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Freely, John. Light from the East : How the Science of
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2
Eastern, Medieval, and
Renaissance Science
Learning Objectives

Upon completion of Chapter 2, you will be able to:
• Describe how social structures influenced the
direction of scientific activity in China.
• Understand the importance of Islamic
science.
• Discuss medieval periods and how each period
was led by societal changes.
• Explain the main scientific areasof the medieval
period.
• Analyze science and culture during the
Renaissance.
28
CHAPTER 2Section 2.1 Chinese Science
Introduction
China’s advances in science and technology predate
those of the cultures we have already studied,
but this “head start” did not provide China
any advantage in sci-ence over the West, as
we shall see. This was not true in the Islamic
world. We will
see the important role that Islamic scientists played in
the transmission of Greek thought
as well as being scientific innovators in their
own right. Partly because of the proximity
of the Arab-speaking peoples to the Mediterranean

(particularly to the Byzantine Empire)
and partly because of the lack of a consistent
worldview among Arab tribes, earlyIslamic
leaders encouraged the adoption of ideasfrom other
cultures, especially ancient Greece
and Rome. These leaders supported efforts to
translate scholarly works into Arabic and to
expand upon this acquired knowledge.
In this chapter, we will also examine the growth of
science in the medieval period of
Europe, an era sometimes referred to as the
Dark Ages. For centuries, writers have spoken
of the Dark Ages in Western Europe as a time of
widespread superstition and illiteracy
and of a total disinterest in “things of
this world” in favor of “things sacred.” During
this period—particularly in the unstable period
immediately following the fall of Rome—
therewas little time for or interest in pursuing
scientific activity; however, to assume that
investigations into nature were abandoned until
resurrected in the Renaissance is errone-
ous, as we shall see. We will then move on to
looking at the recovery of Greek science in
a period known as the Renaissance. This was
also the Age of Exploration, in which Euro-
peans ventured farther out to sea than ever before
and cameinto contact with new lands
and peoples, which changed their perspectives about
the world.
2.1 Chinese Science

During the golden era of Greek science, China
was a relatively isolated and highly structured
society, and scientific activities were wholly
controlled by the emper-ors. Even the awareness of
ideasfrom othercultures did not prompt significant
change in perceptions of nature.
In ancient China, the parameters of scientific
and technological activity were set by the
emperors. Unlike classical Greece, where individuals
pursued their own interests and
sought to understand the natural world to
fulfill their own human curiosity, in China
there
was no such concept of individualneeds separate
from the needs of the society as a whole.
Scientific activity was in the hands of court
“scientists” who worked for the emperor.
Members of otherprofessions had their own designated
roles in what was perceived as a
holistic, organic world order. The emperor himself
had a specific role: He was seen as the
bridge between the heavens and the Earth and it
was believed that he could control both
realms. He determined the needs of society,
and the people were required to carryout his
decrees. There was a strictbureaucratic hierarchy,
which adhered to principles promoted
by the particular philosophical school each
emperor favored. The emperor’s authority
was supreme, and his rule could not be questioned
unless it was determined that his
actions were contrary to the Mandate of Heaven that
legitimized his rule. If that was the

case, then it was morally justifiableto overthrow him
(Fukuyama, 2011).
29
Since society was viewed as a single,
collaborative, organic whole with everyone
working
for the benefit of the state, it was
inappropriate for individuals to work for their
own bet-
terment. Entrepreneurs were frowned upon. Merchants,
whose success depended largely
upon their own ingenuity, were also viewed as deviant
and suspect. The courtbureau-
cracy set standards for behavior, and the government
regulated agricultural production,
manufactures, metalworking, and crafts. New technology
was developed only if it served
an expressed need of the emperor (for either civilian
or military purposes). There was no
guarantee that an invention would continue to be
supported if the emperor, or his heirs,
determined that otherneeds were more important.
Astronomy
The Chinese tradition of keeping records of major
astronomical events is the longest and
most extensive in human history and still provides
useful information for today’s astrono-
mers (Merson, 1986). Chinese record keeping of

celestial events began early, with oracle
bones (on which were written information about
events) dating from the 17th century
BCE. Many contain records of eclipses and
comets.
Erratic celestial events, like eclipses, were considered
by the Chinese, as by othercultures,
to be signs of doom and destruction. In
China, the interest in predicting such celestial
events had political overtones as well. Since the
emperor was perceived as ruler of both
heaven and Earth, he was expected to know
when unusual “warning”signsoccurred in
the heavens. If he failed to predict an event,
this could tarnish his reputation. If he
pre-
dicted an event and it did not occur,
however, this was viewed as proof of his
power over
the heavens—sinceit was thought he had prevented
the event by his greatpower. Chinese
courtastronomers tended to overestimate the
likelihood of eclipses. Failure to alert the
emperor about an eclipse could cost them their
lives (Nakayama, 1966).
The Chinese possessed a sophis-
ticated lunar-solar calendar
which indicated lucky and
unlucky days and thus provided
guidance to the people in the
society. Developing and main-
taining such a calendar was dif-
ficult, since astronomers had to
calculate it according to both

lunarmonths and annual “sets
of months.” The astronomer
Shih Shen, who lived around
350 BCE, mapped over 800
stars, understood the nature of
eclipses, and may have been
the first to observe sunspots.
Another astronomer during the
same period, Gan De, created an
extensive star catalog and made
Oracle bones were used by early Chinese astronomers to record
major celestial events.
Image copyright Jun Mu, 2014. Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
30
detailed observations of the planets, even
mentioning a “red star” next to Jupiter
(possibly the Jovian moon, Ganymede).
And he had no telescope!
During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE until
220 CE), therewas a movementawayfrom
simply recording celestial events to making
measurements and constructing models of
the heavens. Zhang Heng (78–139 CE), a
courtastronomer, perfected a device called
the armillary sphere, which was used to
represent astronomical movements with

great mathematical accuracy. Celestial
globes, solid spheres on which stars and
constellations are represented, were also
popular. These globes circled around a fixed
axis to represent dailystar movements.
Cosmology
While Chinese astronomy relied on observation
and measurement, Chinese cosmology was
more conjectural. The Chinese visualized the cosmos as
comprisedof two opposing prin-
ciples—yin and yang (seefeature box: Confucianism and
Taoism)—which produced five
elements, or phases (water, earth, wood, fire,
and metal), of which all substances in
nature
were composed. Confucianethics, which emphasized
proper relationships, also influenced
Chinese cosmology, leading to the idea that all
was interrelated and that custom dictated the
movements of all heavenly bodies, creating a
cosmic order.
Confucianism and Taoism
A number of different philosophical schools developed early in
Chinese history and influenced not
only social behavior but also attitudes toward nature. Two of
the most enduring of these schools were
Confucianism and Taoism. Confucianism based its precepts on
the ideas of the philosopher Confucius,
who emphasized social and personal morality and the
importance of adherence to traditions as a way
to ensure stability in society. His thoughts became the code of
ethics of his followers and emphasized

social harmony over individualism. In other words,
Confucianism focused on behaving correctly and
maintaining traditions.
Taoism shared much of Confucianism’s ethical dimension;
however, it was more focused on orient-
ing individuals toward achieving a sense of oneness with nature.
Taoism traces its origin to mythical
philosopher Lao Tse. Tao means “the way” and refers to a
power that flows through everything in
the universe. Tao cosmology is based on the idea that the world
was brought forth by the interaction
of two opposite principles, yin and yang. Yin and yang are
equal and interdependent and are bound
together to make up a whole. Yin is seen as passive; yang as
active. The yin/yang concept influenced
Chinese thinking especially in the areas of biology and
medicine, while the study of nature by the Tao-
ists appears to be motivated primarily by their desire for
personal understanding and spiritual growth.
Reflective Question:
1. What influencesof Confucianism or Taoism do
you see in your everyday life?
China is proud of its astronomical past. Seen here is a
replica of an ancient armillary sphere.
iStock/Thinkstock
31

