An Incentive Approach to Natural Resource Management;

An Incentive Approach to Natural Resource Management;
Reconciling beliefs and values with incentives for natural resource management

An Instrumental Case Study from Senegal

Angela Adrar
PIM 62
Capstone Seminar May 24, 2008
Advisor: James Breeden

A Capstone Paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of
Science in Organizational Management at the School for International Training in
Brattleboro, Vermont, USA.

The author hereby grants to the School for International Training permission to reproduce
either electronically or in print format this document in whole or in part for library archival
purposes only.

The author hereby does grant to the School for International Training permission to
electronically reproduce and transmit this document to students, alumni, staff, and faculty
of the World Learning Community.

Author’s Signature

© Angela Adrar, 2008. All rights reserved.

i

DEDICATION

For my dedicated father, Victor Mario Gaviria,
for making us; his family and his number one priority.

ii

“Ku la abal i tànk, nga dem fa ko neex.”
If someone lends you their legs, you will go where they please.
_________________________________________________
Wolof Proverb

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. v

ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ vii

Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 10
Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 11
Pro-environmental Behavior ............................................................................................. 18
Case Study: Egypt ............................................................................................................. 20

Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 22
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 22

Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 25
Presentation and Analysis of Data .................................................................................... 25
Beliefs ............................................................................................................................... 26
Values ............................................................................................................................... 29
Incentives .......................................................................................................................... 32

Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 37
Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................. 37
Applicability ..................................................................................................................... 39

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 41

APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................... 44

iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CERP- Centre d’Expansion Rurale Polyvalent
CLGB- Comité Local pour la Gestion de la Biodiversité
FAO- United Nations-Food and Agriculture Organization
GIE- Groupement d’Intérêts Economique
IUCN- World Conservation Union
NGO- Non Governmental Organization
PNLB – Parc National Langue de Barbarie
UCAD - Université Cheikh Anta Diop
USAID- United States Agency for International Development
WCED- World Commission on Environment and Development

v

ABSTRACT

I seek to explore, using the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie in Senegal as a

case study, whether value types based on Schwartz’ Theory of Value Dimensions (1992) are

more likely to promote pro-environmental behavior than others in developing countries and

answer whether current incentives can not only motivate short term reactions but change long

term behavior towards the environment.

This instrumental case study is an extension of my work from 2003 to 2007 as an

ecotourism volunteer with Peace Corps and later, an Independent Ecotourism Consultant for

various national parks in Senegal. Supporting data was gathered from personal and

participant observations, national park and eco-guard annual reports. Informal interviews

with local community and association members, representatives of the national park, eco-

guards and questionnaire responses are included to substantiate conclusions on values and

pro-environmental behavior in the public and private sphere.

Research findings suggest that long term pro-environmental behavior is influenced by

internal factors rooted in beliefs and values that are independent to cost analysis calculations.

The research is applicable for leaders or stakeholders and behaviorists interested in

intercultural values for environmental conservation. The study suggests that beliefs and

values regarding health, family, security, conformity and tradition, typically considered

negative predicators of pro-environmental behavior in advanced developed societies,

promote pro-environmental behavior in rural societies. I recommend that any incentive

package that is to lead to long term pro-environmental behavior in developing countries

compliment economic incentives with indirect incentives which embrace the above

mentioned values targeting them appropriately and consistently with the culture.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Words cannot express the appreciation I have for Assane Ndoye and Mamadou Sidibé, the
National Park Langue de Barbarie Conservationists for their positive energy and inspiring
concern for the development of the community and the conservation of the environment and
to the Ecoguards of Gandiol, who first showed me Gandiol and whose hard work and vision,
characterize the bright future of Senegal. Jerejef Wai, to Alise Faye, the best sister that I
could ever have for helping me express myself in the local language and embrace the rich
culture of Senegal.

And immense thanks to Gandiol, the village Chief; Adama Diop, and the Gandiolese
themselves, who adopted me into their lives and taught me that the richest natural resources
that humans have are their hearts and the faith to follow it.

vii

Chapter 1

Introduction

The use of incentive packages has become an increasingly popular solution to the

environmental conservation - community development equation. They have gained

popularity with both international NGOs and governments for their role in participatory

natural resource management and have been equally praised for their ability to directly

address market forces. The underlying factor at the core of incentive packages is

collective motivation; the driving force to change a group’s behavior to effectively

manage natural resources. But in the interest of modifying collective behavior, incentive

packages have often times failed to address the beliefs and values that influence

individual and traditional motivation, a crucial factor for long term natural resource

management in both public and at home.

Background

Senegal reserves 11% of its land for the conservation of biodiversity and the

protection of its flora and fauna (Earthtrends.org). In 2003, the IUCN (World

Conservation Union) considered it a leader in state protection of nature in comparison to

the Sub-Saharan African average. Nonetheless, less than 1% of these protected areas are

designated for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. The Minister of the

Environment of Senegal defines natural ecosystems for sustainable use as a

predominantly unmodified natural system, managed to ensure long-term protection and

maintenance of biological diversity, while also providing a sustainable flow of natural

products and services for tourist and community needs.

1

The current Senegalese administration has set ambitious goals for the area studied

in this paper such as the preservation of marine and coastal habitats, poverty alleviation,

and the enhancement in the quality of life of its population. It is implementing policies at

the local level by instructing park managers to use incentive packages to increase the

percentage of land reserved for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Nation-wide,

conventional state-imposed conservation strategies are being replaced by participatory

conservation strategies that include rural populations. In the field, park managers are

struggling to revamp outdated conservation with strategies that favor communicating

with the same rural communities that were separated from their land and resources when

national parks and reserves were created.

The incentive package developed at the National Park Langue de Barbarie will be

used as an example to illustrate challenges faced by park managers in implementing

incentives. It will furthermore, demonstrate that beliefs and values must be considered in

planning natural resource management by demonstrating the results of the incentive

package used from 2003 to 2006.

December of 2003, I joined the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie on a two

year contract as an Ecotourism and Business Peace Corps Volunteer to expand

opportunities linking economic incentives to local development. More simply put, I was

to empower community members by transferring eco-business and organizational

development skills to them. Ideally, my work was to support the new role of the national

park and facilitate the re-inclusion of the community in natural resource management

strategy for the area.

2

In a short time I learned that in Senegal, national parks implemented these goals

at a local level using annual action plans. These plans had impressive budgets that

looked robust on paper to attract donors but fell 60% short of expectations in annual

evaluations leaving broken promises and projects unfinished1. The Langue de Barbarie

had budgetary, material and human resource constraints not only to carry out this new

park strategy and implement an incentive package but to effectively conserve the fauna

and flora that it was designated to protect. This was not a solitary case; most parks in

Senegal and in the region were facing the same challenges. On the other hand, faced with

these obstacles, motivating the local community to manage their resources seemed like

the most feasible path to conserving the unique and now fragile biodiversity of Gandiol

and the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie. A brief socio-economic and historical

background of Gandiol and the Langue de Barbarie follows.

