This is a North Central University essay about synthesizing, critiqueing, and interpreting educational neuroscience literature. Educational neuroscience is an emerging field of study with foundations in neuroscience, cognitive science, biology, developmental psychology, education, and other related disciplines (Ansari, & Coch, 2006; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Although literature for the proposed research is limited, the inquiry will explore the development of adult metacognition from the context of cognitive science and neurosciences. The primary aim is to discover if cognitive processes allow metacognition to increase naturally with age. Findings would inform educational practices as well as bridge the gap between education and neuroscience disciplines. Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, and Sejnowski (2009) noted that the human brain must be adaptable with plasticity to prepare our bodies for quick responses to external and internal issues (Neural Plasticity, p. 7). The essay is written in APA format, includes references, and has been graded by an instructor (A).

1. Running head HaynesOEDR8200-4 1
Please put your name and date on the
paper
EDR 8200
Donna Rice, PhD.
Scholarly Literature Review Synthesize the Scholarly Literature
Continue to add to your collection of scholarly sources relative to your topic of research interest.
Synthesize or integrate the identified information by concepts/themes learned from the scholarly
sources. For this assignment, use a total of 5 to 7 peer-reviewed research articles to develop an
initial synthesis of the related literature. Within this synthesis, be sure to include the following:
 Determine the commonalities among the research articles by group. For example, did the
researchers use similar theoretical frameworks, sample participants, or methodologies
(e.g., procedures, instruments) to collect data? How were the results similar?
 Determine the differences among the research articles by group. For example, did the
researchers use different theoretical frameworks, sample participants, or methodologies
(e.g., procedures, instruments) to collect data? How were the results different?
 Determine reoccurring concepts/themes in the overall findings and conclusions, and state
whether any of these were indicated to be in need of further inquiry.
Support your assignment with at least five scholarly resources. In addition to these specified
resources, other appropriate scholarly resources, including older articles, may be included.
Length: 4-6 pages, not including title or reference pages.
Faculty Only
Orlanda, in this assignment you were to review scholarly articles and to synthesize, critique, and
interpret the articles you have collected to date.
Your paper was of sufficient length with sufficient sources listed in your references. Note the
sources must be current! Please review the paper and work on how to compare and contrast
articles without presenting a summary of them…ASC coaches can help you with this.
This assignment was a tough but very important because it sets the stage for the development of
the first draft of your literature review. In the completion of this assignment, you probably
discovered how useful it is to have a reference management system (biographical information, a
record of keyword searches, and a personal library), a format to review your sources, a concept
map, and an outline to guide deconstruction of the related literature and synthesis of the research
findings by identified concepts/themes.
In effect, this assignment sets the stage for understanding how important it is to continue to
maintain a record of all the sources you have read and all the relevant information that should be

2. HaynesOEDR8200-4 2
considered to support a synthesis, critique, and interpretation of the research literature as it
relates to your topic.
Before turning in your papers be sure to submit them to Grammarly and make any suggested
corrections (note that some passive sentences are okay). Please see chart below to help you
understand your grade.
I strongly suggest to all of my students to make an appointment with an ASC writing coach. I
would appreciate you sharing the feedback you receive from the coach. My former students who
have completed their dissertations in a timely manner have used the ASC coaches throughout
their coursework and their dissertations. All who started working with the coaches early in their
coursework completed the dissertation sequence in at least four courses.
For Week 5 please check the Discussion in the resource link:
https://www.dropbox.com/sh/hz9qmvwn85s855e/AACq3dJevv4AhKeOh6EluNrga?dl=0
Dr. Donna Rice 9.8 10/25/17
Critically Analyze Peer-Reviewed Research Present? Points
Coverage – Discussed each theme in synthesis form (not reporting what
each author said and did – avoided “According to…”)*
2 2
At least 3 Articles 1 1
Commonalities – Similar conceptual frameworks, sample participants,
methodologies, instruments or procedures to collect data.
1 1
Analysis of Commonalities – How were the results similar/are any
studies an extension of the another?
1 1
Differences Among the Articles – Did the authors use different
conceptual frameworks, sample participants, methodologies, or
instruments and procedures to collect data?
1 1
Analysis of Differences – How were the results different? 1 1
General Observations and Conclusions – Where reoccurring concepts,
relationships, patterns or themes noted? Are any in need of further
inquiry?
2 2
4-6 pages .3 .3
Organized, grammatically and APA correct presentation &
references
.5 .7
Total 9.8 10