Medicine
Much of Chinese medicine was influenced by
the Taoist principles of yin and yang. Dis-
eases themselves were seen as an imbalance of
theseprinciples, and treatment aimed at
correcting that imbalance. The pulse was particularly
important in diagnosis. The Chi-
nese also believed that the blood moved in a
circle, although they did not differenti-
ate between veins and arteries. Rather, they held
that the blood movements were cyclical, just as
the seasons were cyclical and the heavenly bodies
moved in cyclical periods. The human body itself
was seen as a microcosm that mirrored the order
of the macrocosm (the heavens).
Chinese medicine also focused on the importance
of vital substances, or Chi. Chi, according to Tao-
ist tradition, is a fundamental energy permeating
all things which links everything together.
The
Chi flows through channels, or meridians, of
the
body, which are categorized into yin and yang
groupings and can be accessed and manipulated
at acupuncture points. Acupuncture manipula-
tions direct the flow of energy to organs where
it
is needed and moves energy awayfrom stagnant
areas. Chi can also be manipulated via exercises
such as Chi-gong (or Qigong), which aligns the

breath with physical activity to promote mental
and physical health. Chi-gong is first mentioned in
the Yi Jing (Book of Changes) around 1122 BCE and
it, along with acupuncture, is still practiced today.
Alchemy
While Chinese physicians focused on treating
disease, Chinese alchemists sought to
manipulate natural substances in order to
produce an elixir of immortality. Information
on earlyalchemy in China is difficult to find,
not only because practitioners did not write
much down but also because those engaged in
this attempt to “control” nature were
viewed with suspicion. It is believed that the
Chinese engaged actively in alchemy as early
as the 4th or 3rd century BCE. The basic
chemical understanding that was gained from
this study of chemical substances led to other
chemical discoveries, particularly gunpow-
der. As with otheraspects of Chinese science,
alchemical perspectives were influenced by
the Chinese understanding of the order of the
cosmos and the cyclical changes that were
seen as a natural part of that order. Nathan
Sivin suggests that the alchemical laboratory
was itselfa kind of microcosm of the world
and maintains that the philosophical goal of
alchemy was to replicate the Tao—to reproduce in
the laboratorythe “cyclical energy of
the cosmos” (Sivin, 1976).
This chart shows the acupuncture points on

the male body. Acupuncture is still used in
China to balance and strengthen Chi.
Image copyright Mark Yuill, 2014.
Used under license from Shutterstock, Inc.
32
CHAPTER 2Section 2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science
2.2 The Beginnings of Islamic Science
From its origin in Arabia, the Islamic empire
expanded rapidly after the death of the prophet
Muhammad in 632 CE. For a time it was
the largest empire in the world. Arabic
was established as the universal language—and
this allowed people of many
different cultures to communicate easily with each
other. While the Chinese saw science
as a private courtactivity tied to the bidding of
the emperor, those in the Islamic world
actively encouraged anyone to study science.
Since their holy book, the Qur’an, urges
believers to study nature to appreciate God’s
creation, observing and knowing nature
became associatedwith religious duty.
The earliest Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad, was
overthrown in 750 CE by the Abbasids,
who set up their capital in Baghdad (a former
Persian stronghold) and adopted Persian
customs. Baghdad became a large, cosmopolitan

city in which scientific activity was
encouraged and financed by the rulers, called
caliphs. The caliphs not only recognized the
value of the scholarly work of othercultures but
“gradually embraced the idea that sci-
ences originated from a single and ultimately divine
source” (Yucesoy, 2009). The Abbasid
caliphs established the House of Wisdom in 828
CE in Baghdad as a library and research
center modeled after the greatLibrary of Alexandria
(see Section 1.3). Scholars from all
over the empire were brought to Baghdad to aid in
the translation of Greek, Roman, Egyp-
tian, and Mesopotamian works.
Why did the Abbasids play such a direct role in
this translation effort? Perhaps it was
because Baghdad had previously been a thriving
center of scholarship under its former
Persian rulers. The Abbasids believed that to win
the loyalty of the people they had con-
quered, it was important to demonstrate respect
for the scholarly heritage of those con-
quered cultures. The Qur’an itself taught
tolerance for othercultures; therefore, it was
both acceptable and practical to incorporate the
knowledge of othercultures.
The Abbasids also engaged in scientific work to meet
religious needs. For example, it
was crucial that the times for prayer be
accuratelycomputed and that worshippers knew
the direction of Mecca, sincethey were required to
face Mecca while praying. This made
the Abbasids particularly interested in making
astronomical observations and measuring

distances and directions on Earth. The Qur’an also
mandated all Muslims, even those liv-
ing far from the Arabian Peninsula, to make
pilgrimages to Mecca, and this prompted a
special interest in cartography and geography.
Islamic science focused on particular areasof
interest based on social need. In general,
therewas a greater emphasis on experiment than in
the classical era. It is important to
note that the translation effort led to quite
innovative work by scholars seeking to study
and expand upon earlier ideas. We can speak of
scientific activity in the Islamic world
(especially from the 8th to the 12th centuries) as a
golden age.
Astronomy
As in other cultures, Muslim interest in the
heavens had both a practical and a spiri-
tual dimension. Muslims believed that God created
and sustains everything and that
33
the universe could be understood both through
revelation and through reason. Some Muslim
astronomers focused on astronomy from a wholly
philosophical perspective. The astronomer/phi-

losopher al-Kindi (801–873 CE) suggested that the
cosmos consisted of concentric spheres with Earth
at the center and that heavenly bodies moved in
circular movements in a conscious obedience to
God’s will. Another philosopher, al-Farabi (870–
950 CE), incorporated Platonic ideas of emana-
tions from first principles to explain the presence
of the divine throughout the universe.
In Baghdad, scholars focused more on obser-
vational astronomy, aided by the fact that the
caliph al-Mamun had financed the construction
of an astronomical observatory there in 829
and
brought in astronomers from throughout the
empire to work in it. Exemplary work was done
by astronomers such as al-Battani (c. 858–
929),
who was able to make even more accurate mea-
surements than Ptolemy of the length of the year,
the precession of the equinoxes, and the
obliquity
of the ecliptic. Over time,thesecareful observers
of the heavens became dissatisfied with Ptolemy’s
use of hypothetical mathematical constructs.
Muslim astronomers argued that if the Earth
truly was the center of the universe as
Ptolemy suggested, one should be able to
develop a simpler mathematical model to
define the movements of heavenly bodies. Muslim
astronomers were not able to devise
a satisfactory replacement model, but they did

draw attention to the problem. It wasn’t
until the 17th century that a replacement model
was conceived by Copernicus (see Sec-
tion 3.4).
Even though they did not create a model to
replace Ptolemy’s, Muslim astronomers did
advance knowledge about celestial objects. Abd al-
Rahman al-Sufi, in the 10th century,
produced a text entitled Book on the Constellations of
Fixed Stars, which assigned Arabic
names to the stars and gave improved readings on
their magnitudes. Muslim astronomers
also expanded use of the astrolabe (firstinvented by
the Greeks) to obtain more accurate
measurements of celestial objects. They also made
enhancements to this device by adding
angular scales to it.
Mathematics
Islamic science used mathematics to provide better
explanations of natural phenomena
otherthan celestial motions. By combining geometry
with experiment, Ibn al-Haytham
(Alhazen) developed his theory of optics. His theory
rejected the Greek idea that light
A page from a 16th-century Arabic
manuscript showing astronomers at
work in the Galata Observatory.
Photos.com/Thinkstock