Pre-conservation efforts

The National Park of the Langue is located in Gandiol. It has sustained large

populations of mixed ethnicities for over a thousand years in the rural area of Gandiol,

despite being situated in the arid Sahelian region of Africa. It is located only 10 miles

away from the island of St. Louis, the ancient trading capital of West Africa and not far

from the Mauritanian border. Due in large part to the natural balance of the Atlantic

Ocean, the Senegal River and the Sahelian desert, the Gandiolese have peacefully

managed to survive threats to their culture, traditional well being, and future.

In fact the flood plains and land marshes that characterize this coastal rural area

provided conditions for an affluent traditional economy. In years of normal rainfall, the

1
This information is based on the 2004 -2006 action plans for three different parks; that of the park of
Langue de Barbarie, L’ile de Madeline, and the Guembuel Reserve in Senegal.

3

riverbanks became seasonally flooded, recharging aquifers and enriching the plains with

nutrient-rich silt. Wolof male and female farmers grew vegetables, millet and onions for

local consumption and camels would bring out crops destined for trade north to St. Louis

and Mauritania. After the harvest, herdsmen, mostly Pulaar or Maure men, moved their

cattle and sheep into the plains to feed on the post harvest remains and fertilize the land,

fish swam from the main channel of the river to the flood plains to spawn - which made it

easy for men to fish without motor boat power.

Lower Gandiol, closer to the junction between the ocean and the river, at the tip

of the Langue de Barbarie, was a complex delta-like estuary where salinity varied

according to two seasons; in the rainy season, when the rain-fed flood inundated the zone,

it became almost fresh water, and during the dry season, the water level decreased

allowing seawater to penetrated the Delta. This was essential for many marine fish and

turtles which spent a part of their life cycle in the semi-salt Senegal River and also

permitted the local inhabitants to rotate between farming and fishing according to season.

Resistant trees and plants like the Acacia nilotica tree and the Barbarie cactus were

abundant. Dry acacia branches were collected by young girls and served as excellent fire

wood, while the Barbarie cactus helped stop land erosion.

A chain of varied agricultural and river products were yielded throughout

centuries in this low rainfall Sahelian region: millet, sorghum, onions, other crops, milk,

meat, and fish. Furthermore, the sequential use of the same land allowed ethnically

distinct people to contribute to each other’s well-being, promoting social cohesion and

natural harmony in natural resource management (La Region du St. Louis, 2006).

4

State conservation efforts

The 1970’s were characterized by an increase in national and international nature

conservation efforts. These efforts were driven mainly by the US and European wide-

held belief that nature needed protection from humanity (Dupuy, 1972). National parks

and reserves were created to protect the biodiversity of the environment from the

development of humanity. The goal was to ensure that future generations, tourists and

researchers had a place to reflect on the beauty and uniqueness of nature far from the

negative side-effects of economic development such as pollution, destruction and

contamination.

The Gandiol marine wetlands gained recognition during this time because of its

unique landscape and marine-river habitat but mostly for its wildlife. Migrant birds,

crossing hundreds of miles of Western Saharan Desert, used the Langue de Barbarie and

small land marshes surrounding it as reproductive zones. Thousands of pelicans,

flamingos, sea gulls, herons and at least 75 other species of birds would travel to the park

each year, make nests, and reproduce before the summer months arrived, making the

zone a popular nature tourist attraction. Sea turtles were also discovered to reproduce on

the Langue de Barbarie and were considered by the government to be an important

international species to conserve. The national park quickly capitalized on the tourism

benefits of its unique biodiversity at the cost of the livelihood opportunities of the local

population.

The National Park of the Langue de Barbarie was created in 1976 encompassing a

total of 7.7 square miles, (2000 hectares) and is composed of the riverbanks, the

wetlands, islets, several bird islands and the Langue de Barbarie itself. The local

5

population was relocated 2 miles or more inland, compromising their economic

opportunities to live off of the river and upsetting the ecological, social and cultural

harmony of natural resource management sustained over generations.

Around the same time in the 1970’s, Sub Saharan West Africa, including Senegal

was suffering from droughts similar to the ones that are devastating Niger, Sudan and

Kenya today. Freshwater fish production from the Senegal River was reduced by 14,000

tons in the twelve-years the drought lasted (FAO, 1986). The drought period of the

1970’s devastated rain-fed crops in Gandiol. It severely reduced zones for flood

recession farming, and starved off much of the livestock (Kloft, 2002).

The creation of the national park further marginalized the local population

because it included most of the fertile banks of the Senegal River and limited fishing in

the river, the most precious natural resource in the area. Tight park restrictions led to the

withdrawal of many men from the fishing trade and initiated massive emigration by

males to find work elsewhere. Women were left behind to search for supplemental

sources of protein for the family diet and income for the family welfare.

To compensate for both the relocation of households due to the creation of the

park, and to encourage local flood recession and riverbank farmers to adopt irrigation

farming practices during the drought, equipment was supplied free of charge. The

government subsidized fuel, fertilizers, and seeds to be repaid after the harvest (Kloft,

2002). These subsidies were later withdrawn in the mid 1980’s due to Structural

Adjustment policies that promoted private sector activity. Only the wealthier farmers

could afford to cultivate the land. The majority of Gandiolese families were caught in a

6

low income poverty trap. Meanwhile, the plentiful river, ocean and land within the park

remained untouched for the pleasure of tourists, researchers, and park visitors.

The relationship between the local population and park agents grew distant and

cold due in large part to a conflict of perceptions. The local population perceived their

land as occupied by military men with guns inviting foreigners to influence their youth.

Park agents perceived the local population as unsophisticated and unable to care for the

land properly. The State had taken on a full protectionist role and the population had

resigned itself to start anew elsewhere. In the late 1980’s, the government took part in a

$600 million project to construct two dams that would soon modify the water access and

electricity of the Delta for Senegal, Mauritania, and Mali and eventually alter the physical

appearance of the Langue de Barbarie forever.

In 2003, under political pressure, a canal only 3 miles from the national park was

carved out in one night in order to minimize the possibility of violent opposition from the

local population. The opening of the canal was meant to relieve flooding in St. Louis

caused by the environmental repercussions of the celebrated dam projects of the 1980’s.

The results have devastated the biodiversity that the National Park of the Langue de

Barbarie was meant to protect from the harmful hands of humanity. Due to the natural

flow and force of the river, a canal originally 8.5 yards in width continued to erode to

76.5 yards in width and widening. It has changed the ecological balance of the region and

further compromised the quality of life for the local population.

The canal has dramatically increased the level of salinity in the river and soil and

has changed the physical geography of the national park. Since the carving out of the

canal, there has been a scarcity of fish in the river and the agricultural fields at the base of

7

the river have been abandoned because the present level of salinity in the soil and water

make it impossible to cultivate healthy crops. In a community that is economically

structured around fishing and agriculture the opening of the canal has been another sharp

blow to the livelihood of its inhabitants. The national parks, international partners, and

local group leaders are trying to find economic livelihood alternatives to traditional

employment and a balance between biodiversity conservation and social development.

