48 LiFE-Style Translating - Literary Forms in Scripture

48 LiFE-Style Translating
5. The following are some practical applications with regard to the differences between oral and written
discourse (Dooley and Levinsohn 2001:18). Point out the relevance to Bible translation in your setting
of this advice. Describe what sort of research you (or your translation committee) have carried out in
this domain:
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6. Thomas and Thomas set forth a number of important “assumptions” regarding the oral features of
discourse (2006:3). Study these and point out their relevance to your particular Bible translation setting.
Then give a specific example of how you can use (or already have used) such information to improve
the quality of orality in your vernacular version – for example, your rendition of the Song of Songs,
chapter 1.
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Every translation of the Scriptures should be, in one respect or another, an oral translation – true,
false, or it depends? What answer would you give and why?
Does your vernacular translation pass the test of this final principle? If not, why? If so, how do you
know for sure?
7. Read “Practical Applications” in Dooley and Levinsohn (2001:17–8) and point out the relevance to
Bible translation of the advice given there.
2.3 Kinds of literary forms in the Bible
In section 2.1 we focused on the definition of literature from Webster’s New World College
Dictionary: “[Literature refers to] all of such writings considered as having permanent value,
excellence of form, great emotional effect, etc.” With this definition in mind, it is clear that the
Scriptures are to be regarded as literature in the full sense of the term, whether the whole or in part.
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Now let us consider some of the “excellent forms” that are used to express the content of the
Scriptures and the “great emotional effect” that we derive from them, that is, over and above the

Does Scripture Include Literature? 49
49
enlightening or edifying content being communicated. Perhaps this can be done best by looking at an
actual passage.
The following is a reformatted version of the RSV text of Genesis 1:1 – 2:3 with the verse markers
removed.
What are some of the formal features that mark this discourse as being distinct from an ordinary
narrative report of a series of temporally-ordered events?
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.
The earth was without form and void,
and darkness was upon the face of the deep;
and the Spirit of God was moving over the face of the waters.
And God said,
“Let there be light”;
and there was light.
And God saw that the light was good;
and God separated the light from the darkness.
God called the light Day,
and the darkness he called Night.
And there was evening and there was morning,
one day.
And God said,
“Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters,
and let it separate the waters from the waters.”
And God made the firmament and separated the waters
which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament.
And it was so.
And God called the firmament Heaven.
a second day.
And God said,
“Let the waters under the heavens be gathered together into one place,
and let the dry land appear.”
And it was so.
God called the dry land Earth,
and the waters that were gathered together he called Seas.
And God saw that it was good.
And God said,
“Let the earth put forth vegetation,
plants yielding seed,
and fruit trees bearing fruit in which is their seed,
each according to its kind, upon the earth.”
And it was so.
The earth brought forth vegetation,
plants yielding seed according to their own kinds,
and trees bearing fruit in which is their seed,
each according to its kind.
a third day.
And God said
“Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to separate the day from the night
and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years,
and let them be lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth.”
And it was so.
And God made the two great lights,
the greater light to rule the day,
and the lesser light to rule the night;
he made the stars also.
And God set them in the firmament of the heavens to give light upon the earth,
to rule over the day and over the night,
and to separate the light from the darkness.
a fourth day.

And God said,
“Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures,
and let birds fly above the earth across the firmament of the heavens.”
So God created the great sea monsters and every living creature that moves,
with which the waters swarm, according to their kinds,
and every winged bird according to its kind.
And God blessed them, saying,
“Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas,
and let birds multiply on the earth.”
a fifth day.
And God said,
“Let the earth bring forth living creatures according to their kinds:
cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds.”
And it was so.
And God made the beasts of the earth according to their kinds
and the cattle according to their kinds,
and everything that creeps upon the ground according to its kind.
Then God said,
“Let us make man in our image, after our likeness;
and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea,
and over the birds of the air,
and over the cattle,
and over all the earth,
and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.”