34
rays travel from the eye to the viewed object.
Using mathematical calculations along with
experiment, he suggested that vision was a process
in which light rays travel to the eye
from every pointof the observed object.
Muslims used mathematics effectively for making
terrestrial measurements as well. In the
11th century, Al-Biruni provided accurate values for
latitudes and longitudes, discussed
the rotation of Earth, and posited a more
accurate method of determining Earth’s circum-
ference, using trigonometric calculations. He
compiled his findings into a seven-volume
text, the Kitab al-Manazir, between 1028 and 1038 CE
(Gorini, 2003).
Medicine
Medicine was a topicof significant interest for
Islamic scientists. The translation movement
had made them familiar not only with Greek and
Roman medicine, but also with Indian
and Chinese medicine. All thesemedicine traditions were
integrated and systematized in
the 9th century. Additionally, therewas an emphasis on
medical ethics. The first translator
at the House of Wisdom, Hunayn ibn Ishaq,
wrote a book arguing the importance of
the
Hippocratic oath to Arabic medicine. This was
significant, sinceat the time any layman

could practice medicine and, given the prevalence
of courtintrigue that ofteninvolved
poisoning of rivals, insisting that physicians commit
to ethical conduct was advantageous
to the medical profession.
As cities grew within the Muslim empire, urban
overcrowding created public health prob-
lems. Under the caliphs a state system of
medical care was developed. The caliph al-
Rashid founded the first state-run hospital in
Baghdad in 800 CE as a lay institutionwith
a diverse staff of physicians—Hindu, Jewish,
Christian, and Muslim—and the hospital
accepted patients of all religious denominations. In
keeping with the religious idea that
medicines, provided by God, were to be used in
treating disease, this hospital and those
later established created on-site pharmacies for
the preparation of drugs. Pharmacology
was of greatinterest to philosopher-scholars as
well. In the late 9th century, the astrono-
mer-philosopher al-Kindi developed a mathematical
system of compounding drugs. He
was the first to promote a quantitative approach in
pharmacy.
Another area of medicine well developed in the Muslim
world was surgery. Sophisticated
surgical techniques were devised. Many of these
were for treating diseases of the eye
(such as cataracts), sinceeye problems were
frequent—particularly in the desert regions
within the empire.
Alchemy and Chemistry

Alchemy was first introduced into the Muslim world
in the 9th century by Jabir ibn
Hayyan (also known as Geber), whose works
have come down to us through a col-
lection of writings of the 10th-century esoteric
sect known as the Brethren of Purity.
Muslim alchemy was based on the idea that all
substances, especially metals, were
35
CHAPTER 2Section 2.3 Medieval Science
formed by the interaction of opposites. In
Chinese alchemy, theseopposites had been
equated with yin and yang principles. In the Muslim
world, it was believed that mer-
cury (which represented the female essence) and
sulfur (the male essence) interacted
in various combinations to produce specific metals.
By changing the proportions of
thesebasicsubstances, one metal could be
transmuted (changed) into another. Unlike
Chinese alchemists, who sought to concoct an
elixir of immortality, Muslim (and later
Western European)alchemists aimed to create
gold from base metals.
Chemical operations interested many Muslim
scholars, even those who opposed the idea
of transmutation. For example, the philosopher al-
Kindi denied transmutation yet dab-
bled in chemistry and even wrote a book on

creating perfumes. Muslims made advances
in developing laboratory techniques and
laboratory technology, in quantifying their
work, and in enhancing experimental observation.
2.3 Medieval Science
As the Abbasid caliphate declined and the caliphs
became mere figureheads, sup-port for science in
Baghdad waned. However, the translation work
continued in another part of the Muslim
empire—Spain,particularly during the 11th
century.
It was from Spain that people of Western Europe
regained the knowledge of most Greek
and Roman science, which had largely been lost to
them during the earlyMiddle Ages. In
fact, by the time the Western Roman Empire fell,
scientific activity in the West had already
long been in decline. The greatAlexandrian library
had been destroyed at the end of the
4th century. Gradually, the majority of educated
people in the West became unable to read
Greek, though Latin was still used, particularly
by churchmen.
The Early Medieval Period (5th to 10th Centuries)
As outsider tribes established control over the
old Roman Empire, they brought with them
customs of their own while also assimilating some
Roman ways. Theirs was a predomi-
nantly rural society, with agriculture a chief
occupation. This was a period of greatpoliti-
cal instabilityas various tribes battled for
territorial gain. Although they did not engage

in theorizing about nature, they had practical needs—
particularly related to maintaining
adequate agricultural production to support their
own people. As a result, we find a con-
siderable amount of technological innovation during
this time.
The Romans had been able to cultivate the relatively
fertile soil of Italy with a light plow
pushed by hand, but a heavier plow was needed
to work the hard,rocky ground of north-
ern Europe. By the late 8th century, a heavy,
wheeled plow cameinto regular use. Its heavy
weight required that it be drawn by oxen.
Due to the expense of acquiring and maintaining
oxen, teams of oxen were shared by many
peasants. The heavy plow could both cut the
fur-
row by means of a coulter and turn over the
soil by means of a mouldboard. Use of
this plow
also coincided with another innovation: the development
of a three-field system, in which
one section each year was sownin the winter, another
in the summer, and the third left fallow
to regain nutrients. Together theseinnovations
resulted in an efficient way to cultivate fields
and to increase agricultural productivity. This system
of agriculture also led to more inter-
36

dependence among peasants—
a fact that proved advantageous
to the development of the feu-
dal system, in which serfs, who
were peasants who had become
agricultural laborers, were the
lowest members of the system;
they were attached to the land
owned by a lord.
People at this time who were
interested in investigating how
nature worked simply consulted
the writings of the past that they
could access. So many classical
works had been lost that usu-
ally only fragments were avail-
able. These works were copied
by monks, who often made
errors when copying them. This
prevented individuals from
fully comprehending the con-
tent. Additionally, some early
medieval writers falsified infor-
mation from classical sources
in order to promote their own
arguments. This also made it difficult for people
to have an accurate knowledge of the
classical scholarship (Stahl, 1959). Aristotle, whose
work had become so influential in the
classical world, was now available only in fragmented
form.

The Role of the Church
Many have assumed that the medieval church, with its
interest in the hereafter, rejected
rational analysis about nature. However, it seems
that the church was the primary patron
of scholarship, including investigation of nature,
throughout the medieval period (Lind-
berg,1995). Science, or “natural philosophy” as it
was then understood, was viewed as
the handmaid of religion, and the church controlled
the direction of inquiry into nature.
According to Lindberg (1995), the degree of
control varied with the type of inquiry. The
church was relatively tolerant of investigations into
technical subjects (such as medicine
and optics), but inquiries (such as cosmology)
that impinged on theology were prone to
greater church scrutiny.
In somecases, the church not only tolerated but
specifically encouraged scientific inves-
tigation. This was the case with practical astronomy,
sinceit was useful to the church in
helping to determine the date of Easter and
regulating the hours of monastic prayer. St.
Gregory of Tours (538–594 CE) himself is
believed to have written an astronomical text,
De
Cursu Stellarum (On the Course of the Stars), to
determine the proper time of nightprayer
throughout the year.
The hilltop town of Gangi, in Sicily, was founded during the
feudal times. The three-field system is still in use there today.
Image copyright Pecold, 2014. Used under license from

Shutterstock, Inc.
37
Charlemagne
When Charlemagne consolidated his kingdom into an
empire that extended over much of
western and central Europe, he established a
palace school at Aachen, his capital. Alcuin
of York (c. 740–804 CE), an English-born scholar,
was brought there, and a period of schol-
arly activity began that lasted from the late 8th
through the 9th centuries. This period is
called the Carolingian Renaissance. During this period,
more manuscripts were written
and copied. Scholars and nobles cameto Aachen
and then returned to their own locales,
spreading their knowledge to both churchmen and
laity. Scholarly learning (particularly
classical learning) began to be viewed as a
valuable asset complementary to religion.
Alcuin himself established an educational
curriculum that was utilized elsewhere in the
Carolingian empire, resurrected the study of
logic, and standardized the Latin language.
This standardization of Latin expedited communication
throughout the empire.
The High Medieval Period (11th to 15th Centuries)
An unstable period followed the death of