A new approach to conservation

In 2003, the Lead Park Agent of the largest and oldest park in Senegal; Niokolo

Koba, was promoted by the Director of National Parks and ordered to adapt his approach

to national park management to the changing circumstances, more precisely, to the

demands of the Ministry of the Environment. Now as the new Preservationist of the

National Park Langue de Barbarie, he was to conserve and protect the flora and the fauna

within the 7.7 square miles (2000 hectares) of the park, as did the 11 Conservationists

who preceded him, but his job now required him to engage the local population

surrounding the national park in sustainable natural resource management, train

neighbors in nature awareness, and seek out opportunities for youth and women from

local associations to benefit from nature conservation.

In his new assignment the Preservationist was to tear away the philosophy of the

national park in Senegal for the last 50 years and rapidly build a new strategy that

included cooperative resource management in which incentives were to be used to bring

local people back into the nature management equation. Before we discuss the tools and

strategies that the Preservationist used to adopt a new natural resource management

approach, a brief and current overview of the physical area of research follows.

8

Physical Area of Research

The area of research will cover the perimeter of the park and the surrounding rural

community broken down into 12 local villages at the periphery of the national park.

According to the local administrative department located in Rao, there are approximately

8300 people registered in this area (CERP, 2000). Each village has a chief representative

appointed by the Republic of Senegal. Nonetheless, all the citizens regardless of their

village consider themselves and are regarded by outsiders as Gandiolese.

The table below outlines the population of the area per village. While there are

three additional village communities in Gandiol; Bandji, Gabar, Guéngué, they fall

outside of the department of Rao, and are over 9.5 miles away from the national park.

According to my investigation, they do not interact directly with the park in any way thus

far. The following villages have historically been economically dependent on the area

that is now the national park and therefore, have been identified as the section of the

population that will be studied.

Table 1 : Gandiol population per village

Village Population in 2000

Ndiol 281

Ndiebéne 2213

Tassinére 1109

Tare 644

Nguédj 100

9

Village Population in 2000

Mourel 22

Mouit 1420

Mbaw 712

Darou Salam 343

Gouye Réné 311

Dégou Niaye 129

Darou Mboumbaye 1029

TOTAL 8313

Chapter 2

The events mentioned above and the changing course of the national park’s role

in the community sparked my interest for further inquiry.

Research Question

Do incentive packages for natural resource management in developing countries really

lead to long term pro-environmental behavior?

Sub questions (3)

1) How do beliefs contribute to pro-environmental behavior?

2) Are certain value types more effective in promoting pro-environmental behavior
than others?

3) Can incentives not only motivate but also change long term behavior?

This research is significant and timely because, as mentioned earlier;

governments, international agencies and non-governmental organizations are dedicating a

huge amount of their effort and resources to linking development goals to the

10

environment. Two decades ago, the World Commission on Environment and

Development pointed out:

Conservation of living natural resources — plants, animals, and micro-organisms,

and the non-living elements of the environment on which they depend —is crucial

for development. The challenge facing nations today is no longer deciding

whether conservation is a good idea, but rather how it can be implemented in the

national interest and within the means available in each country (WCED, 1987).

And this trend has continued to be of importance in light of the accelerated rate of

globalization that reaches even the most rural societies.

Literature Review

A report released in 2005, on global attitudes and behaviors consolidated

definitions of pro-sustainable values from the Earth Charter, The UN Millennium

Declaration, the U.S. National Academy of Science and multinational groups to describe

global value trends that both help and hinder sustainable development and environmental

conservation. The report concluded there was a need for further research and

collaboration on individual and cultural pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors

(Leibowitz et al, 2005). It is apparent by the amount of research studies available, that

the field of environmental organizational behavior is growing. While sociologists are

developing journals and conferences for further research, the environmental community

has yet to catch on and fully incorporate these social findings in environmental

conservation and natural resource management strategies.

11

The Langue de Barbarie case study presents one of the most popular community

approaches to conservation available in the majority world today; a natural resource

management incentive package. Research demonstrates that incentive packages for

natural resource management mainly focus on market driven and economic incentives

while motivation literature and research demonstrates that behavior, beliefs, and values

are often driven by variables that are independent from groups and from cost/benefit

calculations. The research explores incentive packages from a human resource

management perspective and asks whether incentive packages for natural resource

management are really encouraging communities to be more willing and able to conserve

the environment

The study includes several key terms and concepts, such as “incentive package,”

“community,” ” “motivation” and “values” that are key to understanding the research

question. As these terms are ambiguous, they will be defined here and explored at

greater length in the literature review prior to proceeding to details about the research

methodology.

Incentive package in this study refers to a plan of specific measures which can be

either positive or negative and which results in a desired behavior directed towards the

environment. These measures of motivation are included in packages that function both

directly and indirectly with the community it has been prescribed for. The incentives

address local needs, circumstances, economic activity, and broader market, policy and

institutional failures which make communities unwilling or economically unable to

conserve nature. Some direct incentives include subsidies, property rights, taxes or

12

access restriction to certain areas (Mountford, 143). While indirect incentives consist of

professional development, capacity building and training among other measures.

A community is made up of individuals and is a fluid term used widely in the field

of development. However, it is important to understand the context with in which it will

be used in this paper. A community can refer to a group of individuals intricately linked

to one another through the many systems that connect them, including their bio-region or

local economy. In many cases, local communities have a strong connection by either an

ethnic, religious and/or cultural heritage. The local community examined in the paper is

linked to the region of Gandiol as described earlier in the section on the physical area of

research and is linked by the natural resources available in the Langue de Barbarie and its

surrounding areas. It is also the targeted community included in the preliminary natural

resource management incentive package for the Langue de Barbarie.

Motivation refers to the result of the interaction of an individual or community

with a situation. It is the willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach goals,

conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some need. These needs may be a result of a

norm, belief, attitude, or value and the behavioral outcome is dependant on both the

quality and intensity of effort to reach a goal. (Robbins, 313) This paper will concentrate

on the needs that relate to beliefs and values as these are the precursors to norms and

attitudes and currently the most neglected when planning an incentive package.

Maslow’s well-known hierarchy of needs theory includes five types of needs that ascend

in the structure of a pyramid once a lower need has been substantially satisfied.

Physiological Needs (bodily requirements) are at the foundation of the pyramid, followed

by Safety Needs that include security and protection from bodily harm. The third level is

13

Social Needs that are linked to belonging and relationships which move up into Esteem

Needs that consist of self-respect, status quo, autonomy and achievement. At the very

top of the pyramid are Self-Actualization Needs that involve advancement and

achievement one’s potential. According to Maslow’s theory, a substantially satisfied

need no longer motivates and therefore stimulus must address an individual’s fluid

position in the pyramid in order to be effective. (Robbins, 315)

Finally, values are the generalized internal standards that transcend specific

situations. They are few in number in comparison to attitudes and are relatively stable.

Most importantly for this study, values may guide behavior independently of cost/benefit

calculations (Rokeach, 1973). Value studies that analyzed motivation for pro-

environmental behavior in regards to recycling in the United States demonstrated that

those people who recycled also pursued higher needs of Social and Self Actualization as

opposed to non-recyclers. This indicates that in the United States, environmental

conservation is an altruistic behavior carried out by those who do not see their

physiological or safety needs threatened (Dunlap et al 1993). Different incentive

strategies need to address the needs and values of rural societies where the environment is

central to opportunities or threats to health and livelihood practices to achieve similar

pro-environmental behavior.

