1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3-5direction thus one strand s.pdf
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1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3\'-5\'direction thus one strand synthesize continously known as leading strand and other discontinously in okazaki fragments known as lagging strand. The first change can be made by modifying DNA Polymerase to work in both direction simultaneously and other chnage to be made in slowing down of DNA Helicase enzyme. 2d. When all the DNA templates have been replicated,RNA primers get rplaced and DNA nicks were joined. Enzymes that remove RNA primers are FEN1 (flap endonulcease 1) and RNase H. These enzymes remove RNA primers at the start of each leading strand and Okazaki fragment, leaving gaps. After removal DNA polymerase lands at the 3\' end of the preceding DNA fragment and extends the DNA over the gap. However, this creates new nicksand then finally DNA ligase joins sugar-phosphate backbone. While transcription termination occur through two methods are Rho-independent and Rho-dependent termination. Solution 1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3\'-5\'direction thus one strand synthesize continously known as leading strand and other discontinously in okazaki fragments known as lagging strand. The first change can be made by modifying DNA Polymerase to work in both direction simultaneously and other chnage to be made in slowing down of DNA Helicase enzyme. 2d. When all the DNA templates have been replicated,RNA primers get rplaced and DNA nicks were joined. Enzymes that remove RNA primers are FEN1 (flap endonulcease 1) and RNase H. These enzymes remove RNA primers at the start of each leading strand and Okazaki fragment, leaving gaps. After removal DNA polymerase lands at the 3\' end of the preceding DNA fragment and extends the DNA over the gap. However, this creates new nicksand then finally DNA ligase joins sugar-phosphate backbone. While transcription termination occur through two methods are Rho-independent and Rho-dependent termination..
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The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of init.pdf
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of initiation , elongation and
termination, each step being catalyzed by specific enzymes. The process occurs at particular
points, forming \'replication bubbles.\'
During the initiation phase, the replication is initiated at particular points called \"origins\". The
replication bubble starts with the enzyme helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds between the
parental strands. The initiator proteins bind to the sites rich in \"AT\" bases. ( A T base pairs
have two hydrogen bonds and hence easy to break ). Once the sequence is located, the initiator
protein assembles other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, unzipping the double
stranded DNA.
During the elongation phase, the enzyme primase add RNA primer to the template strand. The
leading starnd which receives one RNA primer is continuosly extended by the DNA polymerase
enzyme. The lagging strand which receives several RNA primers, is discontinuosly extended
forming Okazaki fragments. The enzyme RNase removes the primer fragments and a low
processivity DNA polymerase fill those gaps. The single nick on the leading strand and several
nicks on the lagging strand gets filled up by the activity of DNAligase enzyme .
As the replication proceeds, the DNA strands unwind forming a replication fork, with two
branching prongs each made up of single stranded DNA, which serve as the template for the new
DNA.DNA is always synthesised in the 5\' to 3 \' direction, the new nucleotides are added to the
3\' end of the growing strand. In the replication fork structure , the leading and the lagging strand
templates are oriented in the opposite directions. The leading strand is synthesised in the same
direction of the progressing replication fork, whereas the lagging strand is synthesised in the
opposite direction. Because of this reverse orientaion of the lagging strand, its replication is
complicated and the DNA polymerase lags behind the other strand.
During the termination phase, in eukaryotes with linear DNA, the terminal end or the telomere
region, is attached with telomerase enzyme, which catalyses the DNA synthesis using its own
RNA template.
Solution
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of initiation , elongation and
termination, each step being catalyzed by specific enzymes. The process occurs at particular
points, forming \'replication bubbles.\'
During the initiation phase, the replication is initiated at particular points called \"origins\". The
replication bubble starts with the enzyme helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds between the
parental strands. The initiator proteins bind to the sites rich in \"AT\" bases. ( A T base pairs
have two hydrogen bonds and hence easy to break ). Once the sequence is located, the initiator
protein assembles other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, unzipping the double
stranded DNA.
During the elongation phase, the enzyme primase add RNA primer to the tem.
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DNA replication begins with the unwinding of the DNA double helix at locations called replication origins by helicase enzymes. This forms a Y-shaped structure called the replication fork. At the fork, single-stranded binding proteins bind to the parental DNA strands to prevent rewinding and expose the bases for DNA synthesis. The leading strand is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction by DNA polymerase. The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments that are later joined by DNA ligase. RNA primers are required for initiation of both strands and are laid down by primase. DNA replication proceeds bidirectionally from the origin until the replication forks converge.
Manisha ppt 3
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Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether.pdf
Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether they are used during
synthesis of the leading strand, lagging strand, or both
Solution
ANS:
REPLICATION:
Replication is a process of duplication of DNA .the replication had specific time in S
phase. All the cellular molecules had timing programed inside the cells, the time depends on
species. Replication occur during the S phase of eukaryotic cell cycle.it is highly accurate
process and involved the faithful transmission of the genetically information from parental DNA
to two daughter DNA duplexes.
Replication involves the polymerization of precursor of d NTPs (d ATP, d GTP, d CTP, d TTP).
B. ENZYMOLOGY IN REPLICATION:
Replication is a complex process the various enzymes/proteins are involved in this.