So God created man in his own image,
in the image of God he created him;
male and female he created them.
And God blessed them,
and God said to them,
“Be fruitful and multiply,
and fill the earth and subdue it;
and have dominion over the fish of the sea
and over the birds of the air
and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.”
And God said,
“Behold, I have given you every plant yielding seed
which is upon the face of all the earth,
and every tree with seed in its fruit;
you shall have them for food
And to every beast of the earth,
and to every bird of the air,
and to everything that creeps on the earth,
everything that has the breath of life,
I have given every green plant for food.”
And it was so.
And God saw everything that he had made,
and behold, it was very good.
a sixth day.
Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.
And on the seventh day God finished his work
which he had done,
and he rested on the seventh day from all his work
which he had done.
So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it,
because on it God rested from all his work
which he had done in creation.
Notice all the repetition of form and content in this opening pericope of the Scriptures which lays the
foundation for the artful manner in which this important text as a whole is structured.
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Ordered repetition serves at least four major functions in the Genesis 1:1 – 2:3 discourse:
1. Segmentation: to divide the text into cohesive and coherent units of different sizes;
2. Disposition: to organize and arrange the repeated elements into various textual patterns;
3. Connection: to link up one part of the text with another and unify the discourse as a whole;
4. Projection: to give prominence to certain formally marked portions of the text.
How are selected portions of the text marked to show that they fall outside normal, expected usage?
Such discourse marking may be achieved by means of additional (exact) lexical reiteration, extra
modification and detail, direct speech, the breaking up of a previously established pattern, figurative
language, a rhetorical question, hyperbole, and so forth.
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Obviously, this opening passage of Scripture is not a simple narrative. The way in which it has been
stylistically marked by a variety of literary forms suggests that the text serves another purpose or two
within the book of Genesis, and perhaps also within the Hebrew Bible as a complete body of
literature.
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We will be considering the matter of communicative purpose and text function more fully in section
2.4. But for now, let us look at another passage, Ecclesiastes 3:1–8 (RSV), and try to discover how the
forms serve to distinguish it as “literature” and also highlight the author’s message. In this case, the
text has not been formatted into lines at all as in the Genesis passage above, where certain parallels
and correspondences were aligned by means of similar degrees of indentation to make them visible.
Perhaps the lineation and indention were excessive, making the text too difficult to read (you may
express your opinion concerning this matter), but what happens when it is not formatted at all?
1
For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven: 2
a time to be born, and
a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted; 3
a time to kill, and a time to
heal; a time to break down, and a time to build up; 4
a time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to
mourn, and a time to dance; 5
a time to cast away stones, and a time to gather stones together; a
time to embrace, and a time to refrain from embracing; 6
a time to seek, and a time to lose; a time to
keep, and a time to cast away; 7
a time to rend, and a time to sew; a time to keep silence, and a time
to speak; 8
a time to love, and a time to hate; a time for war, and a time for peace.
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As you do the preceding assignment, you also need to look out for instances of chiasmus (or chiasm,
meaning a “crossed position”). Chiasmus is a common type of formal arrangement in the Bible (both
OT and NT). It features a reversal in the order of elements, that is, A : B :: B' : A'. Can you detect the
chiasmus, or reversed parallelism, in the poetic passage of Psalm 1:6b?
for the LORD knows the way of the righteous,
but the way of the wicked will perish.
Of course, the wicked do not perish of their own volition. God is the agent of their perishing, that is,
of their judgement and ultimate punishment. And when the psalmist says that “the LORD knows”
someone or something, this not a matter of mere cognition, acquaintance, or recognition. The
contrasting elements A versus A' and B versus B' are highlighted within such a structure. A biblical
chiasmus is often used for the purpose of making a thematic contrast, especially in poetry.
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There is a well-known extended chiasmus in the eight verses of Ecclesiastes 3:1–8. This is revealed as
one examines the different pairing of elements in moving from one verse to the next.
