Action Research 1 course content

1. Lecturer: Yee Bee Choo
IPGKTHO
Topic 3

2. Types of
Research Design
Quantitative
Research
Experimental
Quasi-Experimental
Survey
Correlational
Qualitative
Research
Ethnography
Case study
Historical
Narrative

3. On a broader perspective, all researches
can be classified into two groups:
• Quantitative Research
• Qualitative Research
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

4. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation
of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining
to phenomena.
Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods,
which can include:
• The generation of models, theories and hypotheses
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables
• Collection of empirical data
• Modelling and analysis of data
• Evaluation of results
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

5. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Advantages
• Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and
analyse data.
• The researcher is more objective about the findings of the
research.
• Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in
experiments because of its ability to measure data using statistics.
Disadvantages
• The main disadvantage of quantitative research is the context of
the study or experiment is ignored.
• Quantitative research does not study things in a natural setting or
discuss the meaning things have for different people.
• A large sample of the population must be studied for more
accurate results.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

6. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a research dealing with phenomena
that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such
as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols.
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth
understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that
govern such behaviour. The qualitative method investigates the
why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

7. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Advantages
• It enables more complex aspects of a person’s experience to
be studied.
• Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data to
be collected.
• Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily.
• Individuals can be studied in more depth.
• Good for exploratory research.
• The participants are able to provide data in their own words
and in their own way.
Disadvantages
• It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of
linguistic data.
• There is more subjectivity involved in analysing the data.
• “Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes
create lots of data, which can take a long time to analyse.
• Time consuming.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

8. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimental design (also called intervention studies or group
comparison studies) are procedures in quantitative research in
which investigator determines whether an activity or materials
make a difference in results for participants. You assess this
impact by giving one group one set of activities (called an
intervention) and withholding the set from another group
(Creswell, 2012).
In experimental research, sampling groups play a huge part and
should therefore be chosen correctly, especially of there is
more than one condition involved in the experiment. One of
the sample groups usually serves as the control group while the
others are used for the experimental conditions.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

9. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The simplest experimental design includes two variables and
two groups of participants.
The two variables (Independent versus Dependent variables)
• The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the
outcome variable.
• Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study it's effect
on the DV.
The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental
group)
• Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly)
assigns his/her sample to two different groups: the control
group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical
group).
• The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no
treatment), whereas the experimental group receives the
manipulation of the IV.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

10. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The two variables
Independent Variable
•an activity or characteristic believed to make a difference with
respect to some behavior
•(syn.) experimental variable, cause, treatment
Dependent Variables
•the change or difference occurring as a result of the
independent variable
•(syn.) criterion variable, effect, outcome, posttest
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

11. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables:
If a scientist conducts an experiment to test the theory that a
vitamin could extend a person’s life.
The independent variable is the amount of vitamin that is given
to the subjects within the experiment. This is controlled by the
experimenting scientist.
The dependent variable, or the variable being affected by the
independent variable, is life span.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

12. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
More Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables:
1. A scientist studies the impact of a drug on cancer.
IV: the administration of the drug - the dosage and the
timing.
DV: the impact the drug has on cancer.
2. A scientist studies the impact of withholding affection on
rats.
IV: the amount of affection.
DV: the reaction of the rats.
3. A scientist studies how many days people can eat soup until
they get sick.
IV: the number of days of consuming soup.
DV: the onset of illness.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

13. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Advantages
• Gains insight into methods of instruction.
• Researcher can have control over variables.
• Use to determine what is best for population.
• Internal validity is ensured.
Disadvantages
• Subject to human error.
• Can produce artificial results.
• Can take an extensive amount of time to do full research.
• Personal bias of researcher may intrude.
• Sample may not be representative.
• Groups may not be comparable.
• Participants can be influenced by environment.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

14. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Quasi-experimental design is used when the researchers
need to use intact groups. This might happen because of the
availability of the participants or because the setting prohibits
artificial groups. It includes assignment, but not random
assignment of participants to groups. It is done to avoid
disrupting classroom learning.
With an experimental research study, the participants in both
the treatment and control groups are randomly assigned.
Quasi-experimental research designs do not randomly assign
participants to treatment or control groups for comparison.
Quasi-experimental designs are often used in educational
research since students and teachers are not typically able to
be randomly assigned to districts, schools, or classrooms for
research purposes (Creswell, 2012).
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

15. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Advantages
• More feasible because it often does not have the time and
logistical constraints associated with many true experimental
designs.
• It may reduce the time and resources required because extensive
pre-screening and randomisation is not required or utilized.
• Reactions of test subjects are more likely to be genuine because it
is not an artificial research environment.
Disadvantages
• Lack of internal validity
• The lack of random assignment into test groups leads to non-
equivalent test groups which can limit the generalisability of the
results to a larger population.
• Statistical analysis may not be meaningful due to the lack of
randomisation and the threats to internal validity.
• Pre-existing factors and other influences are not taken into
account because variables are less controlled
• Subject to human error.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

16. SURVEY DESIGN
Survey design (also descriptive design) seeks to describe
trends in a large population of individuals. Survey designs are
procedures in quantitative research in which you administer a
survey or questionnaire to a small group of people (called the
sample) to identify trends in attitudes, opinions, behaviours,
characteristics, or interests of a large group of people (called
the population) (Creswell, 2012).
A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that is
given to a sample. It allows one to generalise the findings
from the sample to the population.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

17. SURVEY DESIGN
Survey
Research
Cross-sectional
collects information
from a sample that has
been drawn from a
predetermined
population at just one
point in time
Longitudinal
Collects information at
different points in time
in order to study changes
over time
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

18. SURVEY DESIGN
Advantages
• Relatively easy to administer.
• Can be developed in less time.
• Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode (paper or online).
• Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail,
email, kiosk, or telephone.
• Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents.
• A broad range of data can be collected (e.g., attitudes, opinions,
beliefs, values, behavior, factual).
Disadvantages
• A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate
results.
• Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest
answers.
• Data errors due to question non-responses may exist.
• Survey question answer options could lead to unclear data because
certain answer options (e.g. “somewhat agree”) may be interpreted
differently by respondents.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

19. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
Correlational design refers to the systematic investigation or
statistical study of relationships among two or more variables,
without necessarily determining cause and effect.
It seeks to establish a relationship/association/correlation
between two or more variables with no manipulation of
variables.
Purposes of Correlational Design
• To help explain human behaviours
• To predict likely outcomes
For example, a researcher wants to study the relationship of
people who often smoke might develop lung cancer. Though
smoking might cause lung cancer, other factors such as genetic
predisposition, lifestyle, and environment might be the causes
(Creswell, 2012).
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

20. CORRELATIONAL DESIGN
Advantages:
• Can collect much information from many subjects at one
time.
• Can study a wide range of variables and their interrelations.
• Study variables that are not easily produced in the
laboratory.
Disadvantages:
• Correlation does not indicate causation (cause and effect).
• Problems with self-report method.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

22. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGN
Causal-comparative research (“ex post facto research”) is a
research OF at least two different groups are compared on a
dependent variable or measure of performance (called the
“effect”) because the independent variable (called the “cause”)
has already occurred or cannot be manipulated.
For example, a researcher might be interested in the effects of
a new diet on very young children. Ethical considerations might
prevent the researcher from deliberately varying the diet to
which the children are exposed. Therefore, the researcher
finds a group of children who have already been exposed to the
diet. He could then compare them with a similar group of
children who had not been exposed to the diet.

23. Quantitative method
decision tree…
Is there a cause-effect relationship?
Is the independent
variable manipulated?
Is there a relationship or
prediction being made?
Experimental Causal-
Comparative
Correlational Descriptive

24. ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGN
Ethnographic design is a qualitative procedure for describing,
analysing, and interpreting a cultural group’s shared patterns of
behaviour, beliefs, and language that develop over time. In
ethnography the researcher provides a detailed picture of the
culture-sharing group, drawing on various sources of
information (Creswell, 2012).
• It studies people, ethnic groups and other ethnic
formations, their ethno genesis, composition, resettlement,
social welfare characteristics, as well as their material and
spiritual culture.
• Data collection is often done through participant
observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc.
• The purpose of ethnographic research is to attempt to
understand what is happening naturally in the setting and to
interpret the data gathered to see what implications could
be formed from the data.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

25. ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGN
Advantages
• Direct observation
• Detailed data
• Holistic
Disadvantages
• Time-consuming
• Difficult in presenting the results
• Reliability
• Invasion of privacy
• Lack of safety
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