1. DNA polymerase:
It can polymerized the d NTP’s directed by template strand of DNA so called DNA
DEPENDENT DNA POLYMARASE.
In eukaryotes 5 different DNA polymerase are there (Pol Alfa, Pol Beta, Pol Gama, Pol Delta
and Pol Epsilon).
DNA Pol Alfa can initiate replication in both leading and lagging strands, it dual activity so often
called as Pol Alfa/ primase enzyme.
DNA pol Delta is a major replication enzyme involved in the replication of both leading and
lagging strands.
2. DNA A protein: also called initiation protein, it involved in recognition & binding to origin.
3. DNA HELICASE: 1st component in replisoma, it possess an ATPase activity, it separates the
2 parental strands of DNA, It always binds to lagging strand.
4. PRIMASE: Involved in synthesis of RNA primer, always binds to helicase results the
formation of primosome.
5. SSB protein: It prevents reannealing of DNA, it removes the secondary structure prevent in
DNA.
6. DNA Topoisomerase 1: Relaxes tension due to un coiling of dna.it binds downstream of
replication fork.
7. DNA Gyrase: It binds up stream of replication fork and introduces Negative supercoiling.
8. DNA LIGASE: It covalently seals the nick between the adjacent okazaki fragments.
9. Termination protein: Also called TUS protein, binds the TER sites results termination.
10. DNA Topoisomerase 4: Involved in decapitation of the 2 circular daughter DNA duplexes
obtained after replication.
Synthesis of the leading strand and lagging strand:
Semi –conservative mechanism:
In this the 2 strands of DNA separated from each other and each strand act as template for
synthesis of anew complimentary strand ,such daughter duplex contain 1 parental and 1 newly
synthesize strand.
Replication always began from fixed point called origin.as unwinding DNA produced a Y
shaped junction called REPLICATIONPORK. That represents origin of replication.
As the replication pork moved in one direction the DNA copies continuously in both strands.
Then the replication missionary should be able to synthesize in both 5\'-3\' and 3\'-5\' direction.
But the DNA polymerase involved in replication can added a new nucleotide only to 3\'end of
growingchain.so DNA always synthesized in 5\'-3\' .
Presentation
This document provides information about molecular biology concepts including DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis. It begins with definitions of DNA and nucleic acids, then describes DNA replication through several figures showing the replication fork and involved proteins. It discusses DNA repair and transcription, including RNA polymerase and start/stop signals. Finally, it covers translation from RNA to protein through tRNA, the genetic code, and ribosome functions in initiation, elongation and termination of protein synthesis. The document thus provides an overview of the central dogma of molecular biology from DNA to mRNA to protein.
List and define the significance of the following proteinsstructures.pdf
List and define the significance of the following proteins/structures involved in DNA
replication: DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, Primase, Single stranded binding proteins
(SSBPs), Helicase, Ligase, Primers, Topoisomerase, Anti-parallel ds DNA, Leading strand of
DNA, Lagging Strand of DNA, replication bubble, and deoxyribonucleotide tri-phosphates
(dNTPs). Describe the process of DNA replication using all of the terms that were listed (and
defined) above. Make sure you include the difference in how the leading strand and lagging
strand are synthesized. Also, include any differences (covered in class) between bacterial DNA
replication and eukaryotic DNA replication. Lastly, include a hand drawn diagram with each of
these structures and enzymes in different colors to illustrate how this process occurs.
Solution
DNA Replication: it is the biological process in which two identical replicas of DNA are
produced. It involves many steps and components.
Protein/ structures involved in DNA replication are as follows:
DNA polymerase III: it was discovered by Thomas Kornberg and Malcolm Gefter. It is an
enzyme which has its role to play in prokaryotic DNA replication. It has high processivity which
is the number of nucleotides added per binding event. It can also perform proof reading which is
the correction of wrongly added nucleotides is
DNA polymerase I: it was first discovered polymerase enzyme and Arthur Korenberg discovered
it. It does not have a role in replication but poses exonuclease activity that is removal of
nucleotides during DNA repair.
Primase: it is a type of RNA polymerase. This is very important in initiation of DNA replication
because no polymerase can synthesise a DNA without small single stranded RNA. Thus a
primase help in synthesising such small single stranded RNA complementary to the template
DNA. After initiation, this RNA piece is removed.
Single-stranded binding proteins (SSBPs): these are the class of proteins that prevent premature
binding of nucleotides to template DNA. They protect single stranded DNA from being digested
by nucleases and also prevents looping of single stranded DNA, so that other enzymes can
perform their function.
Helicases: these are the group of enzymes which help in separating two strands of DNA for the
process of replication.
Ligases: another class of enzymes which help in binding of two strands of DNA by catalysing
formation of phosphodiester bond between the two strands.
Primer: a short single stranded DNA/RNA that serves as a starting point for the DNA synthesis.
Primase helps in the formation of primer.
Topoisomerases: during replication DNA over wounds ahead the replication point making
further replication difficult, in such instance topoisomerase help in unwinding supercoiled DNA.
Anti-parallel double strand: DNA is made of two strands running in opposite directions and
hence anti parallel one runs from 5’ to 3’ and the other from 3’ to 5’.
