1. Introduction - Relative clauses with
who, which and that
Emma: / saw Natalie the other day.
Melanie: Natalie? The girl who plays the
piano?
Emma: No, that's Natasha. Natalie is the
student who dropped out of college, the one
who never did any studying. She's working in
Davidson's now, the shop that sells very
expensive clothes.
2. The relative clauses in this conversation
identify which person or thing we are
talking about. The clause who plays the
piano tells us which girl Melanie means.
The clause that sells very expensive
clothes tells us which shop Emma means.
3. Sometimes we can use an adjective or a phrase
to identify someone or something.
Adjective: the tall girl the new student
the red car
Phrase: the man in the suit the shop on
the corner the woman with red hair
But when we need a longer explanation, we
can use a relative clause.
Relative clause: the woman who gets up early
the car that broke down
4. Who, which and that
The relative pronouns who, which and that go after the
noun and at the beginning of the relative clause.
Who refers to people.
Nick is the man who owns that enormous dog. I don't
like people who tell jokes all the time.
The little girl who sat next to me on the coach ate
sweets the whole way.
Sarah is pretty annoyed with the person who stole
her mobile phone. We
can also use that, but it is less usual.
Jake is the man that plays the guitar.
The woman that lived here before us is a romantic
novelist.
5. That and which refer to things. That is more
usual than which, especially in conversation.
The car that won the race looked very
futuristic, didn't it? They've recaptured all the
animals that escaped from the zoo. The
children saw the actual spacecraft that landed
on the moon.
6. Which can be a little formal.
There are several restaurants which do
Sunday lunches. Is Zedco the company
which was taken over last year?
7. Relative clauses (1)Relative clauses (1)
AA relative clauserelative clause gives more informationgives more information
about someone or something referred to inabout someone or something referred to in
a main clause. Some relative clausesa main clause. Some relative clauses
(defining relative clauses)(defining relative clauses) are used toare used to
specifyspecify whichwhich person or thing we mean, orperson or thing we mean, or
whichwhich typetype of person or thing we mean:of person or thing we mean:
The coupleThe couple who live next to uswho live next to us havehave
sixteen grandchildren.sixteen grandchildren.
Andrew stoppedAndrew stopped the police carthe police car that wasthat was
driving past.driving past.
8. Notice that we don't put a comma between theNotice that we don't put a comma between the
noun and a defining relative clause. Relativenoun and a defining relative clause. Relative
clauses begin with aclauses begin with a relative pronoun:relative pronoun: aa
wh-wordwh-word ((who, which,who, which, etc.) oretc.) or that.that.
However, sometimes we omit theHowever, sometimes we omit the wh-wordwh-word II thatthat
and use aand use a zero relative pronounzero relative pronoun::
We went to aWe went to a restaurant (which/that)restaurant (which/that) Jane hadJane had
recommended to us.recommended to us.
9. We prefer to put a relative clause immediatelyWe prefer to put a relative clause immediately
after or as close as possible to the noun it addsafter or as close as possible to the noun it adds
information to:information to:
The building for sale wasThe building for sale was the housethe house which hadwhich had
a slate roof anda slate roof and was by the stream.was by the stream.
((rather thanrather than The building for sale was the houseThe building for sale was the house
by the stream which had a slate roof.)by the stream which had a slate roof.)
10. When we use a defining relative clause, the relativeWhen we use a defining relative clause, the relative
pronoun can be the subject or the object of thepronoun can be the subject or the object of the
clause. In the following sentences the relativeclause. In the following sentences the relative
pronoun is thepronoun is the subject.subject. Notice that the verb followsNotice that the verb follows
the relative pronoun:the relative pronoun:
Rockall is an uninhabitedRockall is an uninhabited islandisland which/thatwhich/that lieslies
north west of mainland Scotland.north west of mainland Scotland.
We haveWe have a frienda friend who/thatwho/that playsplays the piano.the piano.
11. In the following sentences the relative pronoun isIn the following sentences the relative pronoun is
thethe object.object. Notice that there is a noun (orNotice that there is a noun (or
pronoun) between the relative pronoun and thepronoun) between the relative pronoun and the
verb in the relative clause. In this case, we canverb in the relative clause. In this case, we can
use ause a zero relative pronoun:zero relative pronoun:
He showed me theHe showed me the rocksrocks (which/that) he(which/that) he hadhad
brought backbrought back from Australia.from Australia.