In order to conceptualize more complex motivating factors for behavior than

those proposed by Maslow, Shalom Schwartz (1992) developed the theory of the

universal structure of human value systems. Data was collected in 63 countries surveying

more than 60,000 individuals on 56 specific values that have consistency across cultures.

These individualist and collectivist values were broken down into a total of ten

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motivationally distinct priority value types that corresponded to the higher order values of

Openness to change, Self-enhancement, Conservation and Self-transcendence as

organized below. For future reference, cconservation in this context does not refer to

environmental conversation. Rather, Schwartz refers to ‘conservation’ in his study as the

preservation of tradition, status quo, institution and relationships.

Schwartz’ four Higher Order Values and ten Motivationally Distinct Values

I. Openness to change

Self-direction (SDI, individualistic)

Stimulation (STI, individualistic)

Hedonism (HED, individualistic)

II. Self-enhancement

Hedonism (HED, individualistic)

Achievement (ACH, individualistic)

Power (POW, individualistic)

III. Conservation

Security (SEC, individualistic and collectivist)

Conformity (CON, collectivist)

Tradition (TRA, collectivist)

IV. Self-transcendence

Benevolence (BEN, collectivist)

Universalism (UNI, individualistic and collectivist)

Schwartz’ dynamic theory on values assumes that behavior displayed to satisfy a

particular value type has psychological, practical and social consequences that are either

15

in harmony or conflict with other values. For example, the pursuit of personal success

(achievement) is likely to interfere with the adherence to the preservation and

enhancement of the welfare of other people (benevolence), thus forcing individuals to

make choices among competing value categories. To best depict this dynamic relation

between and among values Schwartz developed the two dimensional dynamic circular

value structure illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Schwartz's Value Dimension Structure

In the Value Dimension Structure, complimentary values are adjacent while

conflicting values are opposite within the circle corresponding to their relationship with

the dimensional value they support. The dimension of Self-enhancement versus Self-

transcendence reflects the conflict between values oriented toward the pursuit of self-

16

interest and values as opposed to concerns for the welfare of others and nature.

According to Schwartz, individualistic values in any culture fall along this dimension. I

will further explore this dimension in detail for its effect on pro-environmental behavior.

On the other hand, the dimensional value of Openness to Change versus

Conservation contrasts the degree to which individuals are motivated by intellectual and

emotional interests versus preserving traditions, status quo, institutions and relationships.

The two dimensions of the higher order values of Openness to Change versus

Conservation and Self-enhancement versus Self-transcendence are illustrated in the

structure and are both basic and bi-polar. The circle is enclosed by four lines that extend

in both directions and meet in what looks like bowties marking the limit at which each

higher order value begins and ends. Finally, the higher order values of Openness to

Change and Self-enhancement share the motivational distinct value of Hedonism; this is

illustrated by the broken line encompassing Hedonism in the structure.

These value dimensions are crucial to predicting attitudes and norms which

predispose behavior that promote the collective good of environmental conservation,

world peace, equality, and freedom. They are particularly relevant when developing

incentive packages for natural resource management in both the public and private

sphere. Schwartz’s theory of values is a fresh alternative to Hofstede’s theory of cultural

dimensions and is gaining more popularity in the fields of sustainable development,

intercultural management, environment and psychology.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory has been very influential in the private

sector and helpful in understanding the inter-organizational culture of multi-national

corporations. It includes five major dimensions for classifying cultures across the world

17

including (i) Power Distance, (ii) Uncertainty Avoidance, (iii) Individualism, (iv)

Masculinity, and (v) Long Term Orientation (Hofstede, 2005). His theory is based on

surveys collected by students and company employees that study work values. On the

other hand, Schwartz’s theory on value dimensions (1992) has been the basis for studies

that sample populations outside these institutions and relates better to the exploration of

environmental conservation and rural populations.

Pro-environmental Behavior

The most recent World Survey on global values and beliefs conducted from 1999

to 2000 by Inglehart and Baker, address the current spread of globalization and

individualism. In their study, values and beliefs show correlation in countries with

similar economic development. Their research picks up where modernization theory left

off. Their research classifies societies as modern or postmodern (materialist or post-

materialist) based on the level of economic development of a country. They claim that all

countries are in route to modernisation. Less developed nations that are beginning the

path concentrate, above all, on values that contribute to economic growth and economic

achievement. As these countries begin to progress past the threshold of development and

move into the higher stages of economic development they begin to acquire post-modern

values. These post-modern values give priority to the quality of life and values

emphasizing environmental and socio-cultural issues, even when these goals conflict with

maximizing economic growth (Inglehart and Baker, 2000).

The trouble with Inglehart and Baker’s theory is that their research has not been

able to explain how traditional values persist regardless of this relative global value

change across nations or why there is a widening gap between the rich and poor in

18

societies that are suppose to have post-modern values that prioritize quality of life. Rice

(2006) demonstrated that traditional values in Egypt for example are in line with

environmental conservation but stem from a religious foundation of “man as steward of

the land” rather than the western imposed standard of “nature as equal.” She also found

positive results when testing whether pro-environmental behavior was founded on a

different cultural model that uses “health and cleanliness” as a metaphor for the

environment. Furthermore Inglehart’s theories have not holistically tested values in

relation to sustainable development or the environment in developing countries which are

of particular interest for this study.

In addition to values and needs, pro-environmental behavior has also been

significantly linked to beliefs. Human behavior towards the environment is based on

what people think and feel about the environment and the control that they have to exert

pro-environmental actions with success (Azjens 1985, 1991). Often times in Gandiol,

people were summoned by their association to the national park to participate in a

conservation activity that they did not know anything about. Other times, the community

would be mobilized to do a massive beach clean-up project on the island for a day

without being included in the planning or evaluation process. The level of energy that

was put into the activity was directly linked to the amount of information and most of all

control the person felt they had in the activity. Those organizing the event were high

energy while those called at the last minute were less engaged in the nature conservation

goals. Most participants viewed these events as nothing more than opportunities to

socialize with neighbors.

19

Based on these studies about personal values and beliefs, more complex studies

have recently been elaborated on the cultural values that predispose behavior specifically

towards the environment within and across nations (Shaul and Tally 2006). Research

conducted by Karp (1996) tested Schwartz’ value dimensions in regards to pro-

environmental behavior in the US. He tested combinations of Self-transcendence/

Openness to Change versus Conservation and Self-enhancement/ Openness to Change

versus Conservation. Karp’s research concluded that Self-transcendence/Openness to

Change is a strong predicator for pro-environmental behavior while Self-

enhancement/Conservation is a strong negative predictor for pro-environmental behavior.

This was distinguished by behavioral categories that included Good Citizen, Activist and

Healthy Consumer behavior in the USA.