Leading strand: DNA replication on leading stra.
Replication, transcription, translation and its regulation
This document summarizes key processes in DNA replication, transcription, translation, and their regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes how DNA makes copies of itself semiconservatively. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an RNA copy of a DNA template. Translation uses ribosomes to convert the RNA into a polypeptide chain. Each process has initiation, elongation, and termination steps. Regulation ensures processes only occur at the right times and locations in the cell.
3.keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This.pdf
3.
keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This is dangerous when we apply
paswords.our passwords will be leaked to the people who developed these virus,for thier
pursonal benifits.To combat with this problem,there is a feature called as virtual keyboard in
most of the places in latest softwares,where we want to authenticate the data.As we already know
that keylogger cannot capture mouse events,we can use virtual keyword which is a replica of
keyboard in screen.we can click on the alphabets or numbers or any other keys in this replica
using mouse.This effect is same as pressing keys from the keyboard.This way we can enter our
data safely,when our computer or browser is affected by keylogger software.
4.yes,our computer/system is prone to threat by the popus.=.the software,which we downoad
may contain virus.It itself may be a virus.this is one of the way of transmitting viruses through a
web from system to system.sometimes these popup\'s tell us to click on some link,these links
sometimes leads virus infection computer,sometimes corrupt operating system,or deduce system
performance.
Solution
3.
keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This is dangerous when we apply
paswords.our passwords will be leaked to the people who developed these virus,for thier
pursonal benifits.To combat with this problem,there is a feature called as virtual keyboard in
most of the places in latest softwares,where we want to authenticate the data.As we already know
that keylogger cannot capture mouse events,we can use virtual keyword which is a replica of
keyboard in screen.we can click on the alphabets or numbers or any other keys in this replica
using mouse.This effect is same as pressing keys from the keyboard.This way we can enter our
data safely,when our computer or browser is affected by keylogger software.
4.yes,our computer/system is prone to threat by the popus.=.the software,which we downoad
may contain virus.It itself may be a virus.this is one of the way of transmitting viruses through a
web from system to system.sometimes these popup\'s tell us to click on some link,these links
sometimes leads virus infection computer,sometimes corrupt operating system,or deduce system
performance..
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which .pdf
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which prevents crushing of lungs
due to high pressure and 2) conservative use of stored oxygen by shutting down the digestive
system and other less important organs, while using oxygen for vital organs like brain, neurons,
and heart.
6] Whales vocalize by blowing air across structures resembling vocal cords called blowholes.
These lie in the head and are called monkey lips. After the monkey lips generate sound waves,
the oil-filled organ in the whale’s head focuses them which travels back to the surface of the
spermaceti organ and reflects out .The sperm whale sound is of low frequencies, while dolphins
produce high-frequency sound waves. the dolphins\' sound waves begin at the nasal sac which
travels through the oily bulbous head and focused out in front. while it receives the reflected
sound waves in its lower jaw, where the auditory nerves conduct it to ear and brain.
Solution
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which prevents crushing of lungs
due to high pressure and 2) conservative use of stored oxygen by shutting down the digestive
system and other less important organs, while using oxygen for vital organs like brain, neurons,
and heart.
6] Whales vocalize by blowing air across structures resembling vocal cords called blowholes.
These lie in the head and are called monkey lips. After the monkey lips generate sound waves,
the oil-filled organ in the whale’s head focuses them which travels back to the surface of the
spermaceti organ and reflects out .The sperm whale sound is of low frequencies, while dolphins
produce high-frequency sound waves. the dolphins\' sound waves begin at the nasal sac which
travels through the oily bulbous head and focused out in front. while it receives the reflected
sound waves in its lower jaw, where the auditory nerves conduct it to ear and brain..
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1. Transcription and translation are the two main processes of gene expression. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and produces mRNA from DNA. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and produces proteins from mRNA.
2. Transcription involves three main stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. RNA polymerase binds to DNA and synthesizes mRNA along the template strand.
3. Translation also occurs in three stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the ribosome and initiator tRNA bind to mRNA. Then amino acids are added during elongation according to the mRNA codons. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached.
Replication of DNA
1) DNA replication begins with the unwinding of the DNA double helix at an origin of replication site.
2) This forms a replication fork with leading and lagging strands that are copied semi-conservatively to produce two identical copies of DNA.
3) RNA primers, DNA polymerases, helicase and single-strand binding proteins work together to separate the strands and synthesize new DNA in the 5’-3’ direction along the template.
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This Slide Is explanation of Mechanism of DNA Replication In Eukaryotes.
As we know we all have DNA as the genetic material and So we should know how this DNA getting Duplicated so that it'll pass to daughter cells.
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of init.pdf
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of initiation , elongation and
termination, each step being catalyzed by specific enzymes. The process occurs at particular
points, forming \'replication bubbles.\'
During the initiation phase, the replication is initiated at particular points called \"origins\". The
replication bubble starts with the enzyme helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds between the
parental strands. The initiator proteins bind to the sites rich in \"AT\" bases. ( A T base pairs
have two hydrogen bonds and hence easy to break ). Once the sequence is located, the initiator
protein assembles other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, unzipping the double
stranded DNA.