That'sThat's the manthe man (who/that) I(who/that) I metmet at Allison'sat Allison's
party.party.
12. Adding information about thingsAdding information about things
relativerelative
pronounpronoun
whichwhich thatthat zero relativezero relative
pronounpronoun
subjectsubject
orderorder
√√
√√
√√
√√
XX
√√
13. Adding information about peopleAdding information about people
relativerelative
pronounpronoun
whowho thatthat zerozero
relativerelative
pronounpronoun
subjectsubject
orderorder
√√
√√
√√
√√
XX
√√
14. We can also useWe can also use whomwhom instead ofinstead of whowho asas
object, althoughobject, although whomwhom is very formal:is very formal:
She's an actressShe's an actress whomwhom most people thinkmost people think
is at the peak of her career.is at the peak of her career.
15. We useWe use thatthat asas subjectsubject afterafter somethingsomething andand
anything;anything; words such aswords such as all, little, much,all, little, much, andand
nonenone used as nouns; andused as nouns; and superlatives.superlatives.
(Which(Which is also used as subject afteris also used as subject after
somethingsomething andand anything,anything, but less commonly.)but less commonly.)
We useWe use thatthat oror zero relative pronounzero relative pronoun asas
objectobject after these:after these:
These walls areThese walls are allall thatthat remainremain of the city,of the city,
(not(not ...all which remain...)...all which remain...)
She's one ofShe's one of the kindestthe kindest people (that) I know,people (that) I know,
(not(not ...who I know.)...who I know.)
Is thereIs there anythinganything (that) I(that) I can do to help?can do to help? (rather(rather
thanthan ...anything which I can do...)...anything which I can do...)
16. You can't add a subject or object to the relativeYou can't add a subject or object to the relative
clause in addition to the relative pronoun:clause in addition to the relative pronoun:
The manThe man whowho gave me the book was thegave me the book was the
librarian,librarian, (not(not The man who he gave me...)The man who he gave me...)
Notice also that adding a pronoun to the mainNotice also that adding a pronoun to the main
clause in addition to the relative clause isclause in addition to the relative clause is
unnecessary, although it is found in speech:unnecessary, although it is found in speech:
A friend of mineA friend of mine whowho is a solicitor helped me.is a solicitor helped me.
(or, in speech(or, in speech A friend of mine who is aA friend of mine who is a
solicitor - she helped me.)solicitor - she helped me.)
18. Relative clauses (2)Relative clauses (2)
Some relative clauses are used to add extraSome relative clauses are used to add extra
information about a noun, but this information isinformation about a noun, but this information is
not necessary to explain which person or thingnot necessary to explain which person or thing
we mean:we mean:
Valerie Polkoff,Valerie Polkoff, who has died aged 90,who has died aged 90,
escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.escaped from Russia with her family in 1917.
19. These are sometimes calledThese are sometimes called non-definingnon-defining
relative clauses.relative clauses. We don't use them often inWe don't use them often in
everyday speech, but they occur frequently ineveryday speech, but they occur frequently in
written English. Notice that we put a commawritten English. Notice that we put a comma
between the nounbetween the noun and a non-defining relativeand a non-defining relative
clause, and another comma at the end of thisclause, and another comma at the end of this
clause if it is not also the end of a sentence.clause if it is not also the end of a sentence.
20. When we use a non-defining relative clause to addWhen we use a non-defining relative clause to add
information about ainformation about a personperson oror people:people:
we usewe use whowho as theas the subjectsubject of the clauseof the clause
One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel,One of the people arrested was Mary Arundel, whowho isis
a member of the local council.a member of the local council.
we usewe use whowho oror whomwhom as theas the objectobject of the clause,of the clause,
althoughalthough whomwhom is more formal and rarely used inis more formal and rarely used in
spoken English:spoken English:
Professor Johnson,Professor Johnson, who(m) Iwho(m) I have long admired, is tohave long admired, is to
visit the university next week.visit the university next week.
21. When we use a non-defining relative clause toWhen we use a non-defining relative clause to
add information about aadd information about a thingthing oror group ofgroup of
things,things, we usewe use whichwhich as theas the subjectsubject oror objectobject
of the clause:of the clause:
These drugs,These drugs, whichwhich are used to treat stomachare used to treat stomach
ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.ulcers, have been withdrawn from sale.