26. CASE STUDY
A case study is an in-depth exploration of a bounded system
(e.g. activity, event, process, or individuals) based on extensive
data collection (Creswell, 2007). Bounded means that the case
is separated out for research in terms of time, place, or some
physical boundaries.
Yin (1984:23) defines the case study research method “as an
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and
in which multiple sources of evidence are used.”
A case study differs from ethnography as it focuses on a
programme, event, or activity involving individuals rather than a
group. Also, a researcher in a case study is more interested in
describing the activities of the group instead of identifying
shared patterns of behaviour exhibited by the group.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

27. CASE STUDY
Advantages
• A lot of rich and in-depth data can be collected
• Case studies can be conducted on rare cases where large
samples of similar participants are not available. E.g. cases
of brain damage.
• Within the case study, scientific experiments can be
conducted to produce hypotheses which can be used for
later testing.
Disadvantages
• The data collected cannot necessarily be generalised to the
wider population.
• Some case studies are not scientific.
• Case studies are generally on one person or a few people,
but there also tends to only be one researcher collecting the
data. This can lead to bias in data collection.
• It is also very difficult to draw a definite cause/effect from
case studies.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

28. HISTORICAL DESIGN
Historical research is the systematic collection and evaluation
of data to describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or
events that occurred sometime in the past (Fraenkel & Wallen,
2011).
.
Purposes of Historical Research
• To make people aware of what has happened in the past so
they may learn from past failures and successes.
• To learn how things were done in the past to see if they
might be applicable to present-day problems and concerns.
• To assist in prediction.
• To test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends.
• To understand present educational practices and polices
more fully.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

29. HISTORICAL DESIGN
Examples of Questions for Historical Research
• How were students educated in Malaysia during Pre-
independent period?
• What was instruction like in a typical Primary Year Four
classroom 50 years ago?
• What were the major discipline problems in schools in 1940
as compared to today?
• How have the ideas of John Dewey influenced present-day
educational practices?
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

30. HISTORICAL DESIGN
Sources of Historical Research
1. Documents
Written or printed materials that have been produced in
some form or another.
2. Numerical records
Considered as a separate type of source in and of
themselves or as a subcategory of documents.
3. Oral Statements
Are stories or other forms of oral expression that leave a
record for future generations.
4. Relics
Are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can
provide some information about the past.
Primary source
one prepared by an individual who was a participant in or a
direct witness to the event being described.
Secondary source
a document prepared by an individual who was not a direct
witness to an event, but who obtained a description of the
event from someone else.
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2011)
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

31. HISTORICAL DESIGN
Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for
making realistic decisions.
Strengths
• Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends.
• Uses existing information.
• Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems.
Limitations
• Time-consuming.
• Resources may be hard to locate.
• Resources may be conflicting.
• May not identify cause of a problem.
• Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or
inaccurate.
• Data restricted to what already exists.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

32. NARRATIVE DESIGN
Narrative design describes the lives of individuals, collect and
tell stories about these individual’s lives, and write narrative
about their experiences.
A narrative typically focuses on studying a single person,
gathering data through the collection of stories, reporting
individual’s experiences, and discussing the meaning of those
experiences for the individual.
Like other forms of qualitative research, narrative inquiry
focuses on life experiences, but uses the concept of “story” to
describe and analyze these experiences.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

33. NARRATIVE DESIGN
Types of Narrative design
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE
Autobiographies Biographies Life Writing
Personal Accounts Personal Narratives Narrative Interviews
Personal Documents Documents of Life
Life Stories and
Histories
Ethnohistories Ethnobiographies Autoethnographies
Ethnopsychologies
Person-centered
Ethnographies
Popular Memories

34. NARRATIVE DESIGN
Advantages
• It can provide a holistic picture, which provides rich
information about a multitude of phenomena.
• It is open to interpretation and can be revisited over and
over.
• A close relationship between researcher and participant
• It is useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth.
Disadvantages
• It is unsuitable for large numbers of participants due to the
time commitment
• Researcher must be cautious about the distinction between
“the events as lived and the events as told” and to avoid the
illusion of “causality”. In other words, a correlation between
two variables does not mean that one variable caused the
other.
• The researcher’s personal biases and subjectivity may
influence the results.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
EXPERIMENTAL
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
SURVEY
CORRELATIONAL
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .
ETHNOGRAPHIC
CASE STUDY
HISTORICAL
NARRATIVE