Charlemagne as his lands were divided among
his sons,who fought for territorial supremacy. By
the 11th century, the center of the old
Carolingian empire had shifted to Germany, while
Muslims expanded into southern Italy
and Spain. At this time the feudal system became
fully established in Europe. This was a
time of frequent conflicts and general instabilityin
which it became difficult once again to
pursue intellectual activities in most of Western
Europe.
Moorish Spain
The situation was different in the Muslim empire,
which was still strong and which con-
tinued to promote scientific activity. Although
Baghdad had declined as a cultural center,
scholarship began to flourish again in Spain.
The Muslims had conqueredSpain in the 8th
century, establishing the Caliphate of Cordova. Their
second caliph, Caliph Al-HakamII
(961–976), was a strong promoter of learning
and founded a library at Cordova containing
thousands of volumes.
The great mosque in Cordova is a
remnant of the Muslim conquest of
Spain. The distinctive style of the
architecture can be seen in this image.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock

38
In Spain, from the 8th to the 11th centuries,
scholarship flourished, with Muslim, Christian,
and Jewish scholars working together in an
atmosphere of tolerance. The translation effort
that had begun in Baghdad continued in Spain,
and many translations of classical writ-
ings were completed in this period. European Christians
initially looked with suspicion
upon the texts by non-Christian writers being
translated in Spain. However, they gradually
cameto value the translation work being done
there. Christian scholars began to travel to
Spain to acquire knowledge. The translators
therewere a diverse group, and among them
were scholars able to translate Greek, Latin, and
Arabic. Some classical works that had been
translated into Arabic from the Greek were now
translated into Latin. This provided West-
ern Europeans the ability once again to access
and study writings long lost to them.
A number of churchmen cameto Spain to
learnfrom Muslim scholars at this time,includ-
ing Gerbert of Aurillac (930–1003), who later
became Pope Sylvester II. He traveled to
Toledo, where he became well versed in
mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and even
astrology.
The translations of Greek classical works made

available to the West complete versions
of writings, such as those of Aristotle, and allowed
scholars to correct many of the errors
embedded in the translations they had previously
been using. Other translated works
provided the West new, practical information (for
example, on medicine) that could be
put into immediate use.
Renaissance of the 12th Century
The ability to obtain translations of classical
works played a role in the development of
a broad revival of scholarship throughout
Western Europe called the “Renaissance of
the
12th century.” The 12th century itselfwas a time of
accelerated social and religious change
as commerce expanded, new religious orders were
founded, and society became increas-
inglyurbanized. The political situation was relatively
peaceful, and dailylife became more
predictable. Scholars were now drawn to cities,
where they formally established universi-
ties. A university, organized as a corporation,
was typically granted legal immunities and
therefore attained a relatively high degree of
autonomy from local authority. There were
considerable differences among the various
universities. Some were essentially medical
schools, others focused on law, and still others
focused on theology and training profes-
sional clergy. Classical works, rewritten in
textbook form, served as the basisfor most of
the curricula. The primary methods of instruction

included lecture (or lectio), in which
professorsread from the text and made comments while
the students listened, and dispu-
tation, or scholarly debate, in which the
professor posed a philosophical question from
the
text and students argued the question pro and con
using evidence from the authoritative
sources in the textbooks. The disputation
gradually became not only a learning methodol-
ogy but also a philosophical system by which
classical thought could be reconciled with
Christian theology, which cameto be known as
Scholasticism.
39
CHAPTER 2Section 2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science
Biographical Spotlight: Roger Bacon
Although little scientific experimentation was conducted in the
Middle Ages, we can still speak of a brief interest in
experimentation
in the 13th century. This approach was advocated by Roger
Bacon
(1214–1294), who criticized an overreliance on authority and
sug-
gested that people engage in direct observation of nature.
Bacon was a Franciscan who had been educated at Oxford
Univer-
sity. He became an independent scholar and was interested in
Greek

and Muslim texts, particularly on optics. When he failed to
obtain a
teaching position, he continued his own work under the
patronage
of Pope Clement V and wrote works in which he urged
university
scholars to learn by experiment rather than rely on scholastic
argu-
ment. He conducted some experiments of his own, primarily in
optics, using lenses and mirrors to determine principles of
reflection
and refraction. His work did not improve upon that of the
Muslim
writers, like al-Hazen, who had influenced him, but his
insistence on
the importance of the experimental method is considered
significant for its time. Bacon was a prolific
and an outspoken student of science who also studied
mathematics, astronomy, and alchemy and is
said to have been the first in Western Europe to describe the
method of making gunpowder.
Reflective Questions:
1. Why do you thinkRoger Bacon, a
churchman, developed an interest in
experimentation?
2. What does Roger Bacon’s work reveal about
changing attitudes toward Muslim science in
this period?
2.4 Highlights of Medieval Science

Physics
A subject of greatinterest in the Middle Ages
was that of motion. The impetus theory of
Philoponus was revived in the West in the 13th
century. According to this theory, once a
body is placed in motion it will stay in motion
until the force(impetus) naturally depletes.
Jean Buridan (1300–1358 CE), rector of the
University of Paris, further developed this
theory.
Buridan held that impetus did not decrease
spontaneously; rather, it depleted due to air
resistance. He also suggested that the amount of
impetus a body received was proportional
to the body’s initial speed as well as its
density and volume. His views were similar to
our
modern concept of momentum. Although other
scholars continued to enhance Buridan’s
arguments, the reliance on Aristotle as the main
philosophical authority was still too strong
to allow him to be challenged. It was only
later, in Renaissance Italy, that Aristotle’s
author-
ity began to weaken, and the impetus theory
was again considered—bymen such as Galileo.
Astrology
Although medieval scholars did little to extend
classical ideasabout astronomy, they were
very interested in astrology. Adelard of Bath, one of
the prolific translators of the 11th century,

40
made translations of works of Muslim
astronomers that were widely used in creating
horo-
scopes. Michael Scot,another translator,served as
courtastrologer to King Frederick II of
Sicily. Roger Bacon himself, although critical of
“magic,” nonetheless accepted astrology
and argued that the planets could influence human
behavior.
Medieval astrologers were generally regarded with respect,
and almanacs were created
containing star charts that were widely utilized.
Even physicians consulted thesebefore
making a diagnosis, sinceit was believed that various
astrological signsinfluenced spe-
cific parts of the body. By using astrological
information physicians felt they could best
determine the most auspicious times to perform
bloodletting and to dispense drugs for
each patient.
Did You Know? Richard II
Richard II took astrology very seriously. He was warned by the
court astrologer that he would be “slain
and destroyed” by a toad. He took heed of the warning when his
cousin Henry appeared at a Christ-
mas feast, wearing a robe that had toads embroidered on it.
Richard banished Henry from England.
Yet, in 1399, Henry invaded England and overthrew Richard to
ascend the throne as Henry IV.