22. ThatThat is sometimes used instead ofis sometimes used instead of which,which, butbut
some people think this is incorrect, so it issome people think this is incorrect, so it is
probably safer not to use it. We also useprobably safer not to use it. We also use whichwhich
to refer to the whole situation talked about into refer to the whole situation talked about in
the sentence outside the relative clause:the sentence outside the relative clause:
The book won't be published until next year,The book won't be published until next year,
whichwhich is disappointing.is disappointing.
23. We can also useWe can also use whosewhose in a non-defining relativein a non-defining relative
clause:clause:
Neil Adams,Neil Adams, whosewhose parents are both teachers,parents are both teachers,
won first prize in the competition.won first prize in the competition.
Notice that weNotice that we don'tdon't useuse zero relative pronounzero relative pronoun
in ain a non-defining relative clausenon-defining relative clause..
24. When we want to add information about theWhen we want to add information about the
whole or a part of a particular number of thingswhole or a part of a particular number of things
or people we can use a non-defining relativeor people we can use a non-defining relative
clause withclause with of whichof which oror of whomof whom after wordsafter words
such assuch as all, both, each, many, most, neither,all, both, each, many, most, neither,
none, part, some, a numbernone, part, some, a number (one, two, etc.;(one, two, etc.;
the first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) andthe first, the second, etc.; half, a third, etc.) and
superlativessuperlatives (the best, the biggest, etc.):(the best, the biggest, etc.):
25. The speed of growth of a plant is influenced byThe speed of growth of a plant is influenced by
a number of factors,a number of factors, most of whichmost of which we havewe have
no control over.no control over.
26. We can use the following phrases at theWe can use the following phrases at the
beginning of a non-defining relative clause:beginning of a non-defining relative clause: atat
which point/time, by which point/time,which point/time, by which point/time,
during which time,during which time, andand in which case:in which case:
ItIt might snow this weekend,might snow this weekend, in which casein which case wewe
won't go to Wales.won't go to Wales.
28. Relative clauses 3Relative clauses 3
whosewhose
We use a relative clause beginning withWe use a relative clause beginning with whose + nounwhose + noun,,
particularly in written English, when we talk about somethingparticularly in written English, when we talk about something
belonging to or associated with abelonging to or associated with a personperson.. Compare:Compare:
Stevenson is an architect. Her designs have won internationalStevenson is an architect. Her designs have won international
praise.praise.
andand
Stevenson is an architectStevenson is an architect whose designswhose designs have wonhave won
international praise.international praise.
Dr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretaryDr Rowan has had to do all his own typing. His secretary
resigned two weeks ago.resigned two weeks ago.
andand
Dr Rowan,Dr Rowan, whose secretarywhose secretary resigned two weeks ago, has hadresigned two weeks ago, has had
to all his own typing.to all his own typing.
We can useWe can use whosewhose in bothin both definingdefining andand non-definingnon-defining relativerelative
clausesclauses..
29. We sometimes useWe sometimes use whosewhose when we are talkingwhen we are talking
aboutabout things,things, in particular when we are talkingin particular when we are talking
about towns or countries, and organisations:about towns or countries, and organisations:
The film was made inThe film was made in Botswana,Botswana, whosewhose
wildlife parkswildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.are larger than those in Kenya.
30. We can also useWe can also use whosewhose when we are talkingwhen we are talking
about particular items, although it is often moreabout particular items, although it is often more
natural in spoken English to avoid sentencesnatural in spoken English to avoid sentences
like this:like this:
I receivedI received a letter,a letter, whose poor spellingwhose poor spelling mademade
me think it was written by a child.me think it was written by a child.
(more natural would be(more natural would be I received a letter, and itsI received a letter, and its
poor spelling...)poor spelling...)
31. where, when, whereby, whywhere, when, whereby, why
We often use the wordsWe often use the words where, when,where, when, andand
wherebywhereby as relative pronouns. But in formalas relative pronouns. But in formal
English in particular, a phrase withEnglish in particular, a phrase with prepositionpreposition
+ which+ which can often be used instead:can often be used instead:
This was the placeThis was the place (where)(where) we first met.we first met. (or(or
...the place...the place at/in whichat/in which we...)we...)