During the elongation phase, the enzyme primase add RNA primer to the template strand. The
leading starnd which receives one RNA primer is continuosly extended by the DNA polymerase
enzyme. The lagging strand which receives several RNA primers, is discontinuosly extended
forming Okazaki fragments. The enzyme RNase removes the primer fragments and a low
processivity DNA polymerase fill those gaps. The single nick on the leading strand and several
nicks on the lagging strand gets filled up by the activity of DNAligase enzyme .
As the replication proceeds, the DNA strands unwind forming a replication fork, with two
branching prongs each made up of single stranded DNA, which serve as the template for the new
DNA.DNA is always synthesised in the 5\' to 3 \' direction, the new nucleotides are added to the
3\' end of the growing strand. In the replication fork structure , the leading and the lagging strand
templates are oriented in the opposite directions. The leading strand is synthesised in the same
direction of the progressing replication fork, whereas the lagging strand is synthesised in the
opposite direction. Because of this reverse orientaion of the lagging strand, its replication is
complicated and the DNA polymerase lags behind the other strand.
During the termination phase, in eukaryotes with linear DNA, the terminal end or the telomere
region, is attached with telomerase enzyme, which catalyses the DNA synthesis using its own
RNA template.
Solution
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of initiation , elongation and
termination, each step being catalyzed by specific enzymes. The process occurs at particular
points, forming \'replication bubbles.\'
During the initiation phase, the replication is initiated at particular points called \"origins\". The
replication bubble starts with the enzyme helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds between the
parental strands. The initiator proteins bind to the sites rich in \"AT\" bases. ( A T base pairs
have two hydrogen bonds and hence easy to break ). Once the sequence is located, the initiator
protein assembles other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, unzipping the double
stranded DNA.
During the elongation phase, the enzyme primase add RNA primer to the tem.
Prof._Moushira_DNA replication.pdf
This document summarizes DNA replication. It begins by listing the objectives of describing the process. DNA replication duplicates the entire genome before cell division so each daughter cell receives a complete copy. It proceeds in a semi-conservative, bidirectional manner starting from the origin. Several enzymes are involved including helicase, DNA polymerase, primase, ligase and topoisomerases. DNA polymerase builds new strands using the old strands as templates while primase lays down RNA primers. The leading strand is synthesized continuously but the lagging strand requires discontinuous Okazaki fragments joined by ligase. Proofreading ensures high fidelity through exonuclease activity. Eukaryotes differ in having multiple origins and using RNAse H to remove primers.
Replication fork final
DNA replication begins with the unwinding of the DNA double helix at locations called replication origins by helicase enzymes. This forms a Y-shaped structure called the replication fork. At the fork, single-stranded binding proteins bind to the parental DNA strands to prevent rewinding and expose the bases for DNA synthesis. The leading strand is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction by DNA polymerase. The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments that are later joined by DNA ligase. RNA primers are required for initiation of both strands and are laid down by primase. DNA replication proceeds bidirectionally from the origin until the replication forks converge.
Manisha ppt 3
Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA using DNA as a template. It involves three main stages - initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA and unwinds it to form an open complex. In elongation, RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template adding complementary RNA nucleotides. Termination occurs when the polymerase encounters a terminator sequence and dissociates from the DNA. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes use different RNA polymerases and have variations in their transcription mechanisms.
Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether.pdf
Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether they are used during
synthesis of the leading strand, lagging strand, or both
Solution
ANS:
REPLICATION:
Replication is a process of duplication of DNA .the replication had specific time in S
phase. All the cellular molecules had timing programed inside the cells, the time depends on
species. Replication occur during the S phase of eukaryotic cell cycle.it is highly accurate
process and involved the faithful transmission of the genetically information from parental DNA
to two daughter DNA duplexes.
Replication involves the polymerization of precursor of d NTPs (d ATP, d GTP, d CTP, d TTP).
B. ENZYMOLOGY IN REPLICATION:
Replication is a complex process the various enzymes/proteins are involved in this.
1. DNA polymerase:
It can polymerized the d NTP’s directed by template strand of DNA so called DNA
DEPENDENT DNA POLYMARASE.
In eukaryotes 5 different DNA polymerase are there (Pol Alfa, Pol Beta, Pol Gama, Pol Delta
and Pol Epsilon).
DNA Pol Alfa can initiate replication in both leading and lagging strands, it dual activity so often
called as Pol Alfa/ primase enzyme.
DNA pol Delta is a major replication enzyme involved in the replication of both leading and
lagging strands.
2. DNA A protein: also called initiation protein, it involved in recognition & binding to origin.
3. DNA HELICASE: 1st component in replisoma, it possess an ATPase activity, it separates the
2 parental strands of DNA, It always binds to lagging strand.
4. PRIMASE: Involved in synthesis of RNA primer, always binds to helicase results the
formation of primosome.
5. SSB protein: It prevents reannealing of DNA, it removes the secondary structure prevent in
DNA.
6. DNA Topoisomerase 1: Relaxes tension due to un coiling of dna.it binds downstream of
replication fork.
