord and nerves. This system controls everything we do from breathing, to running
to making our heartbeat fast or slow. The nervous system is very complicated although it can be broken down into smaller components.
The nervous system has two overarching areas: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is known as the
control center as it includes the brain and the spinal. Whereas the PNS includes the nerves leading all around the rest of the body, running to places like
your fingers and toes.
The peripheral nervous system splits further into the sensory division (where ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Within an MS patient the myelin sheath is targeted by the body's immune system destroying the insulating layer and leaving scaring on both the axon
and remaining sheath, this is why it is called sclerosis (sclerosis = scarring). As this scarring occurs in numerous parts of the body it is termed multiple
and can affect neurons that produce movement, speech, vision, and sensory

Restoration Of Function After Spinal Cord Injury

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