Can you identify this pattern? (If you have difficulty, see Zogbo and Wendland 2000:31–2.) What
function do you think that the extended chiasmus performs in the text here?
• A (3:1): ______________________________________________________
• B (3:2): _____________________________________________________
• C (3:3–4): _____________________________________________________
• C’ (3:5–6):_____________________________________________________
• B’ (3:7): _____________________________________________________
• A’ (3:8): _____________________________________________________
You may think that perhaps some obviously “literary” passages have been chosen just to prove the
point – a selective treatment of the available evidence. Would you agree that most of Scripture is
similarly structured and artfully shaped? What about a doctrinal epistle – will we find the same sorts
of stylistic features there? Consider Romans 12:9–13 (RSV), which is a typical Pauline paraenetic
(hortatory) appeal:
9
Let love be genuine; hate what is evil, hold fast to what is good; 10
love one another with brotherly
affection; outdo one another in showing honor. 11
Never flag in zeal, be aglow with the Spirit, serve
the Lord. 12
Rejoice in your hope, be patient in tribulation, be constant in prayer. 13
Contribute to the
needs of the saints, practice hospitality.
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Now examine the Greek text of Romans 12:9–13 (below) and point out what you find. (It is hidden
within the text of most translations.) The passage has been realigned on the page so as to display the
various formal parallels more clearly.
If you are unable to read Greek, then look the passage up in a literal English translation such as the
NRSV or NIV and write it out on a separate piece of paper so that you can see what is being illustrated
here. (This instruction applies to all subsequent exercises that refer to the original text of the Bible.)

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In Greek the first line of verse 9 is a verbless predication. It acts as an introduction to the series of
Christian attributes that follows: genuine love (3 0) always acts this way! In this section, consisting
(after the first opening utterance) of just a single sentence in the original, a chiastic ordering is again
manifested – this one based largely on word morphology, phonology, and rhythm.
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Obviously, this is a carefully composed literary piece and therefore carries additional emotive impact
and esthetic appeal over and above the vital ethical content that is being conveyed. But there is more
to it even than that. In this case, the form of the Greek text may have some exegetical significance that
leads us to prefer one translation over another. Compare, for example, the RSV rendering of lines 2–3
of verse 11 with the NIV rendering of the same lines (segment C above):
be aglow with the Spirit, serve the Lord. (RSV)
but keep your spiritual fervor, serving the Lord. (NIV)
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Admittedly, we cannot be absolutely certain of the correct interpretation in cases of ambiguity, that is,
where two (or more) interpretations of the text are possible, each supported by reliable scholars and
versions. The point is that a literary feature is another important type of evidence that needs to be
evaluated when making exegetical decisions.
Finally, we must call attention to the positional importance of segment C in the pattern above:
Generally speaking, the central portion, as well as the ending, of a chiastically-arranged passage is of
special significance in terms of the author’s intended message, whether on the macro- or
microstructure of the book or pericope as a whole.
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Perhaps we might by now be inclined to include a greater number of books of the Bible within the
category of well-formed literature, even though there are certain books and passages we may desire to
exclude. Take Leviticus, for example, what could be “literary” (in the popular sense) about that book?
Yet, consider the beginning and ending of chapter 11:
2
“Say to the people of Israel, These are the living things which you may eat among all the beasts
that are on the earth.
3
Whatever parts the hoof and is cloven-footed and chews the cud, among the
animals, you may eat. 4 Nevertheless among those that chew the cud or part the hoof, you shall not
eat these …
44
For I am the LORD your God; consecrate yourselves therefore, and be holy, for I am holy. You
shall not defile yourselves with any swarming thing that crawls upon the earth.
45
For I am the LORD
who brought you up out of the land of Egypt, to be your God; you shall therefore be holy, for I am
holy.