Case Study: Egypt

The relationship between demographics variables, beliefs, values, and religiosity

in Cairo, Egypt was studied by Gillian Rice and published in an article for the Journal for

Business Ethics in 2006. Rice replaced Karp’s behavioral categories from those

mentioned in the above paragraph to Public Sphere Behavior, Private Sphere Behavior,

and Activist which were more appropriate for a developing country. Public Sphere

represents pro-environmental behavior that is displayed in social or institutional settings

and is closest to what natural resource management incentive packages currently try to

target. Private Sphere Behavior represents behavior that individuals carry out outside the

Public Sphere, in their homes, such as; consumption practices. Finally, Activist behavior

represented behavior that advocates for environmental conservation. Rice’s study

20

concluded that Public Sphere Behavior was the most prevalent and closely correlated

with the values of tradition and religiosity in developing Muslim societies.

The study, conducted in a predominantly Muslim country, concluded that Islam

advocates pro-environmental ethics by acknowledging humans as steward of their

communities; human, plant or animal. The study confirmed Hopkins’ and colleagues

findings (2001) that “health and cleanliness” values linked to Security and Conservation

values are principal factors motivating individuals to care for the environment. The

principles of health and cleanliness are both practical and closely related to the well-

being of families which is very relevant to the emphasis people put on family health and

survival in developing countries. On the other hand, developed countries emphasize

factors that include the protection of a species or the conservation of a particular habitat.

Furthermore, Rice’s study demonstrated that Schwartz’ Self-transcendent values

such as Benevolence and Universalism are positively correlated with Public Sphere

Behavior. Openness to Change values such as Stimulation are negatively correlated to

Public Sphere and Activist Behavior while the Self-enhancement value, Achievement, is

positively correlated with Activist Behavior and, as mentioned above, Tradition

correlated positively with Public Sphere Behavior.

These findings are of particular interest for my paper because they highlight the

importance of selecting incentives for natural resource management that are targeted to

address the values of communities in developing countries in ways that make

environmental conservation achievable in the short and the long term. Using incentives

that address real issues such as health care, education and the transfer of valuable skills

are more likely to pave the path to balanced natural resource management. Simple

21

monetary compensation does not address values linked to tradition that have helped

societies persevere during times of economic hardship and natural adversity.

Chapter 3

Methodology

A qualitative research framework stemming from a positivist philosophical

viewpoint is most appropriate for this study. The research has drawn upon past theories

on pro-environmental behavior focusing in particular on Schwartz’ theory of human

value dimensions. The research seeks to better understand the phenomena in question

and link values to incentives for natural resource management (Yin, 2002). An

instrumental case study method is applied to provide multi-perspective analysis and

triangulation is used to test consistency and plausibility. While the research is presented

as a single case study, references to Rice’s case study on environmental behavior in

Egypt (2006) have been included to show the utility and value of this research to the

wider field of environmental conservation and study of values and beliefs.

Data to support this instrumental case study were gathered from personal and

participant observations, national park and eco-guard reports, archival documents and

locally published material. Finally, informal interviews with local community members,

association members and representatives of the national park were conducted and

questionnaires completed to triangulate the information included in this paper. During my

four years as an Ecotourism Consultant in the area of study, I looked at opportunities,

constraints, and gaps to development and environmental conservation. I have selected

incentives and their effect on pro-environmental behavior to be the main focus of this

case study.

22

My observations and experience established that ecotourism alone (an economic

incentive) was insufficient in this area to achieve long term efficient natural resource

management. Therefore, I included the wider sphere of incentives both direct and

indirect that can contribute to the goal of environmental conservation. Research for the

literature review and informal interviews revealed that group (Public) and individual

(Private) behavior can contradict and often stem from beliefs and values that are

independent from cost/benefit calculations. In order to be effective, market driven

incentives to natural resource management should be accompanied by incentives that

positively link the area’s cultural beliefs and histo-demographic values to the

environment.

For the formal interviews, I conducted a two part questionnaire with twelve

community representatives from the twelve villages that have been included in the

physical area of the study. The interview questions were in French and a native Wolof

translator was with me at every questionnaire interview to translate if necessary. To test

the validity and consistency of the interview, the questionnaire was written in English,

translated to French and then back to English. The choice to conduct interviews rather

than simply hand out the questionnaire was reached because the majority of the rural

population are illiterate or speak and understand French but do not write it. Participants

in the research gave oral permission to partake in interviews and allowed for all answers

to be used anonymously in the analysis.

Five informal interviews were also held with community members from the local

area, community associations including the eco-guards and park agents. All were from

the villages within most proximity to the national park and thus most directly involved

23

with conservation and natural resource management activities. Informal interviews took

place early in the research process and were held to get background information on the

community’s livelihood practices, apparent nature degradation in the area and perspective

on the effectiveness of nature conservation activities. The information received was later

used to evaluate the results accounted for in annual park reports. Informal interviews

were conducted one on one and were held in the home or workplace of the person being

interviewed. I was accompanied by a fluent Wolof speaker during the interview to help

clarify questions if needed. They were 10 minutes in duration and were recorded

manually in a notebook for comparison to information documented in national park, eco-

guard and donor reports. Interviewees were a separate group from those that participated

in responding to the questionnaire.

The primary instruments used for data gathering were the questionnaires on

environmental behavior Part 1 and 2 (see Appendix). Five women and seven men took

part 1 and 2 of the questionnaire of which 80% were Muslim and 20% were Christian.

The average age of the respondents was 34 years old with the lowest age being 19 and the

highest age 53. All respondents lived and worked in the area targeted by the national

park for collaborative natural resource management.

Questions discussed the respondents’ relationship to the environment. Three

questions discussed their beliefs by noting the primary responsible actor in the

conservation of the environment and how effective they felt their contributions to

environmental conservation were. There were four questions addressing the results of

the desired behavioral results of the national park’s incentive package combined with

Rice’s categorizes of Public Sphere, Private Sphere, and Activist Behavior. The

24

questions asked the engagement and frequency of this behavior in the national park, in

their community and in homes. Finally, a selection of individual values from Schwartz’

Value Survey were included in a questionnaire and rated on the basis of importance to the

respondent. Questionnaire-interviews were conducted for the period of one week and

were held in the national park, community, and homes.

The second part of the data collection process involved researching information

relevant to current natural resource management incentives in the area and triangulating

that information with responses from the questionnaire and interviews to give

recommendations for future incentives. Given that a comprehensive incentive strategy

was not available, I compiled a table of incentives designed by the national park from the

period of 2003 to 2006 using park meeting notes and annual reports. Sub-questions on

beliefs and values were added to further explore, from a human resource management

perspective; the link between these factors and the community’s willingness and ability to

exhibit pro-environmental behavior.

Chapter 4

Presentation and Analysis of Data

The analytic process of the data presented in the study was first coded and sorted

to develop themes. These themes were furthermore tabulated by frequency. Such was

the case for hours a month worked on conservation and broken down into patterns for

particular value dimensions that were matched to check for consistency with certain

theories elaborated in the literature review. Relevant data from informal interviews are

included in the Beliefs and Incentives sections of the study. The final results are

presented by category and later displayed in a diagram (Figure 2) and a table (Table 2)

25

(Miles and Huberman, 1984). A summary of all questionnaire responses are included in

the Appendix. Beliefs and values are then matched to the national park’s natural resource

management incentives to check effectiveness and develop recommendations.

