2. Gove Dam
Matala Weir
Calueque Weir
Calueque - Oshakati Canal
Ruacana Hydro Plant
Epupa Falls/Dam site
Baynes Dam site
1/Headwaters in Angolan highlands
2/ 1,050 km from source to Atlantic
Ocean
3/ Fed by five tributaries above Ruacana
4/ Forms Angola +
Namibia border from Ruacana
(1886)
5/ 300 km canal irrigates NE
Namibia
6/ Epupa Falls (37m) would be
inundated by Epupa Dam
reservoir over 380 square km
7/ Traverses Namib Desert,
world’s oldest desert +
driest place on earth (aridity)
8/ Unique biodiversity formed
over 50 million years
9/ Riverbed alluvial soils used
for gardening + palm
trees for cattle in dry season
10/ Himba customary land along
lower Kunene River, approx. west
from Ruacana
Kunene 10
3. Epupa Dam Conflict in 5 Steps:
1/ Post-independence Namibia aiming at energy self-reliance.
Kunene River exploited for hydro/irrigation since 1886, one of few
options for cheap power in water-scarce Namibia
2/ Epupa Dam construction planned in 1964 as fifth dam on the river,
could supply downstream riparian Namibia with 100% power needs
3/ Alternative dam site at Baynes would require repair of Angola’s
upstream infrastructure and involve lower environmental impact
4/ Environmental and social impact of Epupa Dam borne by Himba of
southern Angola/northern Namibia, who have customary claim to the
land affected
5/ Diverging preferences and historical antagonism between all three
stakeholders manifest in 1993 Feasibility Study until 2007, when
Epupa Dam is shelved
4. Chief Kapika, Epupa HimbaMinistry of Energy and Water,
Angola
Ministry of Mines and Energy
(MME), Namibia
Main Stakeholders + Interests
Priority: Prevent dam con-
struction on Lower Kunene
River
BATNA: Prevent Epupa Dam,
the most damaging option,
destroying graves, grazing
sites + 400 yearcustomary
land use practice
Backstory: Marginalized by
governments; severely disre-
spected by MME
Priority: Repair upstream
dam/weirs
BATNA: Ensure Baynes is
built, to leverage repairs +
transboundary collabora-
tion with Namibia
Backstory: Civil war 1975
to 2002
Priority: Energy self-suffi-
ciency
BATNA: A hydro dam on the
Lower Kunene River
Backstory: Dismissive of in-
digenous rights, ruling party
5. Epupa Dam Conflict Analysis
1/ Factors leading to this conflict
Lack of trust between stakeholders
Water scarcity + “development” imperative - Odendaal Commission 1964
Colonialism/apartheid/marginalization of Himba
Conflict with/in Angola
Problematic Feasibility Study + inflexibility of site
Public threats from high-level officials Government of Namibia
2/ Past success dealing with past conflicts
Germany/Portugal - similar motivations, conciliatory, non-participatory/extractive
South Africa/Portugal - Rising regional apartheid hegemon/declining colonial power
South Africa/Angola - Ideological disconnect, low capacity of Angola to engage
Government/Himba - De facto self-government until 1990; literature indicates goodwill of
Himba until lack of transparency of MME evident
6. Epupa Dam Agreement Analysis
1/ Enabling Conditions
Creating value: IUCN + PJTC facilitation of BATNA throughout Feasibility Study
Normative shift 1964 - 1993: Dams, indigenous rights and envrionmental protection
Social learning: Subsquent Feasibility Studies use Epupa case as ‘what not to do’
2/ Institutions to enhance cooperation?
PJTC
SADC standards - low enforecement
Neutral monitoring of studies -LAC, IUCN or equivalent
3/ Level of flexibility of institutions?
High. Lack of standardization in all other issues affecting this process necessitates adaptation;
‘Learning by doing’ to find BATNA
7. Implications for Water Diplomacy Framework
Complexity: Legacy of vested interests, exploitation and transboundary fluidity indicative of
some sub-Saharan contexts (e.g. artificial boundaries, multiplicity governance and infrastruc-
ture challenges)
Stakeholder definition: High degree of involvement of scientific, anthropological, legal and
environmental specialists to complement technical nature of PJTC and support Himba inter-
ests. This facilitated resolution of conflicts and equalling of information/power asymmetry.
Joint Fact Finding (JFF): AKA ‘Feasibility Study’; availability of profoundly committed technical
experts who can bridge between Himba and Governments and have established legitimacy.
Lessons learned from Epupa taken forward to Baynes, though attitudes remain similar.
Mutual Gains: Would flow from functional JFF and trust-building; currently zero-sum among
Himba and Government of Namibia.
Social learning: Scope and duration of coverage led to increased awareness of indigenous cus-
tomary rights and dam infrastructure within Namibia and internationally (unclear Angola
impact).
Prognosis....