46
This is the law pertaining to beast and bird and every living creature that moves through the
waters and every creature that swarms upon the earth,
47
to make a distinction between the unclean
and the clean and between the living creature that may be eaten and the living creature that may not
be eaten.”
The beginning and ending of Leviticus 11 reiterate the theme of the chapter as a whole, which
specifies the ritually clean and unclean animals for the people of Israel – that is, those that “may be
eaten” and those which “may not be eaten.” Observe the extensive repetition here, as marked in the
preceding two passages. The repetition is purposefully used to verbally fix the outer borders of the
pericope as a whole, a common literary device in the Bible called inclusio. Perhaps Leviticus is not as
lackluster as we might have originally assumed!
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English translations of Leviticus 11 conceal another common stylistic feature of the Hebrew: the verbs
in boldface print above actually come from the same verb in the original. Anthropologist Mary
Douglas (1999:49–50) has this to say about the significance of this unusual but purposeful usage here:
The Bible is sprinkled with famous puns, and Leviticus is no exception. For example, two distinct verbs are
used in the Bible to refer to God’s bringing the Israelites out of Egypt: the commonest is literally ‘to bring
out’, the rarer one, only used in Leviticus 11:45, is literally ‘to bring up’. In Hebrew the same word means
‘to regurgitate’. In this one rare case the word for the Lord’s saving action is the same that is used for
‘bringing up the cud’, one of the criteria of a clean animal. By this literary device the whole of chapter 11 is
bracketed between the opening law that says that the only animals to be used as food are ruminants which
bring up the cud and the concluding passage: ‘I am the Lord your God who brought you up [regurgitated
you] from Egypt.’ It is more than a verbal felicity, since only the clean animals and only the people of
Israel are to be consecrated. This sly ‘inclusio’ at the opening and the ending of the chapter is typical of
Leviticus, who loves to show the workings of God’s mind in body-logic language.
Here we have both the forms and the functions of literature on display in a book that is not really
recognized as such. The exegetical implications of of these literary features are considerable.
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Reading the Scriptures as literature means that one approaches the text with a conscious awareness not
only of its cognitively-oriented information, but also of its expressive, affective (including the emotive
and esthetic), and directive dimensions. Many detailed definitions of literature are, of course,
available, but for now it is enough simply to point out that the focus upon linguistic form (the overall
discourse structure as well as the many included stylistic features), which is the most important

55
characteristic of “literature,” is of double importance for translators. That is, they should be aware of
the literary characteristics of the original document for their possible hermeneutical value, and they
must also be prepared to do something about that value when they re-present the same text in the
target language, using the oral or written artistic and rhetorical resources available.
This quality of literariness (recognized verbal artistry) is normally manifested on all levels of
discourse organization within the Bible, from the individual word up to the composition as a whole.
Literary discourse thus maximizes the “how” (or style) of the text in order to highlight the “what”
(i.e., content) and the “why” (i.e., intent or purpose). This is done by means of typical stylistic features
such as the following:
a. underlying structural patterning or design
b. a captivating theme or central emotive focus
c. organic unity (including the necessary variety – theme and variation)
d. textual coherence and cohesion
e. verbal balance and symmetry
f. occasional surprise and insertion of the unexpected
g. repetition or the positioned recurrence of key linguistic forms
h. selective variation and overt contrast
i. a well-formed, organized progression in the text towards a climax and a thematic goal
j. idioms, figurative language, and symbolism
k. dramatic, intensified, emphatic diction, where appropriate
l. citation of and allusion to well-known texts, oral or written
m. sound patterning (puns, alliteration, assonance, rhythm, rhyme)
Not all or even a majority of these forms occur in every biblical text, of course. But they do occur
often enough throughout the Scriptures to warrant an expectation of their presence rather than of their
absence in a given passage.