7. DNA Gyrase: It binds up stream of replication fork and introduces Negative supercoiling.
8. DNA LIGASE: It covalently seals the nick between the adjacent okazaki fragments.
9. Termination protein: Also called TUS protein, binds the TER sites results termination.
10. DNA Topoisomerase 4: Involved in decapitation of the 2 circular daughter DNA duplexes
obtained after replication.
Synthesis of the leading strand and lagging strand:
Semi –conservative mechanism:
In this the 2 strands of DNA separated from each other and each strand act as template for
synthesis of anew complimentary strand ,such daughter duplex contain 1 parental and 1 newly
synthesize strand.
Replication always began from fixed point called origin.as unwinding DNA produced a Y
shaped junction called REPLICATIONPORK. That represents origin of replication.
As the replication pork moved in one direction the DNA copies continuously in both strands.
Then the replication missionary should be able to synthesize in both 5\'-3\' and 3\'-5\' direction.
But the DNA polymerase involved in replication can added a new nucleotide only to 3\'end of
growingchain.so DNA always synthesized in 5\'-3\' .
Presentation
This document provides information about molecular biology concepts including DNA, RNA, transcription, translation, and protein synthesis. It begins with definitions of DNA and nucleic acids, then describes DNA replication through several figures showing the replication fork and involved proteins. It discusses DNA repair and transcription, including RNA polymerase and start/stop signals. Finally, it covers translation from RNA to protein through tRNA, the genetic code, and ribosome functions in initiation, elongation and termination of protein synthesis. The document thus provides an overview of the central dogma of molecular biology from DNA to mRNA to protein.
List and define the significance of the following proteinsstructures.pdf
List and define the significance of the following proteins/structures involved in DNA
replication: DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, Primase, Single stranded binding proteins
(SSBPs), Helicase, Ligase, Primers, Topoisomerase, Anti-parallel ds DNA, Leading strand of
DNA, Lagging Strand of DNA, replication bubble, and deoxyribonucleotide tri-phosphates
(dNTPs). Describe the process of DNA replication using all of the terms that were listed (and
defined) above. Make sure you include the difference in how the leading strand and lagging
strand are synthesized. Also, include any differences (covered in class) between bacterial DNA
replication and eukaryotic DNA replication. Lastly, include a hand drawn diagram with each of
these structures and enzymes in different colors to illustrate how this process occurs.
Solution
DNA Replication: it is the biological process in which two identical replicas of DNA are
produced. It involves many steps and components.
Protein/ structures involved in DNA replication are as follows:
DNA polymerase III: it was discovered by Thomas Kornberg and Malcolm Gefter. It is an
enzyme which has its role to play in prokaryotic DNA replication. It has high processivity which
is the number of nucleotides added per binding event. It can also perform proof reading which is
the correction of wrongly added nucleotides is
DNA polymerase I: it was first discovered polymerase enzyme and Arthur Korenberg discovered
it. It does not have a role in replication but poses exonuclease activity that is removal of
nucleotides during DNA repair.
Primase: it is a type of RNA polymerase. This is very important in initiation of DNA replication
because no polymerase can synthesise a DNA without small single stranded RNA. Thus a
primase help in synthesising such small single stranded RNA complementary to the template
DNA. After initiation, this RNA piece is removed.
Single-stranded binding proteins (SSBPs): these are the class of proteins that prevent premature
binding of nucleotides to template DNA. They protect single stranded DNA from being digested
by nucleases and also prevents looping of single stranded DNA, so that other enzymes can
perform their function.
Helicases: these are the group of enzymes which help in separating two strands of DNA for the
process of replication.
Ligases: another class of enzymes which help in binding of two strands of DNA by catalysing
formation of phosphodiester bond between the two strands.
Primer: a short single stranded DNA/RNA that serves as a starting point for the DNA synthesis.
Primase helps in the formation of primer.
Topoisomerases: during replication DNA over wounds ahead the replication point making
further replication difficult, in such instance topoisomerase help in unwinding supercoiled DNA.
Anti-parallel double strand: DNA is made of two strands running in opposite directions and
hence anti parallel one runs from 5’ to 3’ and the other from 3’ to 5’.
Leading strand: DNA replication on leading stra.
Replication, transcription, translation and its regulation
This document summarizes key processes in DNA replication, transcription, translation, and their regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It describes how DNA makes copies of itself semiconservatively. Transcription involves RNA polymerase making an RNA copy of a DNA template. Translation uses ribosomes to convert the RNA into a polypeptide chain. Each process has initiation, elongation, and termination steps. Regulation ensures processes only occur at the right times and locations in the cell.
Similar to 1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3-5direction thus one strand s.pdf (20)
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of init.pdf
The DNA replication occurs through the coordinated sequences of init.pdf
Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether.pdf
Identify each of the enzymes involved in DNA replication and whether.pdf
List and define the significance of the following proteinsstructures.pdf
List and define the significance of the following proteinsstructures.pdf
Replication, transcription, translation and its regulation
Replication, transcription, translation and its regulation
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3.keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This.pdf
3.
keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This is dangerous when we apply
paswords.our passwords will be leaked to the people who developed these virus,for thier
pursonal benifits.To combat with this problem,there is a feature called as virtual keyboard in
most of the places in latest softwares,where we want to authenticate the data.As we already know
that keylogger cannot capture mouse events,we can use virtual keyword which is a replica of
keyboard in screen.we can click on the alphabets or numbers or any other keys in this replica
using mouse.This effect is same as pressing keys from the keyboard.This way we can enter our
data safely,when our computer or browser is affected by keylogger software.