35. GROUNDED THEORY DESIGN
Grounded theory research is a research approach designed to
discover what problems exist in a given social environment and
how the persons involved handle them; it involves formulation,
testing, and reformulation of propositions until a theory is
developed.
It generally focused on social processes or actions: they ask about
what happens and how people interact. This shows the influence
of symbolic interactionism, a social psychological approach
focused on the meaning of human actions.
Four stages:
1. Codes-Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the
data to be gathered
2. Concepts-Collections of codes of similar content that allows
the data to be grouped
3. Categories-Broad groups of similar concepts that are used to
generate a theory
4. Theory-A collection of explanations that explain the subject of
the research (hypotheses)

36. PHENOMENOLOGICAL DESIGN
Phenomenological research an inductive, descriptive research
approach developed from phenomenological philosophy; its
aim is to describe an experience as it is actually lived by the
person.
• Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience
from the perspective of the individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for-
granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving.
• They are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and
subjectivity, and emphasise the importance of personal
perspective and interpretation.
• As such they are powerful for understanding subjective
experience, gaining insights into people’s motivations and
actions, and cutting through the clutter of taken-for-granted
assumptions and conventional wisdom.

37. Examples of strengths and weaknesses of various research designs
Research Design Major Strength Major Weakness
Experimental
Can draw conclusions about
causality.
Often does not represent true learning
environments in real classrooms.
Quasi-
experimental
Can stimulate an experiment in a
true classroom setting.
More difficult to justify causal
conclusions than in true experiments.
Survey Easy and fast. A large sample is needed.
Longitudinal
Can examine changes in variables
over time.
Very costly and subjects may drop out
over the course of the study.
Cross sectional
Efficient and rapid way to examine
developmental differences.
Not nearly as accurate as longitudinal
designs, cohorts may differ, and these
differences may be mistaken for true
developmental differences.
Case study
Provides detailed data about
changes/behaviours in an individual
Difficult to generalise to larger
population.
Action research
Involves classroom teachers
investigating questions that are
directly important to practicing
educators.
Results may not be acceptable to the
scientific community.

38. REVISION
1. Experimental research – involves manipulating
variables and studying effects on random sampling.
2. Quasi-experimental research – involves non-
random sampling by manipulating variables.
3. Correlational research – involves studying
relationships among variables.
4. Survey research – involves describing the
characteristics of a group by means of instruments
such as interview, questionnaires, and tests.

39. REVISION
5. Ethnographic research - concentrates on
documenting or portraying the everyday experiences
of people using observation and interviews.
6. Case study – is a detailed analysis of one or a few
individuals
7. Historical research – involves studying some aspect
of the past
8. Narrative research – involves studying about a
person’s experiences in the form of story.
9. Action research – is a type of research by
practitioners designed to help improve their practice.

40. EXERCISE
What research design is appropriate for the
research problems below:
1. What are the parents’ feelings about the primary
school counseling program?
Survey design
2. Do students who have high score on reading tests
also have high scores on writing tests?
Correlational design
3. How do people with rheumatoid arthritis explain
why/how they developed this disease in a story?
Narrative research

41. ANSWER
4. Does the use of Kahoot games improve the
vocabulary among Year Four pupils?
Action Research
5. How does John uses inferencing strategy in reading?
Case study
6. Does the TESL students in Semester 6 perform better
than the TESL students in Semester 4 in an oral
storytelling test after their exposure to digital
storytelling?
Quasi-experimental design

42. ANSWER
7. What are the factors leading to the historical
development and growth of cooperative learning?
Historical research
8. How do children of drug addicts excel despite early
childhoods in poor environments
Ethnography design
9. How do the experiences of an autistic student
changes after he has moved from a self-contained
program to an inclusion setting?
Narrative research/ Case Study

43. ANSWER
10. What are the problems teachers encounter when
they begin to use a constructivist approach to
instruction after having taught using a very traditional
approach for ten years?
Ethnography design
11. Does high anxiety affect poor performance in oral
presentation skills?
Correlational design
12. What are the students’ perceptions of using mobile
phones in their learning experiences?
Survey design

44. TUTORIAL 3
• Decide on a topic you want to do for your action
research.
• Look for 4 articles related to your topic and read the
articles.
• Find out which research design was used in the study.
• Present orally your proposed topic according to
SC+S+I
(Skill/Component + Strategy + Innovation)

45. • Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational research:
planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research. (4th Ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education Inc.
• Fraenkel, J.R., & Wallen, N.E. (2012). How to
design and evaluate research in education. (8th
Ed.). London: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
• Yin, R.K. (1984). Case study research: Design and
methods. Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications.
References