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In the process of analyzing a pericope, one seeks to demonstrate how the author has used these diverse
artistic forms and their associated rhetorical strategies in order to progressively (and impressively?)
shape the expectations of his readers/listeners. People are thus enticed, as well as encouraged, to direct
their individual interpretive activities, whether intuitively – or intentionally –applied, in a specific
direction with reference to a certain biblical theme or pertinent life situation. Each text has a particular
plot (structure) and purpose (function), and it is up to the translator to discover what these are in the
SL text in order to effectively reproduce them in the TL.
Just as every art, trade, science, or technology has its standards and criteria of excellence and modes
of evaluation, so too does the study of literature. A particular body of literature (whether the collection
of an individual author, genre, or an entire people) may be viewed as having a distinct, analyzable
discourse “lexicon” and “grammar.” According to poetics, which is the scholarly study of literary
forms, any verbal composition consists of four main elements:
1. units: the basic elements of form and meaning (e.g., themes, motifs, devices, techniques)
2. arrangements: preferred and predictable versus novel and unusual ways of combining the
units

3. accents: devices for highlighting or emphasizing selected aspects of form or content
4. rules: the principles and conventions whereby the structured units, arrangements, and accents
operate within a given text or corpus
These four different elements are combined in the notion of text type (universal classification) or genre
(language-specific classification), each variety of which manifests a particular selection, arrangement,
accentuation, and distribution of stylistic features.
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If we aim to better understand and translate the individual passages of a foreign literature such as the
Old or New Testament, which originated within the context of a time, place, and culture far removed
from our own, it makes sense to learn as much as we can about the Bible’s distinctive literary
constitution, usage, interpretation, and situational setting. The effort to understand how a biblical
narrative, for example, is told is repaid by greater insight into that story’s theological, religious, and
even historical significance. In other words, paying careful attention to a Scripture text’s literary
features, both structural and stylistic, often sheds light on its meaning, which is particularly helpful in
the case of an ambiguous or problematic passage.
Thus a literary perspective, and the additional textual evidence that it reveals, may shift the balance of
interpretation regarding a controversial or debatable issue from one side to the other. We saw that in
the example from Romans 12:11. In such cases, the supposedly optional (but actually essential) formal
embellishments of the original text are shown to be vital stylistic signals that point towards its author-
intended meaning, whether this happens to be semantic or pragmatic (i.e., interpersonal) in nature.
For reflection, research, and response:
1. For many investigators, there is no doubt that “the Bible is literature, the kind of writing that attends to
beauty, power, and memorability as well as to exposition” (Linton 1986:16). The case has been well put
in general terms by noted author and literary critic C. S. Lewis (in Martindale and Root 1989:71):
“There is a…sense in which the Bible, since it is after all literature, cannot be properly read except as
literature; and the different parts of it as the different sorts of literature that they are.” But what does it
mean to read the Scriptures as literature? How does the recognition that the Bible is a literary text affect
its reading and interpretation? What has this section taught you about the importance of a literary
approach to the analysis and translation of the Bible?
2. In this workbook, we are emphasizing the meaning of literary forms in the biblical text. This is not to
say, however, that other linguistic forms are meaningless and can be ignored in the translation process.
With the cognitive grammarians, we are inclined to agree that all form has meaning, at least as
designators or evokers of semantic, pragmatic, and emotive significance as well as indicators of the
interlocking conceptual relationships within a given language and text (e.g., the subject-object
distinction, case markings, tense-mode-aspect differences, foreground-background). The simple
conclusion is that “meaning cannot be preserved entire in translation from one language to another”
(Tuggy 2003:281). Rather, every translation leaks or draws water in this crucial regard. Decisions must
therefore be made, both locally in relation to a particular passage and also globally in relation to the
translation as a whole, and we must ask which aspects and elements of the SL form-meaning complex
we are able to preserve in our TL text. At this point in our study what general guidelines would you or
your translation team establish towards this end?