3. HaynesOEDR8200-4 3
Synthesize the Scholarly Literature
Educational neuroscience is an emerging field of study with foundations in neuroscience,
cognitive science, biology, developmental psychology, education, and other related disciplines
(Ansari, & Coch, 2006; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Although literature for
the proposed research is limited, the inquiry will explore the development of adult metacognition
from the context of cognitive science and neurosciences. The primary aim is to discover if
cognitive processes allow metacognition to increase naturally with age. Findings would inform
educational practices as well as bridge the gap between education and neuroscience disciplines.
Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, and Sejnowski (2009) noted that the human brain must be adaptable
with plasticity to prepare our bodies for quick responses to external and internal issues (Neural
Plasticity, p. 7).
Neuroplasticity is an umbrella term which refers to the malleability of the brain and the
nervous system to respond efficiently to internal and external stimulates. In other words, the
brain, a network of neurons, uses chemical synapses (tiny gaps or pathways) to send
neurotransmitters, also known as chemical messages, to other neurons such as nerve cells.
Depending on environmental factors or experiences, they send neural impulses to code thoughts,
actions, and experiences. In healthy people, this action has the potential to occurs over lifespans
(Stahnisch, & Nitsch, 2002; Zilles, 1992). If an individual perceives a pending task to be
exciting, for example, a nerve impulse or action potential is activated via electrical synapses
(faster response time) to evoke physical responses. The opposite is also possible.
Healthy human development requires a host of cognitive, sensory, and motor skills. All
of which uses the brain’s natural processes such as thinking, remembering, and learning.
Neuroscience, cognitive science, and developmental psychology, among others, help us

4. HaynesOEDR8200-4 4
understand how we learn and how to transfer that knowledge to educational practices
(Blakemore, & Frith, 2005; Bransford, Brown, & Coocking, 2000; Fischer, 2009; Goswami,
2006; Foster, West, & Bell-Angus, 2016). Flavell (1979), an American developmental
Psychologist, coined the term metacognition which means “cognition about cognition” or
“thinking about thinking.” He explored how knowledge about cognition facilitates control of
cognition.
Thinking processes allow us to answer questions or solve problems like how to improve
study habits, how to implement changes, and how to maximize learning by monitoring outcomes
(Flavell, 1979). However, there is insufficient data on the development of adult metacognition.
As Stewart, Cooper, and Moulding (2007) discovered, most research inquires and findings
discuss metacognition strategies and their effectiveness, but not how metacognition develops, if
there are cognitive processes, for example, that facilitate the development of metacognition skills
naturally with age. This inquiry proposes that the brain’s natural learning processes such as
thinking, remembering, and learning allows metacognition skills to increase naturally with age.
The purpose of this literature review is to examine current literature about the development of
adult metacognition from the perspective of cognitive science and neuroscience.
Metacognition Knowledge (MK)
Research findings (Brown & Palincsar, 1989; Cross & Paris, 1988; Flavell, 1979; Shaw,
1994; Veenman, 2011) indicated metacognition has two primary components: Knowledge about
cognition and monitoring of cognition. Veenman (2011) found that MK includes declarative
knowledge (DK) or information about oneself, prior and perceived performances, and strategies
including when and how to use them. The latter refers to metacognition regulations including