Beliefs

All respondents believed that negative changes to the natural environment could

harm the health of their family and compromise the way they make a living, strongly

linking health and security to the environment. Encouragingly, 75% of respondents

considered themselves primarily responsible for conserving the natural environment

which attributes not only responsibility but a sense of control to the respondent. They did

not positively associate this control to the way they think and feel about their

contributions to environmental conservation though. 50% of the respondents did not

know how effective their contributions to conserving the environment were or thought

they were not effective. This included only those respondents that participated in

conservation activities. Expressing a sense of responsibility to the environment is an

essential characteristic of Universalism and supports the belief held widely in Muslim

cultures of human as “steward or caretaker of the environment.” Projects that fund

environmental education and participatory monitoring and evaluation to share the results

of effective nature conservation activities can be ideal in linking control to success.

Informal interviews with local community members, association members and

national park agents further revealed relevant information about the community’s beliefs

in regards to nature conservation. In Gandiol, a reforestation conservation activity is

organized annually by the national park. The first organized reforestation activity began

in 2003 with only 50 agents and local residents participating by 2005 nearly 1000 people

26

participated in the activity. The activity became a success primarily for three reasons.

Environmental education on the benefits of reforestation was taught at the local schools

and in community associations influencing what people think about reforestation and

complimenting the activity. Second reason the reforestation activity has become a

success is because every year local residents see in a relatively short time, that the small

plants that they have planted begin to take root and form into trees. This links their

actions to an outcome.

Most importantly though, success in the activity can be attributed to the additional

local media attention and volunteer participation from neighboring regions in the event

which contributes to a feeling of pride and propriety by the population of the area in the

execution and outcome of this now popular nature conservation activity. This confirms

that indeed, the more responsible a community feels and the more control they have in

the process of nature conservation and its results, the more likely they are to exhibit pro-

environmental behavior.

Most revealing in the questionnaire results was the fact that only 25% of

respondents were willing to compromise their living and working situation to conserve or

protect the environment. This is a result of multiple factors, such as already

compromised living and working conditions in the area, a lack of knowledge in the

results of pro-environmental behavior or as the values section notes below, a strong

emphasis on security values. This finding supports analysis by Brechin and Kempton

(1994) which revealed that although citizens in less affluent countries cannot pay much to

improve the environment in other words, compromise much of their living and working

situation, they are much more willing to volunteer time to improve it than are their

27

wealthier counterparts in developed countries. Economically speaking less affluent

countries have a surplus of time in comparison to money or technology.

A majority of respondents defined their relationship to the environment to be one

of “steward or caretaker of the environment.” This can be attributed to the fact that

respondents that engaged in conservation activities did so voluntarily and were not

directly monetarily compensated for their services. While economic incentives can

encourage more people to participate in nature conservation activities, the fact that most

respondents volunteered to participate in these activities proves that pro-environmental

behavior carried out by respondents was influenced more so by internal factors rooted in

beliefs and values than cost-analysis calculations.

According to questionnaire Part 1, only 50% of respondents participated in

activities that conserve or protect the natural environment and all respondents believed

that people did not spend enough time and energy worrying about the natural

environment. The majority of activities were conducted in a community setting as

opposed to the national park or at home. Activities included; reforestation, awareness

building, and eco-monitoring and surveillance activities. At home, pro-environmental

activities were limited to cleaning and outdoor maintenance which highlights a

significant change or disconnect from public and activist behavior exhibited in the

community to that which is exhibited in private at home and among families. More

research needs to be conducted where strategies can be used to bring Public Sphere

behavior home to become part of the daily home ritual.

Participatory monitoring and evaluation as well as annual goals and targets can

help people understand better the effects of their contributions to conserving the

28

environment and in turn result in lasting pro-environmental behavior. Informal

interviews with members of the community also confirmed that often times, they were

not aware that the National Park and environmental donors were funding projects in the

community as incentives to natural resource management. This also hindered the beliefs

and perceptions linking pro-environmental behavior to positive results in the community.

Values

To interpret the results of Part 2 of the questionnaire, a value of 3 to -1 was given

to each answer as follows; not important -1, indifferent 0, important 1, somewhat

important 2, and very important a value of 3. Using Schwartz’ dynamic theory on

values as a guide, respondents rated highest in the Conservation (66) as opposed to the

Openness to Change higher order value (56.5) and slightly higher in the Self

Enhancement (57) as opposed to Self Transcendence higher order value (43.5). Figure 3

below includes the results of Part 2 of the questionnaire arrayed across the Schwartz

Value Dimension Structure.

Figure 2: Analysis results of Schwartz' Value Dimension

29

56.5 43.5

18.5
27.5
5 25
15
15
28
36
20
23

66
57

While Karp (2006) and other researchers have found that the Conservation higher

order value negatively predicts pro-environmental behavior in the USA, it is encouraging

to learn that Rice (2006) found that value types within the Conservation dimension were

beneficial to Public Sphere pro-environmental behavior in Egypt. Predominantly,

Muslim societies such as Egypt, corresponds to more conservative and traditional values

than those found in the USA and resemble values held in Senegal. The findings in this

current study with respondents that were also predominantly Muslim revealed that the

Conservation higher order value rated the highest (66) with Self-enhancement rating

second highest at 57. Most of the pro-environmental behaviors were exhibited in the

Public Sphere or social/community setting. It is also encouraging to see further in the

incentive package for natural resource management that most of the incentives have been

targeted to motivate Self-enhancement, Openness to change and Conservation value

types.

30

The Security value type within the Conservation higher order value received the

highest possible rating at 36. All respondents felt that “the peace and security of their

family was very important and they would not risk their health for any opportunity.”

This corresponds with such a low rating on the Stimulation value type (5) which asks

respondents to value new and diverse experiences at the cost of some risk. While

respondents are not willing to risk their health or that of their families for new

opportunities, all respondents believed that negative changes to the environment could

harm the health of their families. Given the fact that the Security value rated the highest

possible points in value type, it can be utilized to confirm Hopkins et al (2001) theory of

“health and cleanliness” as the principal factor motivating people to exhibit pro-

environmental behavior in order to avoid health risks to themselves and their families.

Natural resource management incentives that promote health or hinder health risks

resulting in pro-environmental behavior may prove to be very effective in cases with such

emphasis on security.

The value questionnaire results revealed that opposing value types such as

Hedonism (28) rated similarly to Benevolence (25) and that the Power value rated higher

(23) than universalism (18.5). Karp’s research claims that the Self-enhancement

dimension predicts lower pro-environmental behavior in the US than Self transcendence

values. It is apparent from the findings that Hedonism, Power, and to a lesser degree

Achievement rated higher than those values in the Self-transcendence higher order value.

Given the proximity in rating for these higher order values some supposition based on

past literature on the subject can be adapted to these findings.