Alchemy
Prior to the translation of Muslim works in
the 11th century, the West knew little of
alchemy, although people did possess manuscripts
containing directions for dyeing and
for making pigments. When translations of
alchemical works became available, interest
grew, and alchemy became widely practiced in
Western Europe. Some of the most influ-
ential scholars of the period, such as
Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon, investigated
whether or not the claims of alchemists were
true. Albertus Magnus (1206–1280 CE) wrote
a treatise on minerals and made tests of
alchemical gold to ascertain whether or not it
was
truly gold.(He decided it was only an imitation.)
Roger Bacon accepted the idea of trans-
mutation but asserted that alchemists oftenfailed
because they were ignorant of proper
techniques such as distillation and calcination.
During the medieval period, alchemists in
Western Europe retained traditional beliefs
that metals were formed by the union of female
and male principles, that metals were
living and possessed both substance and soul (spirit),
and that mercury was the spirit of
silver and essential to the production of all
metals. Alchemy never became a formal
sub-
ject of study within the university curriculum,
however, sinceit was still considered part

of the craft tradition.
41
Medicine
Throughout the Middle Ages, medicine was of
greatinterest, and the church specifically
urged care of the infirm as a Christian duty.
From the time of their establishment, monas-
teries had provided medical care for their own
members, but later hospices for the poor
were created adjacent to churches, and monasteries
began providing medical care to the
local community—inessence becoming the first hospitals. In
rural areas, however, people
of the peasant class mainly relied on herbalists
and wise women, who had knowledge of
local herbal remedies.
As members of the clergy became more directly
involved in providing medical services,
the church passed laws to place limits on
such activity, lest it interfere with the clerics’
religious and contemplative duties. Despite these
prohibitions, the clergy continued to
practice medicine extensively. In the late Middle
Ages, nursing orders were established
specifically to tend to the destitute in hospitals.
Eventually, graduates from university
medical schools became available in ample
numbers, and responsibility for medical care

then shifted from clergy to thesemore formally trained
practitioners. The medical cur-
riculum of the universities was based on the
works of Galen and, following Galen, physi-
ciansbased their treatment on restoring the balance of
the body’s four humors, using diet,
bloodletting, and drug therapy.
While the university curriculum retained Galen as
the authoritative text, somephysicians
conducted their own empirical observations during the
late Middle Ages. Although dis-
section was frowned upon by the church, some
dissections and post mortems were none-
theless performed. A physician and professor of
surgery in Bologna, Mondino de Luzzi
(1275–1326), wrote a treatise on dissection based
on his own observations. He insisted,
however, that all his findings were consistent with those
of Galen. Mondino’s book became
widely used in medical schools, and although it
did not challenge Galen, his work is sig-
nificant because of his interest in direct
observation as a means of obtaining
information.
The most significant event challenging medieval
physicians and affecting medieval cul-
ture was the Black Death, the pandemic of
bubonic plague that afflicted Western Europe
beginning in 1348. There was understanding neither
of its cause nor of public health and
sanitation in general at this time.Bloodletting and
herbal drugs were the only treatments
available. The only innovative response that developed
during this period was quaran-

tine, and those suspected of carrying the disease
were isolated for a 40-day period. Quar-
antine was practiced especially in port cities such as
Venice, where arriving shipswere
frequentlyfound to be contaminated.
The plague recurred for years after its initial
introduction into Europe and decimated
the population of Western Europe. Over one-third of
the total population died. This sud-
den population decline was to have significant
economic and political repercussions and
weakened traditional social structures.
42
Science in Medieval Italy
Scientific activity in Italy differed from that in other
regions of Western Europe. The region
was never unified for long under a single
king;rather, independent city-statesemerged,
engaging in trade and acquiring great wealth.
Great merchant and banker families
patronized scientific work in order to enhance
their own reputation and that of their local
city-state.
Italy was also located geographically closer to the
Byzantine Empire, with its capital at
Constantinople. Here, in the Eastern Roman
Empire, scholarship faredbetter. This por-

tion of the empire retained relatively morepolitical
stability, Greek was the common lan-
guage, and Greek scientific writings remained
accessible. When Christianity became the
official religion in the 4th century, even churchmen
continued to read and preserve classi-
cal Greek works. Byzantine scholars had been in
contact with Italy even before the Eastern
Roman Empire fell to the Turks in 1453.
These scholars were Greek-speaking and brought
to Italy their knowledge of Platoand Aristotle, which
they could read in the original lan-
guage. Even more Byzantine scholars emigrated after the
fall of Byzantium, and by the
15th century, many works of classical Greek
science were known in Italy. Along with
this
familiarity camethe realization that someof these
writings contained inconsistencies—
inconsistencies that non-Greek-speaking scholars elsewhere in
Europe had assumed were
due to “faulty translations.” This gradually gave rise to
the idea among Italian scholars
that the ancient authorities were not infallible and
opened the door to new investigations
of their findings.
Sicily, like Italy itself, was another haven for
medieval scientific activity. This island had
been occupied by the Muslims in the 9th century,
becoming a gathering place for scholars
from North Africa and Egypt and a center of
translation of Greek works into Arabic.
After
the Normans took over the island in the late 11th

and early12th centuries, the Norman
ruler Roger II consolidated Norman holdings in
Sicily, Malta, and southern Italy and by
1130 had created the Kingdom of Sicily. Roger II,
a skilled geographer himself, encour-
aged scientific activity. Muslim and Christian scholars
worked at his capital at Palermo
in an environment of unusual tolerance. Greek,
Arabic, and Latin were all used in court
documents. Roger II also assumed many Muslim
customs and even spoke Arabic.
Scientific activity in Sicily continued under
Emperor Frederick II, who was raised in Sicily
and, like Roger II, had a personal interest in
science.
43
Biographical Spotlight: Frederick II of Sicily
Frederick II (1194–1250 CE) was not only the Emperor of the
Romans
but he also held the title of King of Germany, Italy, and
Burgundy. At
the age of 3, he was crowned the King of Sicily and co-ruled it
with
his mother. It was in Sicily that he spent a large part of his life.
He was
a shrewd, sometimes cruel ruler but is known for his patronage

of sci-
ence and the arts. He is said to have been able to speak six
languages
and became known as “Stupor Mundi” (the Wonder of the
World).
He surrounded himself at his court at Palermo with a number of
scholars and translators. The scientific and translation work
done
there was not as significant as that of Toledo in Spain, but
Palermo
was nonetheless a center of intellectual activity. Michael Scot,
who
was trained in Toledo and served as the link between the two
cen-
ters, translated Aristotle and commentaries of the Muslim
philoso-
pher Averroes. Scot was also interested in medicine and is said
to
have cured Frederick II from an illness.
Muslim and Jewish scholars worked together in Palermo,
supported
by Frederick II, who had wide-ranging scientific interests,
including mathematics, philosophy, natu-
ral history, medicine, and architecture. He is said to have posed
questions to Michael Scot about the
nature of the universe and to have voiced skepticism about
astrology, asserting that only things that
could be explained by reason were valid.
In 1224, Frederick II founded the University of Naples. He also
reorganized the medical school at
Salerno, forbidding physicians to act as pharmacists (thus
preventing them from prescribing and selling
unnecessary or useless drugs for profit) and fixing the prices of

medical remedies.
Frederick II was an avid hunter and constructed elaborate
hunting lodges. He authored the first
treatise on falconry, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus, which
was based on his own meticulous empirical
observations of both falcons and their prey. Although he
incorporated into this work the ideas of many
other writers, including the treatise on animals by Aristotle (De
Animalibus) and Avicenna’s work on
birds, he did not blindly repeat their ideas when his own
observations contradicted these. Frederick’s
knowledge of falcons and their prey was extensive, and he was
able to dismiss some of the fantastic
stories currently held about them by conducting his own
experiments. For example, he determined
that vultures rely on sight, not smell, to find their prey by
sealing the eyes of his own captive vultures.
He also dismissed the idea that barnacle geese were not hatched
from eggs but from barnacles on
trees, noting the similarity in shape but refuting that there was
any biological connection. It is even
said that when he directed Theodore of Antioch to translate a
work by the Muslim writer Moamyn on
birds, he made corrections to the translation based on his own
findings.
1. What do you believe influenced Frederick’s
fascination with science?
2. How could Frederick’s interest in hunting
have influenced his ideason science?
iStock/Thinkstock