5. HaynesOEDR8200-4 5
creating objectives and implementation, awareness of intellectual abilities compared to desired
outcomes, and monitoring procedures and best practices.
Flavell (1979) informed that possession of MK is not an indicator of a desired task
outcome. For example, even though a student may fully understand the importance of allowing
for adequate study time, but for several reasons, including a lack of interest, fails to do so.
Winne (1996) results showed that DK did not have a positive effect on the task outcome and
therefore supported Flavell claim. It relevant to note, here, that most metacognition research
participants are either youths or college students, including these studies, the sample types are
convenient, and the frameworks are qualitative.
Metacognition Skillfulness (MK)
Schraw’s article (1998) argued that metacognition skills (MK) are multidimensional and
therefore not domain-specific. Further, Veenman, Wilhelm, and Beishuizen (2004) found that MK
could compensate for lack of intelligence because results indicated that they were general rather
than domain-specific. Their sample included college and k-12 grade students (85). Intelligence
range and distribution of the sexes were of equal values. Researchers employed a series of tests
including concrete syllogisms (deductive reasoning), the Hidden Figures and the Spatial Insight
Subtest of the Differential Aptitude (reasoning factors), and math word problems tests.
Other studies (Baird, Mrazek, Phillips, & Schooler, 2014; Fleming, & Dolan, 2012;
Schraw, 1998; Van Der Stel, & Veenman, 2010; Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004)
showed that MK is required for procedural tasks that involve being in control of lesson plans,
activities, monitoring of outcomes and performances. It is relevant to note that most of these
study participants were either college or k-12 grade students, total sample sizes were less than
100, and the research designs were qualitative. Comparatively, some findings (Hargis, Yue,

6. HaynesOEDR8200-4 6
Kerr, Ikeda, Murayama, & Castel, 2017; Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004) indicated that
MK increases with age (from adolescent to adulthood). Notable categories included
metacognition monitoring, tests performances, and problem-solving.
What is more, older participants (31 total, 78 years of age, and compensated at $10.00 per
hour) scored higher on task interests surveys than younger ones (31 total, 31.2 years, and
university studies). Researchers explored proofreading accuracy and metacognitive monitoring
across lifespans. Due to limited data, this research expanded the literature, filled gaps, and
informed educational practices.
Metacognition Strategies
Veenman (2011a) informed that metacognition strategies refer to acquired procedural
knowledge designed to monitor and control desired behaviors. Other findings indicate that the
primary difference between skills and strategies are that the latter requires concerted efforts
including continuous practices and reviews. Whereas metacognition skills, after the learning
curb, become almost automatic (Afflerbach, Pearson, & Paris, 2008; Alexander & Jetton, 2000).
Before Veenman’s work, Pressley and Afferback (1995) published 150 constructive responsive
readings of metacognition strategies and skills.
Conclusion
Educational neuroscience is an emerging interdisciplinary field. Its foundation originates
in neuroscience, cognitive science, biology, developmental psychology, and education (Ansari,
& Coch, 2006; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Although literature for the
proposed research is limited, the inquiry will explore the development of adult metacognition
from the context of cognitive science and neurosciences. The primary aim is to discover if
cognitive processes allow metacognition to increase naturally with age. Meltzoff, Kuhl,

7. HaynesOEDR8200-4 7
Movellan, and Sejnowski (2009) note that the human brain must be adaptable with plasticity to
prepare our bodies for quick responses to external and internal issues (Neural Plasticity, p. 7).
Neuroplasticity is an umbrella term which refers to the malleability of the brain and the
nervous system to respond effectively to internal and external stimulates. Flavell (1979) first
used the term metacognition which means “cognition about cognition.” His research show that
metacognition knowledge about cognition facilitates control of cognition. The research issue,
however, is that there are substantial data about metacognition knowledge, skills, and strategies
but not about how metacognition develops in adults, or if there are cognitive processes that
facilitate the development of metacognition skills naturally with age.
This inquiry asserts that the brain’s natural learning processes such as thinking,
remembering, and learning allows metacognition skills to increase naturally with age. The
purpose of this literature review is to examine current data about the development of adult
metacognition from the perspective of cognitive science and neuroscience. Research inform that
metacognition has two primary components: Knowledge about cognition and monitoring of
cognition (Veenman (2011).
Schraw (1998) show that metacognition skillfulness is multidimensional rather than
domain-specific. Moreover, Veenman, Wilhelm, and Beishuizen (2004) note that as such they
could assist with intelligence deficits. Equally important is that other results (Hargis, Yue, Kerr,
Ikeda, Murayama, & Castel, 2017; Veenman, Wilhelm, & Beishuizen, 2004) suggest
metacognition skills increased with age—from adolescent to adulthood.