31

According to Maslow’s theory on hierarchy of needs, a substantially satisfied

need no longer needs motivation and therefore stimulus must address an individual’s

fluid position in the pyramid in order to be effective. (Robbins, 315), Schwartz’ (1992)

model was designed to demonstrate more fluidity in values across cultures. Ingelhart and

Baker (2000), describe the dilemma that many developing countries are facing in which

countries in transition from less to more affluent status are acquiring new values while

persistent cultural values mainly linked to religion persist. The emphasis respondents

placed on the higher order values of Self-enhancement and Conservation portray this

attitude adequately and prove this combination to be positively associated with pro-

environmental behavior.

Overall, the natural resource management incentive package proposed by the

National Park of the Langue de Barbarie provides a significant number of incentives that

are designed to target Self enhancement values in particular, professional development

and training for those individuals interested in career opportunities in environmental

conservation.

Incentives

The incentives outlined in Table 2 below were derived from the National Park of

the Langue de Barbarie annual reports from the period of December 2003 to December

2006. These incentives were furthermore categorized as property rights measures,

livelihood measures, fiscal or financial measures based on the kind of tool used to

encourage or discourage certain behavior towards the environment (Emerton, The World

Conservation Union 2002).

32

Table 2: Incentives and Value Dimensions

Incentive/Activity Value Kind of Desired Result/Behavior
Dimension Incentive
Livelihood Influence the way people feel
Creation of Self
measure and think about the
Environmental School Enhancement
environment
Groups
Livelihood Influence the way people feel
Free Monthly Self
exploratory Boat trips for Enhancement
environment
youth
Property rights Stimulate alternative
Discounted Annual Openness to
measure livelihood practices
License to Transport Change
Tourists
Fiscal measure Stimulate alternative
Funding for a Restaurant Openness to
livelihood practices
Change
Fiscal measure Stimulate alternative
Funding for a motor- Openness to
livelihood practices
powered boat Change
Property rights Improve Community relations
Free Work, Meeting and Self
measure with the Park
Conference Facilities Transcendence
Livelihood Improve community relations
Link Funders to Self
measure
community projects. Transcendence
Livelihood Increase sense of power and
Eco Business Training Self
measure achievement in NRM
Enhancement
Property rights Stimulate alternative
Free Use of Park land to Openness to
measure livelihood practices
Eco-Guards for tourist Change
shop/restaurant
Environmental Self
Conservation/ Tour Enhancement
Guide Training
Eco-Guard exchanges Self
between Parks Enhancement
Market measure Increase sense of power and
Park Agent training Self
achievement in NRM
Enhancement
Property rights Conserve fragile bio-species
Restricted Boat access to Self
measure
bird island Transcendence
Livelihood Link Environment to
First Aid and Medical Conservation
measure Community Priorities
Services to the
community
Livelihood Improve community relations
Conservator serves as Conservation
measure
Conflict Moderation
between villages
Financial Exchange for bi-monthly
Micro-lending Fund Openness to
measure environmental conservation
Change
practices
Property rights Improved Community Natural
Collection of Dry Wood Conservation
measure Resource Management
in Restricted Areas

33

Property rights Improved Community Natural
Restricted Area for Conservation
measure Resource Management
Animal Grazing
Property rights Link Environment to
Restricted Fresh Water Self
measure Community Priorities
Use Transcendence
Property rights Conserve species diversity
Restricted Fishing in the Conservation
measure
River
Property rights Influence the way people feel
Free entry to park for Self
local population Enhancement
environment

These incentives have been further labeled by the higher order value they address

in Schwartz’ Value Dimension structure. For example, an eco-business training incentive

is designed to give the population power to manage their resources and businesses

responsibly and is considered a livelihood measure. It is an indirect incentive that

focuses on the development of skills and training to achieve sustainable long term natural

resource management. The values of achievement, power and hedonism contribute to the

Self-enhancement higher order value.

The majority of incentives provided contributed to the Self enhancement higher

order value with Conservation and Openness to Change addressed equally with five

incentives each. The findings in this paper on values revealed that in fact, the Self

enhancement/ Conservation higher order values were the most predominant and therefore

well addressed in this incentive package. Based on Schwartz theory (2001), values found

to have a positive influence on environmental behavior are Self transcendence/Openness

to Change and Universal values. In fact, values found to have a negative influence were

Self-enhancement and Conservation. I would argue the opposite in cases where

populations are being reincorporated into national natural resource management

strategies after decades of being expropriated from land and excluded from the

environmental conservation process.

34

Incentives that promote achievement, power and to some extent, hedonism while,

encouraging values that maintain traditional relationships and customs are the most

beneficial to an incentive package during the initial phases of a collaborative community

natural resource management strategy. These incentives restore the confidence people

have in their traditional natural resource management practices that have been threatened

for centuries while preparing them to be open to change some of these practices if

necessary in the future.

I would also argue that Self transcendent values of universalism and benevolence

are relatively satisfied in small rural collective societies. Populations in collective

societies would naturally react better to incentives that address values that have not yet

been satisfied such as those in the Self-enhancement and Openness to Change higher

order values. Historical evidence and the results from the value questionnaire support

this argument. The incentive package above addresses the value by the community to

hold onto traditional institutions/relationship, customs and status quo while equally

introducing incentives that empower the population to have confidence in its

achievements and try alternative methods of natural resource management.

Motivational factors that contribute to the Self Enhancement higher order value

(56.5 rating) include:

• Power

• Achievement

• And to a lesser degree Hedonism

Incentives that address these motivational types include measures such as:

• Eco-Business Training

35

• Environmental education for school groups

• Free monthly exploratory boat trips for youth

• Environmental conservation and tour guide training

• Eco-guard exchanges between parks

• Construction of a restaurant

• Park agent trainings

Motivational factors that contribute to the Openness to Change higher order value (56.5

rating) include:

• Stimulus

• Self-direction

• And to a lesser degree hedonism


• Discounted annual licenses to transport tourists

• Funding for a restaurant

• Funding for a motor-powered boat

• Free use of national park land to eco-guards for tourist shop/restaurant

• Micro-lending fund

• Free entry to the park for the local population

Motivational factors that contribute to the Conservation higher order value (66 rating)

include:

• Security

• Conformity

36

• Tradition.


• First Aid and Medical Services to the community

• Conservator serves as Conflict Moderation between villages

• Restricted Area for the Collection of Dry Wood

• Restricted Area for Animal Grazing

• Restricted Fishing in the River.

Most of the measures used to address natural resource management in this category

include disincentives or the restriction of traditional livelihood practices by the use of

penalties and the payment of fees. This brings into question the sustainability of this pro-

environmental behavior once these restrictions are lifted or strategies to avoid penalties

are developed. It seems that education and information about the effects of negative

behavior on their livelihood outcomes or health will lead to more sustainable practices

than punishment and penalties.

Chapter 5

Conclusions and Recommendations

The noble objectives set out by the Ministry of the Environment to alleviate

poverty and conserve the environment have proven difficult, if not impossible to

implement simultaneously in the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie. This is

especially so when natural resource management incentive packages are funded by

various donors that value one objective over the other. In fact, from the period of

December 2003 to December 2006 due largely to limited and sporadically timed financial

resources and a compounded lack of local infrastructure, economic incentives related to

37

ecotourism small business development actually contributed to accelerated nature

degradation in some areas. The results on the ground and those reported in park reports

contradict because park agents are forced to exaggerate the positive benefits of projects in

order for donors to continue funding future projects.