32. We can also useWe can also use whywhy as a relative pronoun afteras a relative pronoun after
the wordthe word reason.reason. In informal English we canIn informal English we can
useuse thatthat instead ofinstead of why:why:
I didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't theI didn't get a pay rise, but this wasn't the reasonreason
whywhy I left,I left, (or(or ...the reason...the reason (that) I(that) I left.left.))
33. who, what, whatever, whoever,who, what, whatever, whoever,
whicheverwhichever
We sometimes use relative clauses beginningWe sometimes use relative clauses beginning
withwith whowho oror what.what. In this case,In this case, whowho means 'themeans 'the
people that' andpeople that' and whatwhat means something likemeans something like
'the thing(s) that':'the thing(s) that':
Can you give me a list of who's been invited?Can you give me a list of who's been invited?
34. Notice that we can't useNotice that we can't use whatwhat in this way after ain this way after a
noun:noun:
I managed to get all theI managed to get all the booksbooks thatthat you askedyou asked
for.for. (not(not ...books what you asked for.)...books what you asked for.)
35. Relative clauses beginning withRelative clauses beginning with whateverwhatever (=(=
anythinganything oror it doesn't matter what),it doesn't matter what), whoeverwhoever (=(=
the person/group whothe person/group who oror any person/groupany person/group
who), orwho), or whicheverwhichever (= one thing or person(= one thing or person
from a limited number of things or people) arefrom a limited number of things or people) are
used to talk about things or people that areused to talk about things or people that are
indefinite or unknown:indefinite or unknown:
I'm sure I'll enjoy eatingI'm sure I'll enjoy eating whateverwhatever you cook.you cook.
37. Relative clauses 4Relative clauses 4
In formal styles we often put a preposition beforeIn formal styles we often put a preposition before
the relative pronounsthe relative pronouns whichwhich and whom:and whom:
The rateThe rate at whichat which a material heats up dependsa material heats up depends
on its chemical composition.on its chemical composition.
38. Notice that after a preposition you can't useNotice that after a preposition you can't use whowho
instead ofinstead of whom,whom, and you can't useand you can't use thatthat oror
zerozero relative pronoun:relative pronoun:
The valleyThe valley in whichin which the town lies is heavilythe town lies is heavily
polluted,polluted, (not(not The valley in that the town...)The valley in that the town...)
39. In informal English we usually put the prepositionIn informal English we usually put the preposition
later in the relative clause rather than at thelater in the relative clause rather than at the
beginning:beginning:
The officeThe office whichwhich Graham led the way to wasGraham led the way to was
filled with books.filled with books.
40. In this case we preferIn this case we prefer whowho rather thanrather than
whomwhom (although 'whom' is used in formal(although 'whom' is used in formal
contexts). In 'defining relative clauses wecontexts). In 'defining relative clauses we
can also usecan also use thatthat oror zero relativezero relative
pronounpronoun instead ofinstead of whowho oror whichwhich (e.g.(e.g.
...the children...the children (that)(that) it was built for).it was built for).
41. If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-If the verb in the relative clause is a two- or three-
word verb (e.g. come across,word verb (e.g. come across, fill in, gofill in, go
through, look after, look up to, put up with,through, look after, look up to, put up with,
take on)take on) we don't usually put the prepositionwe don't usually put the preposition
before the relative pronoun:before the relative pronoun:
She is one of the few peopleShe is one of the few people (who/that) I(who/that) I looklook
upup to.to. (not(not ...to whom I look up.)...to whom I look up.)
42. In formal written English, we often prefer to useIn formal written English, we often prefer to use
of whichof which rather than whose to talk aboutrather than whose to talk about
things:things:
A huge amount of oil was spilled,A huge amount of oil was spilled, the effectsthe effects ofof
whichwhich are still being felt,are still being felt, (or(or ...whose...whose effectseffects
are still being felt.)are still being felt.)
43. Notice that we can't useNotice that we can't use of whichof which instead ofinstead of
whosewhose::
Dorothy was able to switch between German,Dorothy was able to switch between German,
Polish and Russian,Polish and Russian, all of whichall of which she spokeshe spoke
fluently,fluently, (not(not ...all whose she spoke...)...all whose she spoke...)
44. We can sometimes useWe can sometimes use that...ofthat...of instead ofinstead of ofof
which.which. This is less formal thanThis is less formal than of whichof which andand
whose, and is mainly used in spoken English:whose, and is mainly used in spoken English:
The schoolThe school thatthat she is headshe is head ofof is closing down,is closing down,
(or(or The schoolThe school of whichof which she is head...)she is head...)