8. HaynesOEDR8200-4 8
References
Afflerbach, P., Pearson, P. D., & Paris, S. G. (2008). Clarifying differences between reading
skills and reading strategies. Reading Teacher, 61, 364–373. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/3141569/Clarifying_differences_between_reading_skills_and_
reading_strategies
Ansari, D., & Coch, D. (2006). Bridges over troubled waters: education and cognitive
neuroscience. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 146-151.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.007
Baird, B., Mrazek, M. D., Phillips, D. T., & Schooler, J. W. (2014). Domain-specific
enhancement of metacognitive ability following meditation training. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 143(5), 1972-1979.
http://dx.doi.org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1037/a0036882
Blakemore, S.-J., & Frith, U. (2005). The learning brain: Lessons for education. Malden:
Blackwell Publishing.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (eds). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Coch, D., & Ansari, D. (2009). Thinking about mechanisms is crucial to connecting
neuroscience and education. Cortex: A Journal Devoted to The Study of The Nervous
System and Behavior, 45(4), 546-547. http://doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2008.06.001
Cross, D. R., & Paris, S. G. (1988). Developmental and instructional analyses of children’s
metacognition and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(2),
131-142. Retrieved from
http://www.sciepub.com/reference/158677

9. HaynesOEDR8200-4 9
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-11. Retrieved from
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Foster, M. K., West, B., & Bell-Angus, B. (2016). Embracing your inner “guide on the side”:
Using neuroscience to shift the focus from teaching to learning. Marketing Education
Review, 26(2), 78-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10528008.2016.1166441
Goswami, U. (2006). Neuroscience and education: from research to practice? Nature Reviews.
Neuroscience, 7(5), 406-411. Retrieved from
www.educationalneuroscience.org.uk/wordpress/.../Goswami-2006-neuromyths.pdf
Hargis, M. B., Yue, C. L., Kerr, T., Ikeda, K., Murayama, K., & Castel, A. D. (2017).
Metacognition and proofreading: The roles of aging, motivation, and interest. Aging,
Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 24(2), 216-226. doi:10.1080/13825585.2016.1182114
Jetton, T. L., & Alexander, P. A. (2001). Interest assessment and the content area literacy
environment: Challenges for research and practice. Educational Psychology
Review, 13(3), 303-318. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016680023840
Meltzoff, A. N., Kuhl, P. K., Movellan, J., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2009). Foundations for a new
science of learning. Science, 325(5938), 284–288.
http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1175626
Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively
responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schraw, G. (1998). Promoting general metacognitive awareness. Instructional Science, 26(1-2), 113-
125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1003044231033
Shaw, T. A. (1994). The semiotic mediation of identity. Ethos, 22: 83–119. Retrieved from

10. HaynesOEDR8200-4 10
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/eth.1994.22.1.02a00030/abstract
Stahnisch, F. W., Nitsch, R. (2002). Santiago Ramón y Cajal's concept of neuronal plasticity:
The ambiguity lives on. Trends in Neurosciences, 25(11), 589–591. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/download/45118648/Santiago_Ramon_y_Cajals_concept_of_n
eur20160426-8473-b8ajyv.pdf
Van Der Stel, M., & Veenman, M. J. (2010). Development of metacognitive skillfulness: A
longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(3), 220-224.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.11.005
Veenman, M. V., Wilhelm, P., & Beishuizen, J. J. (2004). The relation between intellectual and
metacognitive skills from a developmental perspective. Learning and instruction, 1489
Veenman, M. V. J. (2011a). Learning to self-monitor and self-regulate. In R. Mayer & P.
Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning and instruction. New York:
Routledge.
Veenman, Marcel V. J. (2015). Metacognition. In Handbook of individual differences in
reading [Handbooks Online] (ed. Peter Afflerbach]). Abingdon: Routledge.
Winne, P. H. (1996). A metacognitive view of individual differences in self-regulated learning.
Learning and Individual Differences, 8(4), 327–353.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90022-9