The conservation of traditional customs and values linked to being “the steward/

caretaker of the environment” has demonstrated throughout history (see background

section) to sustain natural resource management practices that continue today in Muslim

societies. Satisfying achievement and power that contribute to the Self-enhancement

higher value order can restore the community’s beliefs in the effectiveness of executing

pro-environmental behavior with success now that they are again playing a greater role in

the nature conservation process.

To close, one can conclude that incentive packages for environmental

conservation are tools that can lead to long term pro-environmental behavior primarily in

the public sphere; in areas such as community spaces and national parks but that such a

tool must be preceded by an analysis of the community’s values and beliefs. In order to

do so values and beliefs in addition to economic needs must be appropriately targeted.

Even in cases where values have been incorporated in incentive packages it has become

evident that those dynamic values change based on a public or private setting. In

addition, while certain value types have been demonstrated to negatively predict pro-

environmental behavior, even value types characterizing Health, Security, Conformity,

and Tradition, customarily considered disincentives to pro-environmental behavior can be

targeted and utilized in an incentive package to lead to long-term pro-environmental

behavior and positive natural resource management in developing countries.

38

Research has also concluded that responsibility or knowledge alone about the

environment is not incentive enough to lead to long term pro-environmental behaviors.

Beliefs such as the perceptions of the outcomes and control of our actions are far more

influential in predicting behavior. Finally, participatory monitoring and evaluation can

help inform stakeholders of their actions in a way that they can measure and see the

outcome of their effort. Further research on incentive packages should explore

environmental behavior changes created by shifting the emphasis of current incentive

packages from market driven (external) incentives, which often result in short term

behavior, to beliefs and values that appeal to internal and deep rooted motivation.

Incentive packages that surpass cost/benefit calculations and extend into the private

sphere of the family home are most likely to create more holistic pro-environmental

behavior and better natural resource management.

Applicability

The data and information shared in this paper can be particularly relevant to

behaviorists, park managers, non-governmental and international environmental agencies,

activists and donors looking to invest time and resources into environmental projects in

developing countries. This case study can be used by these actors when trying to develop

a more inclusive natural resource management incentive package that goes beyond short

–term and market driven incentives to one that can eventually lead to a long term change

in the behavior of the population in question. It is also effective for agencies that are

trying to change the direction of their current conservation policies and strategies to be

more participatory and inclusive.

39

More precisely, this case study helps these agencies understand the different kinds

of value types and dimensions that match up with a particular kind of incentive target and

link the beliefs of the population at hand to the benefit of their environmental objectives.

Finally, interested parties can use elements of this case study to be more informed of the

various factors that lead to a community’s willingness to exhibit pro-environmental

behaviors and identify gaps using a beliefs assessment where appropriate to include more

activities where people are informed and positive about the outcome of their behavior

toward the environment.

40

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43

APPENDIX

Environmental Questionnaire
PART 1

1. What is your sex: male 7 …or female 5?

2. What is your religion? Islam 11 Christian 2

3. What is your marital status? Single 9, Married 3

4. What is your age? Youngest 19, median 34, oldest 53.

5. Do you consider your home a part of the natural environment? Yes 10, No 2

6. Do you consider your community a part of the natural environment? Yes 12

7. What statement defines best your relationship to the natural environment?

a. The natural environment is at the service of man?

b. Man is the steward/care taker of the natural environment? 11

c. Man and the natural environment are independent of each other?

d. Man and the natural environment have equal rights? 1

8. Who is primarily responsible for conserving the natural environment?

a. The government 2

b. The National Park 1

c. The community Associations

d. I am 9

e. Donors

f: Other Explain: _________________________________________

9. Do you think your contributions to conserving the environment are:

a. Very effective 3

44

b. Somewhat effective 2

c. Indifferent 1

d. Not effective 2

e. Don’t know 4

10. Fill in the blank:

People spend _____________ worrying about the natural environment.

Too much time and energy

The appropriate time and energy

Not enough time and energy 12

11. Negative changes to the natural environment can harm the health of me and my

family.

True _12__ False __________

12. Negative changes to the natural environment can compromise the way I make a

living.

True __12_ False __________

13. a; Do you participate in activities that conserve or protect the natural

environment?

Yes ___6____ No ____6_____

14. a. What pro- environmental activities do you take part in the National Park?

• 2 replanting, 1 surveillance, 1 ecological and bird monitoring, 8 no answer

b. What pro-environmental activities do you take part in the community?

• 3 activist, 4 reforestation, 5 no answer

45

c. What pro-environmental activities do you take part in your home?

• 2 maintenance, 3 cleaning, 7 no answer

15. How much time a month do you dedicate to activities that conserve or protect the

natural environment? ________ hours

• 4 no answer, least hours 10, median 34 hours , most 88 hours

b. Do you receive monetary compensation for these activities or do you volunteer

your time? 7 volunteer, 5 no answer

16. If you receive monetary compensation to perform activities that conserve or

protect the natural environment is this amount enough to sustain your livelihood?

Why?

Why not? No answer, 7 volunteer, 5 no activity

17. Would you compromise your living situation to conserve or protect the

environment?

Yes _3______ No ___9______

18. Would you compromise your working situation to conserve or protect the

environment?

Yes __3_____ No ___9___

_________________________________________________________________

46

PART 2

A value of 3 to -1 was given to each answer as follows; not important -1, indifferent 0,

important 1, somewhat important 2, and very important a value of 3.

Please mark an X in front of the option that best represents your values.

SELF DIRECTION

1. Thinking up new ideas and being creative is___________ to me. I like to do
things in my own original way.

7 Very important 2 somewhat important 1 important =25
2 Indifferent 1 not important

2. Having the freedom to think and act as I feel is _____________ to me. I want to
choose my own path to the future.

7 Very important 4 somewhat important 1 important = 30
____ Indifferent ____ not important

POWER

3. “It is _____________ to me to be rich. I want to have a lot of money and
expensive things.


STIMULATION

4. Having new and diverse experiences are _________ to me. I like challenges even
if they involve some risk.


HEDONISM

5. Finding pleasure in life is _____________ to me. I do work if I enjoy it.

8 Very important somewhat important 4 important = 28
Indifferent not important

47

ACHIEVEMENT

6. Building my skills is _____________ to my future success. I like to be one of the
best I can.

Indifferent 1 not important

SECURITY

7. Knowing that my family and me are safe and at peace is ___________ to me. I
would not risk my health for any opportunity.

12 Very important somewhat important important = 36

CONFORMITY

8. The opinions and views of my Elders are ____________ to me. I respect them
even though I don’t agree with their views.


TRADITION

9. Religious ceremonies and customs are _______________to me. I accept the ideas
about my life my religion provides.


BENEVOLENCE

10. Being responsible and loyal to my friends is ____________ to me. I enjoy feeling
part of a group.


48


UNIVERSALISM

11. Protecting the environment is ___________ to me. I appreciate the beauty of
nature.

1 Indifferent not important

12. Having understanding and appreciation for all kinds of people is _____________
to me. Social Justice is something I believe in.

1 Indifferent not important

49

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