45. Whose can come after a preposition in a relativeWhose can come after a preposition in a relative
clause. However, it is more natural to put theclause. However, it is more natural to put the
preposition at the end of the clause in lesspreposition at the end of the clause in less
formal contexts and in spoken English:formal contexts and in spoken English:
I now turn to Freud,I now turn to Freud, from whosefrom whose work thework the
following quotation is taken,following quotation is taken, (or(or ...whose work...whose work
the following quotation is takenthe following quotation is taken from.)from.)
47. Participle clausesParticiple clauses
We can give information about someone orWe can give information about someone or
something using ansomething using an -ing, past participle (-ed)-ing, past participle (-ed)
oror being + past participle (-ed)being + past participle (-ed) clause after aclause after a
noun. These clauses are often similar tonoun. These clauses are often similar to
defining relative clausesdefining relative clauses beginningbeginning which,which,
who,who, oror that:that:
We stood onWe stood on the bridgethe bridge connecting the twoconnecting the two
halves of the building,halves of the building, (or(or ...which...which
connects/connected the two halves...)connects/connected the two halves...)
48. -ing clauses-ing clauses
We often use anWe often use an -ing-ing clause instead of a definingclause instead of a defining
relative clause with anrelative clause with an active verb:active verb:
The manThe man driving the busdriving the bus is my brother,is my brother, (or(or
The man who is driving the bus...)The man who is driving the bus...)
49. Sometimes, however, we can't use anSometimes, however, we can't use an -ing-ing clause. Forclause. For
example:example:
when there is a noun between the relative pronounwhen there is a noun between the relative pronoun
and the verb in the defining relative clause:and the verb in the defining relative clause:
The manThe man whowho TimTim is meetingis meeting for lunch is fromfor lunch is from
Taiwan,Taiwan, (not(not ...the man Tim meeting...)...the man Tim meeting...)
when the event or action talked about in the definingwhen the event or action talked about in the defining
relative clause comes before the event or actionrelative clause comes before the event or action
talked about in the rest of the sentence, except whentalked about in the rest of the sentence, except when
the second event or action is thethe second event or action is the resultresult of the first.of the first.
50. Compare:Compare:
The snowThe snow which fellwhich fell overnight has turned toovernight has turned to
ice.ice. (not(not The snow falling overnight...)The snow falling overnight...)
andand
The snowThe snow which fellwhich fell overnight has causedovernight has caused
traffic chaos,traffic chaos, (or(or The snowThe snow fallingfalling overnightovernight
has caused traffic chaos.)has caused traffic chaos.)
51. when we talk about a single, completed actionwhen we talk about a single, completed action
in the defining relative clause, rather than ain the defining relative clause, rather than a
continuous action. Compare:continuous action. Compare:
The girlThe girl who fell overwho fell over on the ice broke her arm.on the ice broke her arm.
(not(not The girl falling over...)The girl falling over...)
andand
I pulled off the sheetsI pulled off the sheets which coveredwhich covered thethe
furniture,furniture, (or(or ...sheets...sheets coveringcovering the furniture.)the furniture.)
52. Past participle (-ed)Past participle (-ed) andand being + pastbeing + past
participle (-ed) clausesparticiple (-ed) clauses
We often use aWe often use a past participlepast participle oror being + pastbeing + past
participleparticiple clause instead of a defining relativeclause instead of a defining relative
clause with aclause with a passive verb:passive verb:
The boysThe boys being chosen for the teambeing chosen for the team areare
under 9.under 9. (or(or The boys who are being chosen...)The boys who are being chosen...)
53. Sometimes, however, we can't use aSometimes, however, we can't use a pastpast
participleparticiple oror being + past participlebeing + past participle clause.clause.
For example:For example:
when there is a noun between the relativewhen there is a noun between the relative
pronoun and the verb in the defining relativepronoun and the verb in the defining relative
clause:clause:
The speed atThe speed at whichwhich decisionsdecisions are madeare made in thein the
company is worrying,company is worrying, (not(not The speed at whichThe speed at which
decisions made...)decisions made...)
54. when the defining relative clause includeswhen the defining relative clause includes
a modal verb other thana modal verb other than will:will:
There are a number of people who shouldThere are a number of people who should
be asked,be asked, (not(not ...people should be asked.)...people should be asked.)
