Research Design

Research Design
1Dr. Amitabh Mishra

Research Design: Definition
• “A research design is a framework or blueprint for
conducting the research project. It details the procedures
necessary for obtaining the information needed to
structure or solve research problems”.
• “Research design constitute the blue print for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data”
2Dr. Amitabh Mishra

A research design is:
• A framework for the research
• A plan of action.
• Master plan that specifies the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the
needed information
• A strategy for how the data will be collected.
Dr. Amitabh Mishra 3

Components of a Research Design
• Define the information needed.
• Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the
research
• Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.
• Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an
appropriate form for data collection.
• Specify the sampling process and sample size.
• Develop a plan of data analysis.
4Dr. Amitabh Mishra

Types
of
Research
Design

• The choice of the most appropriate design
depends largely on the objectives of the
research and how much is known about the
problem and research objectives.

• Three traditional categories:
–Exploratory
–Descriptive
–Causal

A Classification of Research Designs
Single Cross-
Sectional Design
Multiple Cross-
Sectional Design
Research Design
Conclusive
Research Design
Exploratory
Research Design
Descriptive
Research
Causal Research
Cross-Sectional
Design
Longitudinal
Design
8Dr. Amitabh Mishra

Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences
Objective:
Character-
istics:
Findings/
Results:
Outcome:
To provide insights and
understanding
Information needed is defined only
loosely. Research process is flexible
and unstructured. Sample is small
and non-representative. Analysis of
primary data is qualitative
Tentative
Generally followed by further
exploratory or conclusive research
To test specific hypotheses and examine
relationships
Information needed is clearly defined.
Research process is formal and
structured. Sample is large and
representative. Data analysis is
quantitative
Conclusive
Findings used as input into decision
making
Exploratory Conclusive
9Dr. Amitabh Mishra

A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Objective:
Characteristics:
Methods:
Discovery of ideas and
insights
Flexible, versatile
Often the front end of
total research design
Expert surveys
Pilot surveys
Case studies
Secondary data:
qualitative analysis
qualitative research
Describe market
characteristics or
functions
Marked by the prior
formulation of specific
hypotheses
Preplanned and
structured design
Secondary data:
quantitative analysis
Surveys
Panels
Observation and other
data
Determine cause
and effect
relationships
Manipulation of
independent
variables, effect on
dependent
variables
Control mediating
variables
Experiments
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
10Dr. Amitabh Mishra

Exploratory
Research
Design

• “Exploration is particularly useful when
researchers lack a clear idea of problem they
will meet during the study. Through
exploration researcher develop concept,
establish priorities, develop operational
definitions and improve final research design”

Characteristics of Exploratory Research
• It is usually conducted when the researcher does
not know much about the problems
• Exploratory research seeks to discover new
relationship
• Exploratory research looks for hypothesis

• Exploratory research is flexible with respect to
methods
• It rarely involves structured questionnaire, large
samples and probability sampling
• The research structure is qualitative
• It should be followed by descriptive and causal
research

Purpose of Exploratory Research
– To gain background information
– Research problem formulation
– Developing hypothesis
– Identifying and defining key research variables

Uses of Exploratory Research
• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
• Identify alternative courses of action
• Develop hypotheses
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further
examination
• Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
• Establish priorities for further research

Methods of Exploratory Research
• Secondary Data Analysis
• Experience Surveys or Survey of experts
– Focus Groups
– Depth interviews
– Projective Techniques
• Case Analysis

Descriptive
Research

Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research is undertaken to describe some
thing usually market characteristics or functions.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research
• In contrast to exploratory research it is marked
by-
– Clear statement of problem
– Specific hypothesis, and
– Detailed information needed
• It assumes that researcher has prior knowledge
about the problem situation

• It is pre planned and structured
• It is based on large representative sample
• Specific hypothesis are formulated before
conducting the research

• It requires clear specification of 6 W’s-
1. Who- should be surveyed
2. What- what information should be obtained
3. When- should the information be obtained
4. Where- from where (house, shopping mall, market etc.)
5. Why-why we are obtaining information from
respondents
6. Way- in what way we are going to obtain the
information i.e personal interview, telephone, mail
survey etc .