4.yes,our computer/system is prone to threat by the popus.=.the software,which we downoad
may contain virus.It itself may be a virus.this is one of the way of transmitting viruses through a
web from system to system.sometimes these popup\'s tell us to click on some link,these links
sometimes leads virus infection computer,sometimes corrupt operating system,or deduce system
performance.
Solution
3.
keylogger software records all the keystrokes pressed by us.This is dangerous when we apply
paswords.our passwords will be leaked to the people who developed these virus,for thier
pursonal benifits.To combat with this problem,there is a feature called as virtual keyboard in
most of the places in latest softwares,where we want to authenticate the data.As we already know
that keylogger cannot capture mouse events,we can use virtual keyword which is a replica of
keyboard in screen.we can click on the alphabets or numbers or any other keys in this replica
using mouse.This effect is same as pressing keys from the keyboard.This way we can enter our
data safely,when our computer or browser is affected by keylogger software.
4.yes,our computer/system is prone to threat by the popus.=.the software,which we downoad
may contain virus.It itself may be a virus.this is one of the way of transmitting viruses through a
web from system to system.sometimes these popup\'s tell us to click on some link,these links
sometimes leads virus infection computer,sometimes corrupt operating system,or deduce system
performance..
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which .pdf
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which prevents crushing of lungs
due to high pressure and 2) conservative use of stored oxygen by shutting down the digestive
system and other less important organs, while using oxygen for vital organs like brain, neurons,
and heart.
6] Whales vocalize by blowing air across structures resembling vocal cords called blowholes.
These lie in the head and are called monkey lips. After the monkey lips generate sound waves,
the oil-filled organ in the whale’s head focuses them which travels back to the surface of the
spermaceti organ and reflects out .The sperm whale sound is of low frequencies, while dolphins
produce high-frequency sound waves. the dolphins\' sound waves begin at the nasal sac which
travels through the oily bulbous head and focused out in front. while it receives the reflected
sound waves in its lower jaw, where the auditory nerves conduct it to ear and brain.
Solution
5] Special adaptation of whales includes 1) flexible rib cage which prevents crushing of lungs
due to high pressure and 2) conservative use of stored oxygen by shutting down the digestive
system and other less important organs, while using oxygen for vital organs like brain, neurons,
and heart.
6] Whales vocalize by blowing air across structures resembling vocal cords called blowholes.
These lie in the head and are called monkey lips. After the monkey lips generate sound waves,
the oil-filled organ in the whale’s head focuses them which travels back to the surface of the
spermaceti organ and reflects out .The sperm whale sound is of low frequencies, while dolphins
produce high-frequency sound waves. the dolphins\' sound waves begin at the nasal sac which
travels through the oily bulbous head and focused out in front. while it receives the reflected
sound waves in its lower jaw, where the auditory nerves conduct it to ear and brain..
1. Orthogonality= Orthogonality mean change in something does not.pdf
1. Orthogonality
=> Orthogonality mean change in something does not effect other;
int x = 1;
int y = 2;
int a = x*y;
value of x and y are not changed by this action of multiply;
2. Regularity
Integers can be assigned to real variables, but not vice versa
int x = 5; // Correct
5 = x; // Incorrect
3. Uniformity
When language looks the same and acts the different;
int x;
int x;
the both X looks same but acts different depend on their scope;
Solution
1. Orthogonality
=> Orthogonality mean change in something does not effect other;
int x = 1;
int y = 2;
int a = x*y;
value of x and y are not changed by this action of multiply;
2. Regularity
Integers can be assigned to real variables, but not vice versa
int x = 5; // Correct
5 = x; // Incorrect
3. Uniformity
When language looks the same and acts the different;
int x;
int x;
the both X looks same but acts different depend on their scope;.
1) consolidated statment of incomeStatment of cash flowSum of pr.pdf
1) consolidated statment of income
Statment of cash flow
Sum of profit .............dividends
Statment of cash flow
2)Balance sheet
3)Balance Sheet- Cash and liquid assets
4) Balance sheet-Under current liabiltiies
5) Balance sheet - under long term liabilties
Solution
1) consolidated statment of income
Statment of cash flow
Sum of profit .............dividends
Statment of cash flow
2)Balance sheet
3)Balance Sheet- Cash and liquid assets
4) Balance sheet-Under current liabiltiies
5) Balance sheet - under long term liabilties.
1 ansProcess of transforming normalized relations into denormaliz.pdf
1 ans:
Process of transforming normalized relations into denormalized physical record specifications
are
Denormalization:
Reduced disk accesses and greater performance but Introduction of anomalies (and thus
redundancies) that will necessitate extra data maintenance , increase chance of errors and force
reprogramming when business rules change. And may optimize certain tasks at the expense of
others.
common demonistration opportunities
the normalized relationship are transformed back to the non normalized form by the help of
denormalization
One to One ralationship:
even if onr ralation is optional in the relationship ,in this case field without values will be set to
null values.. do not interduce complications to updating
Many to Many relationship:
1. By convention, the name of this join table is usually just the combination of the two tables of
the many-to-many relationship. In this case , which implies that this is a join table since it’s
using the name of two existing tables joined by an underscore.