44
CHAPTER 2Section 2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of
Greek Science
The city of Salerno on the Italian mainland had
benefited earlyfrom proximity to the Mus-
lim world and Arab knowledge of medicine. The
first lay medical school was founded there
in the 10th century, and by the 12th century it
was a flourishing medical center. Its
curricu-
lum combined both practical and theoretical medicine,
and therewas a particular interest in
making clinical descriptions of diseases. Joannes de
Sancto Paulo, who worked at Salerno in
the 12th century, compiled a comprehensive book
systematically describing disease symp-
toms and likely causes. This book became widely
known throughout Europe. Works on
compounding drugs were also written, such as the
Circa Instans of Mattaeus Platearius.
Salerno also became famous for the Regimen Sanitatis
Salernitanum, a poem by an unknown
author that provided simple verses on good diet
and healthy living—ideas similar to those
of Arab physicians. Women as well as men
possibly practiced medicine at Salerno. Trotola of
Salerno is identified as a woman physician of
11th century Salerno who had special exper-
tise in diseases of women. A treatise on
gynecology and obstetrics has been ascribed to

her.
2.5 The Renaissance and the Revival of Greek Science
The 14th and 15th centuries ushered in a new era of
optimism with Italy taking the lead. Italy was proud
of its heritage as the center of the Roman
Empire and now wished to emulate the glories
of the past. As the Italian city-statesgained
wealth,
they began to promote individual excellence and
reward personal achievement. People
seeking to elevate their social stature desired to
emulate the literary and rhetorical skills of
their classical forebears. The freedom to explore ideas
gradually evolved into a belief that
individuals could progress beyond the ancients,
using their own capabilities.
By the late Middle Ages, the Italian city-states
had become the most prosperous politi-
cal entities in Europe. Their new mercantile
classes were strong, wealthy, and anxious to
become both visible and respected in their society. In
this climate, the traditional religious
perspective, emphasizing humility and obedience and
exhorting people to engage in spiri-
tual, not earthly, pursuits, became less effective as a
guide for human behavior and activity
(Hay, 1977). New models were needed, and they
were found in the classical world. The
ideasof classical writers, who wrote of living
well in a politicallyengaged society, were
of particular value to those of the wealthier,
better educated classes whose interests were
primarily secular.

The Printing Press
During this period, in which the level of literacy
increased throughout Europe, a single
invention, the printing press, significantly facilitated
the spread of scholarly works and
ideas. Hand-copied manuscripts were expensive, so
even in universities students relied
on note taking while professorsread from the single
available manuscript text. Only the
very rich could afford to own sufficient manuscripts
to create a personal library. This was
also an age of religious reform, with authors eager
to promote their ideasmore widely.
These needs motivated the effort to find a
better way of disseminating information.
Papermaking had been known in Europe sincethe
12th century with paper millsbeing
established in Europe beginning in 1189. Block
printing was utilized in the 13th century,
45
Greek Science
and when movable type was finally per-
fected in the mid-15th century, printed works
quickly became popular.
The first printing press was developed in
Germany by Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468)

around the year 1430 and spread fairly quickly
to other countries. By the year 1500 about
20 million books had been printed. The first
printed book was the Bible, but soon editions
of classical works, including scientific works,
were also made available. Printed books were
useful in that they were all identical copies of
a single original without the errors that hand-
written manuscripts sometimes contained.
The availability of printed works created
favorable conditions for scholarly dialogue
throughout Europe. Furthermore, many
books that were printed were published in
the vernacular language of the people, which
made them accessible to a broader section of
the population that did not know Latin. This
accelerated the spread of new ideas, includ-
ing ideason scientific topics.
The Age of Exploration
The Age of Exploration, which occurred at this
same time,helped to increase the curiosity
of Europeans about the natural world, even
though the goal of exploration was economic,
not scientific. By the 14th century, the Venetians had
come to monopolize the spicetrade
with the East. Other European nations sought to
establish their own traderoutes to Asia
in order to acquire a share in this
lucrative business. Rulers of European nations
financed
voyages of exploration to seek out new traderoutes.
In the process, explorers discovered

new lands and cultures and set up colonies to
exploit natural resources in thesenew terri-
tories. These voyages of exploration significantly
altered the map of the known world. On
the negative side, the coming of Europeans to
thesenew lands resulted in the transference
of diseases to the indigenous populations, which
sometimes brought them to the brink of
extinction. The major seafaring nations of Europe,
however, amassed greatwealth—to the
pointthat the center of culture shifted from the
Mediterranean to northern Europe.
To undertake theselong voyages, which required shipsto
sail far from land, navigational
instruments had to be improved. Although latitude
could be determined by use of the
mariner’s astrolabe to measure the angle from the
North Star to the horizon, calculating
longitude with any degree of accuracy continued to be
a problem. Some navigators, like
Amerigo Vespucci, attempted to calculate longitude using
the changing positions of the
moon and Mars, but this was unsuccessful. The
answer to the problem of longitude had
to wait until the invention of the marine chronometer
in the 18th century. Untilthen, those
engaging in long voyages faced considerable danger
of shipwreck.
Gutenberg’s printing press revolutionized the
way in which information would be spread.

46
Greek Science
Longocean voyages also required improvements in
shipbuilding and mapping. These
proved easier to achieve. The 16th-century
Portuguese used caravels for their long ocean
voyages. These were small, easily maneuverable
shipswith lateen sails that could sail
fast. Mapmakers improved their mapsby using
information supplied by earlier explor-
ers. In the mid-16th century, the cartographer
Gerardus Mercator developed a particu-
larly useful cylindrical map projection (the Mercator
projection) that was able to rep-
resent lines of constant course as
straight segments. This type of
map became invaluable for navi-
gational purposes.
The full impact of the Age of
Exploration on science was not
felt until the 17th and 18th centu-
ries, when the interest in study-
ing and cataloging what had
been discovered about the natural
environment in these new lands
intensified. However, even dur-
ing the Renaissance the voyages
of exploration in this earlyperiod
gave rise to a new optimism about
human capabilities—as well as to
the idea that one need not rely

solely on the knowledge of the
classical past to develop an under-
standing of the world.
Science and Scholarship in the Renaissance
One of the fields of inquiry in the Renaissance
that benefited from an empirical approach
was medicine. Even though they dealt with patients every
day and closely observed the
human body, most physicians still tended to
rely on ancient authority when making a
diagnosis and planning treatment. However, surgery, which
was considered a craft, had
always taken a more empirical approach. During
the Middle Ages and throughout the
Renaissance, surgery was almost exclusively the
responsibility of barber-surgeons. These
individuals tended to develop their own skills
and their own procedures, but their find-
ings were rarely communicated to physicians.
By the early Renaissance, dissections were once
again being performedas a means of
teaching medical students. Quite a number of
elaborate anatomical amphitheaters were
constructed at Italian universities in the 16th
century, funded by wealthy patrons. How-
ever, physicians did not perform dissections
themselves. They read from the text while
an assistant (probably a barber-surgeon) did the
actual dissection. Students watched the
proceedings from galleries above.
Often members of the public were invited to
witness dissections along with medical

students.
Renaissance artists, who were inspired by realism
and wanted to learnmore about the shape
and structures of the human body, were frequent
guests. Sometimes artists were employed
Improvements in cartography and shipbuilding enabled
explorers to expand their countries’ territories and wealth. Here,
Christopher Columbus encounters natives in the New World.
Image copyright Antonio Abrignani, 2014. Used under license
from Shutterstock, Inc.
47
Greek Science
by physicians to create illustrations for
anatomical texts. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–
1519),
himself, somehow was able to perform dissections on
his own. He must have done several,
and his unpublished notebooks are filled with
detailed anatomical drawings which reveal a
particularly detailed understanding of muscular
anatomy—particularly valuable to artists
seeking to represent the human body in motion.
Leonardo even devised someinnovative
techniques to improve the quality of his
dissections, such as the use of transverse
sections
and the injection of melted wax into the brainto

observe its parts in better detail (Jose,
2001).
Biographical Spotlight: Andreas Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius was born in Brussels in 1514, the son of an
apoth-
ecary to the imperial court of Charles V. He began his medical
edu-
cation in Paris and then came to Padua, where he was appointed
professor of surgery and anatomy at the University of Padua in
1537. Vesalius soon became recognized as a talented teacher.
Break-
ing with the standard protocol for conducting dissections,
Vesalius
would, during his lectures on anatomy, routinely descend from
the
lectern to demonstrate personally upon the cadaver. He also
pro-
vided charts he had illustrated himself to help his students
under-
stand the various anatomical points he wanted them to learn.
These charts themselves became very popular, not only among
medical students but also among barber-surgeons and artists. To
prevent plagiarism of these charts, Vesalius decided to have a
set
printed, and a set of six drawings, the TabulaeSex, was
published in
1538. The representations were still based wholly upon
traditional
sources such as Galen and Aristotle, but their artistic merit set a
new standard of excellence in ana-
tomical illustration, and the work enjoyed immediate success.