Purpose/Use of Descriptive Research
• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as
consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas .
(ex- developing profile of heavy users of a prestigious store)
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population
exhibiting a certain behavior .
(% of heavy users of a prestigious store who also patronize
discount departmental store)

• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics
(Ex- how do household perceive the various
departmental stores in terms of salient features of the
choice)
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables
are associated
(to what extent is shopping at department store is
related to eating out)

• To make specific predictions
(ex- what will be retail sales of reliance super for
fashion clothing in Noida area)

Methods of Descriptive Research
• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative, as
opposed to a qualitative, manner
• Surveys
• Panels
• Observational and other data

Types of Descriptive Research
Single Cross-
Sectional Design
Multiple Cross-
Sectional Design
Descriptive
Research
Cross-Sectional
Design
Longitudinal
Design

Cross-Sectional Designs
• “Cross-sectional research design involve the collection of
information from any given sample of population elements only
once”.
• Cross-sectional studies take “snapshots” of the population at a
point in time.
• It is most frequently used descriptive design in marketing
research.

EXAMPLE: 1
How did American people rate the performance of
President “Barack Obama” immediately after killing of
“Osama-bin-Laden”

• “In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of
respondents and information is obtained from this sample
only once”. This is also called sample survey research design.
• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more
samples of respondents, and information from each sample is
obtained only once. Often, information from different
samples is obtained at different times.

Longitudinal Designs
• In longitudinal design a fixed sample (or samples) of
population elements is measured repeatedly on the same
variables.
• i.e. Same people are studied over time and same variables
are measured.
• A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in
that the sample or samples remain the same over time.

EXAMPLE:1
How did American people change the view of President Barack
Obama’s performance during financial crisis.

EXAMPLE: 2
How did Indian change the view of Prime Minister Narender
Modi’s performance during demonetization

Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal and
Cross-Sectional Designs
Evaluation
Criteria
Cross-Sectional
Design
Longitudinal
Design
Detecting Change
Large amount of data collection
Accuracy
Representative Sampling
Response bias
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other design,
whereas a “-” indicates a relative disadvantage.

Causal Research

Causal Research
• “Causal research is conducted to identify the
cause and effect relationship between two or
more business variables”.
• Major objective of causal research is to obtain
evidence regarding cause and effect relationship.

• Example- A common assumption that a decrease in price
will lead to increase in sales and market share does not hold
true in certain competitive environment.

Causality

• Causality is “a situation when occurrence of X
increases the probability of occurrence of Y”.
• A statement such as "X causes Y" shows causality.
• Experimentation is commonly used to infer causal
relationships.

Concept of Causality
A statement such as "X causes Y" will have the
following meaning to an ordinary person and to a
scientist.
____________________________________________________
Ordinary Meaning Scientific Meaning
____________________________________________________
X is the only cause of Y. X is only one of a number of
possible causes of Y.
X must always lead to Y The occurrence of X makes the
(X is a deterministic occurrence of Y more probable
cause of Y). (X is a probabilistic cause of Y).
It is possible to prove We can never prove that X is a
that X is a cause of Y. cause of Y. At best, we can
infer that X is a cause of Y.

Definitions and Concepts
In Causal Research

• Some basic concepts needed to understand causal
research are-
1. Independent variables (Treatment)
2. Test units
3. Dependent variables
4. Extraneous variables
5. Experiment

Independent Variable/Treatment
• “Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are
manipulated and whose effects are measured and compared”.
• Independent variables are those variables which the
researcher has control over and wishes to manipulate.
• Example: The 4 P’s i.e. level of advertising expenditure; type of
advertising appeal; price; product features, etc.
5-43Dr. Amitabh Mishra

Test units
• “Test units are individuals, organizations or other
entities whose response to the independent variable
or treatment is being examined”.
• Test units may include-
– Consumers,
– Stores or
– Geographical areas.

Dependent Variables
• “Dependent variables are the variables which measure
the effect of the independent variables on the test
units”.
• Example- sales, profits, and market shares
• Dependent variables are those variables that we have
little or no direct control over, yet we have a strong
interest.
Dr. Amitabh Mishra 5-45

Extraneous Variables
• “Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent
variables that affect the response of the test units”.
• “Extraneous variables are those variables that may have some effect on a
dependent variable yet are not independent variables”.
• Example- store size, store location, and competitive effort.
• Extraneous variables must be controlled through proper experimental
design.

Experiments
• An experiment is defined as “Manipulating an
independent variable to see how it affects a
dependent variable, while also controlling the effects
of additional extraneous variables”.
Dr. Amitabh Mishra 5-47

Experimental Design
• Experimental design is a procedure for
devising an experimental setting such that a
change in a dependent variable may be
attributed solely to the change in an
independent variable.