2. This join table only contains the primary keys from tables. Since this join table is referring to
primary keys that don’t actually belong to the join table, they are actually referred to as foreign
keys.
Referance data:
one to one ralationship where 1 side is not to used has data not used in other
relationship.introduce the additional updating if duplicate data changed
2 ans: circumstances will consider as denormalized records
it must have good purpose only when it enhance performance for an application of user which
needed to search frequently for redudence data
Solution
1 ans:
Process of transforming normalized relations into denormalized physical record specifications
are
Denormalization:
Reduced disk accesses and greater performance but Introduction of anomalies (and thus
redundancies) that will necessitate extra data maintenance , increase chance of errors and force
reprogramming when business rules change. And may optimize certain tasks at the expense of
others.
common demonistration opportunities
the normalized relationship are transformed back to the non normalized form by the help of
denormalization
One to One ralationship:
even if onr ralation is optional in the relationship ,in this case field without values will be set to
null values.. do not interduce complications to updating
Many to Many relationship:
1. By convention, the name of this join table is usually just the combination of the two tables of
the many-to-many relationship. In this case , which implies that this is a join table since it’s
using the name of two existing tables joined by an underscore.
2. This join table only contains the primary keys from tables. Since this join table is referring to
primary keys that don’t actually belong to the join table, they are actually referred to as foreign
keys.
Referance data:
one to one ralationship where 1 side is not to used has data not used in other
relationship.introduce the additional updating if duplicate data changed
2 a.
(TCO F) In the U.S., laws are enforced by police agencies and the co.pdf
(TCO F) In the U.S., laws are enforced by police agencies and the courts. What are ethics and
who enforces them?
sol:
1) these ethics is defined as knowledeg with moral priciples or it is proper behaviour while
doing an activity
there are defined as standard and they will divide what is wrong and what is write
2)these are the rules or principles which are documented for doing the right way.these rules
contanins
i)always doing good to others
ii)to be fair enough
iii)dont cause harm to others ...etc are
3)if any one oppossed the law or the above rules then they implemented some punishments
which is applicable to
all and everyone
but ethics are not written principles there need known by an individaul person by himself or from
elders
4)here there is no system that which is implements ethics in society but they give guidelines to
people
who will enforce the rules on thier own to do
Solution
(TCO F) In the U.S., laws are enforced by police agencies and the courts. What are ethics and
who enforces them?
sol:
1) these ethics is defined as knowledeg with moral priciples or it is proper behaviour while
doing an activity
there are defined as standard and they will divide what is wrong and what is write
2)these are the rules or principles which are documented for doing the right way.these rules
contanins
i)always doing good to others
ii)to be fair enough
iii)dont cause harm to others ...etc are
3)if any one oppossed the law or the above rules then they implemented some punishments
which is applicable to
all and everyone
but ethics are not written principles there need known by an individaul person by himself or from
elders
4)here there is no system that which is implements ethics in society but they give guidelines to
people
who will enforce the rules on thier own to do.
seedless vascular plants=gymnosperms seed plants=angiosperms Flo.pdf
seedless vascular plants=gymnosperms seed plants=angiosperms Flowers are absent Flowers
present Double fertlization absent Double fertlization present Endosperms is haploid
Endosperm is triploid Endosperm is produced before fertilization Endosperm is produced after
fertilization Fruits absent Fruits present Pollination by wind (mostly) Pollination by animals
(mostly) Seed are naked Seeds are enclosed in the fruits Diplontic life cycle Diplontic life
cycle
Solution
seedless vascular plants=gymnosperms seed plants=angiosperms Flowers are absent Flowers
present Double fertlization absent Double fertlization present Endosperms is haploid
Endosperm is triploid Endosperm is produced before fertilization Endosperm is produced after
fertilization Fruits absent Fruits present Pollination by wind (mostly) Pollination by animals
(mostly) Seed are naked Seeds are enclosed in the fruits Diplontic life cycle Diplontic life
cycle.
See you have to obtain moles of N2O5 to calculate.pdf
See you have to obtain moles of N2O5 to calculate moles of NO2 produced. SO
moles of N2O5 = weight of N2O5 / molar mass of N2O5. Molar mass of N2O5 = 2*14+
5*16=108 (since N=14,O=16 molar mass wise) Hence 15.2 N2O5 over 108
Solution
See you have to obtain moles of N2O5 to calculate moles of NO2 produced. SO
moles of N2O5 = weight of N2O5 / molar mass of N2O5. Molar mass of N2O5 = 2*14+
5*16=108 (since N=14,O=16 molar mass wise) Hence 15.2 N2O5 over 108.