In 1543, Vesalius published a seven-volume, illustrated
anatomical textbook, De humani corporis fab-
rica (On the Fabric of the Human Body). This work
is considered the crowning achievement of anatom-
ical investigation in the Renaissance and reveals the close
collaboration of artist and physician at this
time. Using the services of a superior artist or artists, Vesalius
blended artistic detail and anatomical
insight to create the most comprehensive picture to date of the
structural relationships of parts of the
body based on his personal observation.
The book was immediately successful. Outspoken and
aggressive, Vesalius used this newfound fame
to gain entrance into elite social and political circles and soon
became a courtier and physician to the
Emperor Charles V, abandoning anatomical investigation
entirely. His rather abrupt departure from a
field of study about which he had been so passionate has been
the subject of frequent speculation.
Possibly one factor in his decision was the criticism he received
from several of his closest colleagues
at Padua, including Jacobus Sylvius, who called him mad for
contradicting Galen.
Although Vesalius never took up anatomy again, his mark was
made, and his work was continued by
several of his pupils and acquaintances. Anatomical
investigation in Italy, up to the first quarter of the
17th century, largely continued in the Vesalian tradition,
emphasizing the relationship of structure and
function and relying on observational insights provided by
comparative anatomy.

1. What reasons can you give for Vesalius’s
challenging Galen as no previous anatomist
had done?
2. Why do you thinkVesalius’s work was so
successful?
48
CHAPTER 2Chapter Closing
Clinical observation also advanced in the early
Renaissance with the introduction of bed-
side teaching, particularly at the University of
Padua. From Italy, this new approach to
teaching, which provided medical students direct
instruction in the presence of patients,
was carried to otherareasof Europe.
Managing contagious disease had always been a
major part of the work of the physician,
and in this period physicians were confronted
with new diseases never even mentioned
by classical writers. Syphilis, for example, became
rampant in Europe during the 15th
century. Many thought this disease had come
into Europe from the New World, but this is
not likely. It may have been present in Europe
for quitesometime,but was only properly
diagnosed as a distinct disease in the Renaissance.
Fracastoro (1484–1553), a physician
of Verona, is credited with giving syphilis its

name, in a poem about it that he
wrote in
1530. He is also significant for being the
first to suggest a consistent, logical theory
of con-
tagion. He maintained that epidemic diseases were
caused by fomites—what we would
call “germs”—that multiplied and spread through the
body and could be transmitted
from person to person. He used this concept to
describe and analyze various epidemic
diseases, from smallpox and syphilis to the bubonic
plague, suggesting that the proper
therapy would be to destroy the fomites earlyin
the course of the disease. However, he
did not know how to do this. Since Fracastoro
could not prove his ideas, his suggestions
were rejected.
Chapter Closing
Scientific activity is influenced by the primary
cultural values of each age. As we have seen,
Chinese science was viewed as a way for
the emperors to enhance their power and
reputation. In Islam, science was seen as an
activity that incorporated ideasof
the many different cultures that the Arab peoples
encountered during their expansion of
empire. During the Renaissance, patronage of science
was a way for wealthy ruling fami-
lies of Italian city-statesto illustrate their cultural
sophistication. Scientific activity cannot
exist in a vacuum—it requires a rationale and an
audience.

49
1st–2nd Century CE: Armillary Sphere Perfected
Late 9th Century CE: al-Kindi
828 CE: Encouraging Scientific
and Technological Growth
1122 BCE: Yi Jing
17th Century BCE:
Celestial Recordkeeping Begins
The House of Wisdom is established by
Caliph Harun al-Rashid as a library
and research center for the translation
of Greek, Indian, Egyptian, and
Mesopotamian works.
1028–1038 CE:
Kitab al-Manazir
This seven-volume text discusses
Ibn al-Haytham’s theory of optics

based on mathematical calculation
and experimentation.
China’s Shang Dynasty records major astronomical
events on animal bones or shells known as “oracle
bones .” This is the earliest known form of Chinese
celestial recordkeeping.
A Chinese court astronomer by the name of Zhang Heng
perfects this instrument which allows astronomical
movements to be tracked with mathematical precision.
The philosopher and astronomer al-Kindi develops a
mathematical method for compounding drugs. He is the
first to promote a quantitative approach in pharmacy.
The Yi Jing is the first Chinese text to mention Chi-gong
(Qigong) as a method for controlling Chi. Qigong is still
practiced in China today.
1
7
0
0
B
C
E
1
1
0
0
C

E
Timeline 2.1: Scientific Advancements in China and Islam
Image copyright Jun Mu, 2014. Used under license from
Shutterstock, Inc.
Image copyright Maxim Tupikov, 2014. Used under license
from Shutterstock, Inc.
50
1348: The Plague Begins in Western Europe
15th Century CE: Caravel Ships
16th Century CE: Anatomical Amphitheaters
10th Century CE: School of Medicine in Salerno
Late 8th Century CE: Agricultural Innovations
The Portuguese develop the caravel ship to aid in
exploration. Three of the most famous ships of the Age
of Exploration are caravels: Christopher Columbus’s

Niña, Pinta, and Santa Maria.
1430: Gutenberg’s
Printing Press
While block-printing had
been used as early as
the 13th century, movable
type is perfected with
the invention of Johannes
Gutenberg’s printing press.
Medieval farmers develop and regularly use both
the ox-driven plow and the three-field system.
With no scientific understanding of the epidemic’s
causes, Medieval people initially respond with blood-
letting, herbs, and prayer. The greatest innovative
response of this period is the practice of
quarantining outbreaks.
Anatomical Amphitheaters are built at Italian universities
for medical, educational, and entertainment purposes.
Artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci performs
dissections in one such amphitheater.
1543: De Humani
Corporis Fabrica
Andreas Vesalius publishes his
seven-volume illustrated text on
human anatomy. It is considered
the crowning achievement of

anatomical investigation during
the Renaissance.
The first lay school of medicine is established in Salerno,
Italy. Both men and women are permitted to study the
practical and theoretical medical curriculum.
7
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0
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6
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Timeline 2.2: Scientific and Technological Advancements in
Medieval and
Renaissance Europe
Dorling Kindersley Rf/Thinkstock
51
CHAPTER 2Concept Check

Concept Check
1. Chinese alchemists were primarily interested in
A. turning base substances into gold.
B. producing an elixir that conquereddeath.
C. developing theories of chemistry.
D. appeasing angry gods.
2. In the Islamic world
A. only those of the Muslim faith were allowed
entryinto hospitals.
B. public health issues arose due to
urban overcrowding.
C. surgery was shunned because it violated
the body.
D. medicine was not a focus of interest.
3. During the earlyMiddle Ages (5th to 10th
centuries)
A. no new technologies for warfare were
developed.
B. the church supported scientific investigation.
C. scholars attempted to develop philosophies
that reconciled church doctrine
with pagan Greek thought.
D. no scientific or technological activity was
permitted.
4. The Black Death of 1348
A. was treated with quarantine.
B. occurred only once, but caused significant
mortality.
C. resulted in weakening traditional social
structures.
D. was caused by the bite of the black

widow spider.
5. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, surgery
was almost exclusively the respon-
sibility of
A. university physicians.
B. midwives.
C. the clergy.
D. barber-surgeons.
Answers
1. B. The answer can be found in Section
2.1, Alchemy.
2.2, Medicine.
2.3, The Early Medieval Period (5th to 10th
Centuries).
4. C. The answer can be found in Section
2.4, Medicine.
5. D. The answer can be found in Section
2.5, Science and Scholarship in the Renaissance.
52
CHAPTER 2Key Terms to Remember
Key Ideas to Remember

You should take awaythe following key ideasfrom Chapter
2:
• Chinese science was dependent upon the desires
and needs of the emperor.
• The successes of Islamic science are largely
due to the willingness to accept ideas
of othercultures with which the Muslims cameinto
contact.
• The work of the scholastic philosophers was
essential in making classical science
and philosophy consistent with Christian theology and
therefore acceptable areas
of study.
• The Middle Ages was a period of significant
technological change that affected
the political and economic structure of society.
• Italy and Sicily, unlike otherareasof
Western Europe, retained more of the classi-
cal Greek and Roman scientific areas.
• The earlyRenaissance was a time in which
scholars began to feel that they could
expand upon the ideasof classical Greek and Roman
authorities.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. If China had not been so isolated, in what
ways do you thinkscience would have
developed differently there?