Uses of Causal Research
• To understand which variables are the cause (independent
variables) and which variables are the effect (dependent
variables) of a phenomenon
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted.

Types of Experimental Design
•Experimental design are of 4 types
1. Pre-Experimental Designs
2. True Experimental Designs
3. Quasi-Experimental Designs
4. Statistical (Correlational and Ex Post Facto)
Designs

Experimental Design
• Symbols of an experimental design:
• O = measurement of a dependent variable
• X = manipulation, or change, of an independent variable
• R = random assignment of subjects to experimental and
control groups
• E = experimental effect

1. Pre-Experimental Designs
One Shot Case Study
To attempt to explain a consequence by an
antecedent.
X O

Pre-Experimental Designs
One Group Pretest-Posttest Design
To evaluate the influence of a variable.
O1 X O2

Pre-Experimental Designs
Static Group Comparison
To determine the influence of a variable on one
group and not on another.
GROUP I O1 X
GROUP II O2

True Experimental Designs
Pretest-Posttest Control Group
Design
To study the effect of an influence on a carefully
controlled sample.
O1 X O2
R
O3 O4

Solomon Four Group Design
To minimize the hawthorne effect.
O1 X O2
O3 O4
R
X O5
O6

Posttest Only Control Group Design
To evaluate a situation that cannot be pretested.
X O1
R
O2

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Nonrandomized Control Group
Pretest-Posttest Design
To investigate a situation where random selection
and assignment are not possible.
O1 X O2
O3 O4

Time Series Experimental Design
To determine the influence of a variable
introduced only after a series of initial of
observations and only where one group is
available.
O1 O2 O3 O4 X
O5 O6 O7 O8

Control Group Time Series Design
To bolster the validity of the previous design with
the addition of a control group.
O1 O2 O3 O4 X
O5 O6 O7 O8
O1 O2 O3 O4
O5 O6 O7 O8

Equivalent Time Series Design
A variant of the previous design with purpose of
controlling history in time designs.
X1 O1 X0 O2
X1 O3 X0 O4

Correlational and Ex Post
Facto Designs
Casual-Comparative
Correlational Studies
To seek for cause-effect relationships
between two sets of data.
OA = OB

Correlational and Ex Post
Facto Designs Designs
Ex Post Facto Studies
To search backward from consequent data for
antecedent causes.
Direction of the
Research Effort
O
Other Possible Direction
Other Possible Direction
Origin

Conditions for Causality

Conditions for Causality
• Before assuming causality, three conditions
must be satisfied-
1. Concomitant variation.
2. The time order of occurrence.
3. The absence of other possible causal factors.

• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause,
X, and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together in
the way predicted by the hypothesis under
consideration.

• The time order of occurrence condition states that
the causing event must occur either before or
simultaneously with the effect; it cannot occur
afterwards.

• The absence of other possible causal factors means
that the factor or variable being investigated should
be the only possible causal explanation.
• i.e all other possible factors will be assumed
constant or held controlled.

Validity in Experimentation
While conducting an experiment, researcher in interested in insuring-
1.Internal validity
2.External validity

Internal validity
• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation
of the independent variables or treatments actually
caused the observed effects on the dependent
variables.
• Control of extraneous variables is a necessary
condition for establishing internal validity.

External validity
• External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect
relationships found in the experiment can be generalized.
• And if so, To what populations, settings, times, independent
variables, and dependent variables can the results be
projected?

Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures
specifying:
 the test units and how these units are to be divided into
homogeneous subsamples,
 what independent variables or treatments are to be
manipulated,
 what dependent variables are to be measured; and
 how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.

A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Objective:
Characteristics:
Methods:
Discovery of ideas and
insights
Flexible, versatile
Often the front end of
total research design
Expert surveys
Pilot surveys
Case studies
Secondary data:
qualitative analysis
qualitative research
Describe market
characteristics or
functions
Marked by the prior
formulation of specific
hypotheses
Preplanned and
structured design
Secondary data:
quantitative analysis
Surveys
Panels
Observation and other
data
Determine cause
and effect
relationships
Manipulation of
independent
variables, effect on
dependent
variables
Control mediating
variables
Experiments
Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Test Marketing
• Test marketing is the phrase commonly used to
indicate an experiment, study, or test that is
conducted in a field setting.
• Uses of test markets
– To test sales potential for a new product or service
– To test variations in the marketing mix for a product or
service

Research Design

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