Geometric isomers are two or more coordination co.pdf
Geometric isomers are two or more coordination compounds which contain the
same number and types of atoms, and bonds (i.e., the connectivity between atoms is the same),
but which have different spatial arrangements of the atoms. Geometric Isomerism results most
commonly from Carbon-Carbon double bonds
Solution
Geometric isomers are two or more coordination compounds which contain the
same number and types of atoms, and bonds (i.e., the connectivity between atoms is the same),
but which have different spatial arrangements of the atoms. Geometric Isomerism results most
commonly from Carbon-Carbon double bonds.
lead has a 2+ charge in lead(II) nitrate, and nit.pdf
lead has a 2+ charge in lead(II) nitrate, and nitrate has a negative one charge. For
the compound to be electrically neutral, we need one lead ion and two nitrate polyatomic ions.
Nitrate is NO3- (side note: nitrite is NO2-) Pb(NO3)2 the compound has this many atoms Pb 2N
6O we need 1lead*207.2g/mole of lead + 2nitrogen*14.01 g/mole nitrogen + 6oxygen*16g/mole
oxygen to have a mole. This is 331.22g/mole We only have 50.0 g. We have less than a mole.
This means we need to arrange 50 and 331.22 and have the result be less than one:
50.0g/331.22g/mole = 0.151 moles We have 0.151 moles of lead(II) nitrate notice also that the
units work out when we divide with the g in the numerator and the g/mole in the denominator.
g/(g/mole) = g*(mole/g) = mole 2.5 moles of copper (I) sulfate. The \"ate\" form of sulfate has 4
oxygens (you need to memorize this for the various polyatomic ions) and is SO4 2- Copper(I)
has a 1+ charge. To get a neutral compound takes two copper 1+ ions. Cu2SO4 is the formula Cu
= 63.46 g/mole S = 32.07 g/mole O = 16 g/mole In 2.5 moles of Cu2SO4 we have 2.5*(2*63.46
+ 1*32.07 + 4*16)g since one mole has 2 coppers, one sulfur, and four oxygens. = 557.475 g
Since we have 2 sig figs in our number of moles, we should have 2 in our answer, so 560 g
would be the answer.
Solution
lead has a 2+ charge in lead(II) nitrate, and nitrate has a negative one charge. For
the compound to be electrically neutral, we need one lead ion and two nitrate polyatomic ions.
Nitrate is NO3- (side note: nitrite is NO2-) Pb(NO3)2 the compound has this many atoms Pb 2N
6O we need 1lead*207.2g/mole of lead + 2nitrogen*14.01 g/mole nitrogen + 6oxygen*16g/mole
oxygen to have a mole. This is 331.22g/mole We only have 50.0 g. We have less than a mole.
This means we need to arrange 50 and 331.22 and have the result be less than one:
50.0g/331.22g/mole = 0.151 moles We have 0.151 moles of lead(II) nitrate notice also that the
units work out when we divide with the g in the numerator and the g/mole in the denominator.
g/(g/mole) = g*(mole/g) = mole 2.5 moles of copper (I) sulfate. The \"ate\" form of sulfate has 4
oxygens (you need to memorize this for the various polyatomic ions) and is SO4 2- Copper(I)
has a 1+ charge. To get a neutral compound takes two copper 1+ ions. Cu2SO4 is the formula Cu
= 63.46 g/mole S = 32.07 g/mole O = 16 g/mole In 2.5 moles of Cu2SO4 we have 2.5*(2*63.46
+ 1*32.07 + 4*16)g since one mole has 2 coppers, one sulfur, and four oxygens. = 557.475 g
Since we have 2 sig figs in our number of moles, we should have 2 in our answer, so 560 g
would be the answer..
a. The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum m.pdf
a. The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that no two
identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) may occupy the same quantum state
simultaneously. b. 6 electrons
Solution
a. The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that no two
identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) may occupy the same quantum state
simultaneously. b. 6 electrons.
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- 1. 1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3'-5'direction thus one strand synthesize continously known as leading strand and other discontinously in okazaki fragments known as lagging strand. The first change can be made by modifying DNA Polymerase to work in both direction simultaneously and other chnage to be made in slowing down of DNA Helicase enzyme. 2d. When all the DNA templates have been replicated,RNA primers get rplaced and DNA nicks were joined. Enzymes that remove RNA primers are FEN1 (flap endonulcease 1) and RNase H. These enzymes remove RNA primers at the start of each leading strand and Okazaki fragment, leaving gaps. After removal DNA polymerase lands at the 3' end of the preceding DNA fragment and extends the DNA over the gap. However, this creates new nicksand then finally DNA ligase joins sugar-phosphate backbone. While transcription termination occur through two methods are Rho-independent and Rho-dependent termination. Solution 1c. Since DNA Polymerase works in 3'-5'direction thus one strand synthesize continously known as leading strand and other discontinously in okazaki fragments known as lagging strand. The first change can be made by modifying DNA Polymerase to work in both direction simultaneously and other chnage to be made in slowing down of DNA Helicase enzyme. 2d. When all the DNA templates have been replicated,RNA primers get rplaced and DNA nicks were joined. Enzymes that remove RNA primers are FEN1 (flap endonulcease 1) and RNase H. These enzymes remove RNA primers at the start of each leading strand and Okazaki fragment, leaving gaps. After removal DNA polymerase lands at the 3' end of the preceding DNA fragment and extends the DNA over the gap. However, this creates new nicksand then finally DNA ligase joins sugar-phosphate backbone. While transcription termination occur through two methods are Rho-independent and Rho-dependent termination.