2. Why were the earlyMuslim caliphs so
interested in preserving the ideasof
ancient science?
3. Why was practical astronomy so highly
cultivated in the Arab world?
4. Describe ways in which the church both
supported and retarded scientific activity
in the medieval period. What reasons can you
give for this two-sided approach?
5. Science in earlyChina achieved great
sophistication, yet was superseded by the
West beginning in the Renaissance. Why do you believe
this happened?
6. What circumstances of life in Italy and Sicily
made theseregions fertile ground
for the acquisition of classical scientific ideas?
7. In what ways do you thinkscience would have
been different in the West with-
out the advent of more secular ideasin the
Renaissance?
Key Terms to Remember
anatomical amphitheater Constructed at
universities in the 15th and 16th centuries
for the purpose of teaching anatomy by
demonstration. The theaters were round
or elliptical. In the center stood a table on
which dissections were performed.
armillary sphere An astronomical device

that modeled the celestial sphere. It was
made of fixedand moving ringsthat repre-
sented the relative positions of the celestial
equator and the ecliptic and was used by
earlyastronomers to determine the posi-
tions of stars.
astrolabe Invented by the Greeks and in
use by 200 BCE, the astrolabe is an instru-
ment used by navigators and astronomers
to determine the altitude of the sun or
stars.
Brethren of Purity An esoteric group of
scholars who livedin Basra and Bagh-
dad at the end of the 10th century. They
espoused an eclectic philosophy that
attempted to merge Platonic ideaswith the
Qur’an and Aristotelian logic.
53
CHAPTER 2Key Terms to Remember
caliph The title given to a Muslim reli-
gious and civic leader. Caliphs were
viewed as successors to Muhammad.
Carolingian Renaissance A period of
scholarly activity in western and cen-
tral Europe that lasted from the late 8th
through the 9th centuries.
celestial globe A globe that depicts

the relative positions of the stars and
constellations.
Chi (also spelled Qi) Chi is the Taoist
term for the vital forcepresent in all things.
coulter A blade attached to the front of the
plow that makes vertical cuts in the soil in
advance of the plowshare.
feudal system A military, political, and
social system in the Middle Ages in which
vassals were protected by lordswhom
they had to serve in war. Serfs, who were
agricultural laborers, were the lowest
members of the system; they were attached
to the land owned by a lord.
House of Wisdom A center of learning
established in Baghdad by the Abbasid
caliph Harun al-Rashid in 828 CE. It was
modeled after the Library of Alexandria
and attracted scholars from around the
known world, who undertook the transla-
tion of ancient writings into Arabic.
impetus theory According to the Greek
commentator John Philoponus, the impe-
tus was a power present within a body
and was proportional to the body’s initial
speed and weight. This power moved the
body until it dissipated because of friction
and resistance.
macrocosm A term referring to the whole
of the universe.

Mandate of Heaven A concept maintain-
ing that a ruler has the responsibility for
regulating events not only on Earth but
also in the heavens. This concept was
used to explain the success and failure of
Chinese rulers from the time of the Zhou
Dynasty to the 20th century.
Mercator projection A cylindrical map
projection, developed by Gerardus Merca-
tor in 1569, that preserves angles.
mouldboard A curved blade that turns
over the soil already cut to create the
furrow.
movable type A type of printing in which
each character is cast on a separate piece
of metal.
oracle bones Bones or shells of animals
(often the undersides of tortoises) that
were prepared and smoothed and used
in divination during the Shang and Zhou
Dynasties. Oracle bones are the earliest
evidence of written Chinese characters,
and they also have value as historical
records, sincethey were oftendated and
contained the names of various rulers.
Scholasticism The methodology taught
by academicsof medieval universities
between the 12th and 16th centuries which
used dialectical reasoning to try to rec-
oncile classical Greek philosophy with

Christian theology.
transmute To change from one form or
substance into another.
yin and yang An ancient Chinese concept
maintaining that thereare two comple-
mentary forces in nature. Yin is character-
ized as a feminine force; yang is the mas-
culine force.
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My original forum post
Practical astronomy came to be so highly cultivated in the Arab
world because unlike the Chinese that was limited to or not
allowed the individual study of science during this time, the
Islamic world encouraged anyone who wished to study science
to do so, often even funded by the rulers. The study and
knowledge of science and astronomy became an important part

of religious duty to meet religious needs. Therefore, astronomy
was used to make observations of the universe to measure
distance and direction on Earth for it was important to have the
ability to determine precisely the correct time and direction of
Mecca for prayer, since they were required to face Mecca
during times of prayer.
In Baghdad, the capital and a stronghold for scientific activity,
a library and research center called the House of Wisdom was
built to replicate the Library of Alexandria. The Arab world was
known to accept and incorporate knowledge of science from
other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and
Mesopotamians and built upon that accumulated knowledge as
well as their own knowledge, often times improving various
tools and techniques. They were able to develop better
measurements of the length of a year and the continuous change
in Earth’s axis orientation that causes seasons. They also
brought attention to the fact that if Earth was the so-called the
(center of the universe), that there should be a mathematical
formula that would define the movements of celestial objects
around Earth.
It was believed that God created everything and the universe
could be understood by divine truth as well as through reason
and that one who believes should observe, study and learn about
nature.
Bowles, Mark, and Barbara Kaplan. "Eastern, Medieval, and
Renaissance Science." Science and Culture throughout History.
Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, 2012.

Instructor’s response and questions
An important thing to note about the geocentric model of the
universe is that there was a mathematical formula developed to
explain and predict the positions of celestial objects. Ptolemy
had come up with just such a formula in the second century AD,
and it was accepted by both Christian and Muslim scholars for a
very good reason--it was clumsy and cumbersome, but
it worked, and using it one could predict where any given
celestial object would be at some future date. (The clumsiness
of it arose from the retrograde motion of planets which required
Ptolemy to invent the concept of "epicycles"--smaller orbits that
the planets underwent in the course of their larger, main orbit
around the earth; the math was difficult, but it was also
functional.) With regard to the Christian world I would note
that it was the site of considerable intellectual activity by the
second half of the Middle Ages, around the same time as the
Abbasid civilization peaked. Much of that activity, meanwhile,
was directed toward understanding astronomy, and it would be
the Catholic Church, in the sixteenth century, that oversaw the
reform of the Julian calendar to produce the Gregorian one
(named for the sitting pope) that we still use today.
How does Freely's depiction of science in the medieval Islamic
world compare with Lloyd's depiction of science in ancient
China?
Best,
Prof. Hicks
PS Please note that responses to follow-up questions should be
the same in terms of length (at least 250 words) and format
(sources cited) as initial posts.

Freely, John. Light from the East How the Science of Medieva.docx

Freely, John. Light from the East How the Science of Medieva.docx

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Freely, John. Light from the East How the Science of Medieva.docx