3. The literary forms of literature (or the traditional oral forms of a society’s orature) are often termed
genres, that is, a recognized type of verbal composition that is distinguished on the basis of content,
structure, style, function, and often also the sociocultural context of use (see also section 3.6.2 in
conjunction with chap. 3 of Wendland 2004b). The recognition of genres, major and minor, SL- and

57
TL-related, is a crucial aspect of effective Bible translation, especially, as we will see, when pursuing a
literary approach (see sections 3.1 – 3.4). The importance of this is underscored by the observations of
John Walton cited below (from 2006:22-3). Evaluate these comments and the example from Job that is
given: Do you agree? If not, tell why. Then try to give another example of an important genre contrast
between the Scriptures and their ancient Near Eastern setting — or, point out a biblical genre that needs
to be understood in the light of its ancient Near Eastern sociocultural and religious context, so that it can
be accurately and appropriately translated today.
[T]he careful observations of similarities and differences in pieces of literature help inform the
study of both the Bible and the Ancient Near East. … Understanding the genre of a piece of
literature is necessary if we desire to perceive the author’s intentions. Since perceiving the author’s
intentions is an essential ingredient to the theological and literary interpretation of a text, we
recognize that understanding genre contributes to legitimate interpretation. Where similarities can
be observed between the biblical and ancient Near Eastern genres, they help us to understand the
genre parameters and characteristics as they existed in the ancient mind. … Where there are
differences it is important to understand the ancient Near Eastern genres because significant points
in the biblical text may be made by means of contrast.
For example, literature from Mesopotamia contains a couple of texts that recount the complaints of
a righteous sufferer similar to what we find in the book of Job. The theology behind the book of
Job, however, not only offers different explanations, but even uses the mentality of the ancient Near
East (represented in the arguments of Job’s three friends) as a foil. Job maintains his integrity
precisely by not adopting the appeasement mentality recommended by his friends (Job 27:1-6) that
was representative of the ancient Near East. The book’s message is accomplished in counterpoint.
If we are unaware of the contrasts, we will miss some of the nuances. …
Such comparative genre study also needs to be carried out between the inventory of Scripture and that
of a modern TL in terms of the principal similarities and differences. Have you (or any member of your
translation team) ever conducted such research into the oral and/or written genres of your language? If
so, briefly report to the class/workshop how this was done. If not, have a group discussion as to how
this might be done in the various language settings represented.
4. Study the following text, Luke 1:68–79, and point out its different literary features such as artistic
selection, arrangement, accentuation, and distribution. Also note the possible significance of material
that seems to fall outside the parallel patterning, especially verses 75 and 79 (how are these two verses
semantically related?). In anticipation of section 2.4, try to specify some reasons why the author may
have chosen to use these devices when conveying the content of his message for a particular audience,
noting the nature of this text and its contextual setting.
68
“Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, A
for he has visited ( 6% ) and redeemed his people,
69
and has raised up a horn of salvation for us B
in the house of his servant David,
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as he spoke by the mouth of his holy prophets from of old, C
71
that we should be saved from our enemies D
and from the hand of all who hate us;
72
to perform the mercy promised to our fathers, E
and to remember his holy covenant, F
73
the oath F’
which he swore to our father Abraham, E’
74
to grant us that we, being delivered from the hand of our enemies, D'
might serve him without fear,
75
in sincerity and righteousness before him all the days of our life.
76
And you, child, will be called the prophet of the Most High; C’
for you will go before the Lord to prepare his ways,
77
to give knowledge of salvation to his people B’
in the forgiveness of their sins,
78
through the tender mercy of our God, A’
when the day shall dawn ( 6% ) upon us from on high
79
to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death,
to guide our feet into the way of peace.”

5. Point out all the significant correspondences that you can find in the opening and closing passages of
Habakkuk (from chapters 1 and 3, set out below from the RSV). What is the thematic or structural
importance of these – the salient similarities, but especially the outstanding contrasts? Note the nature
of the figurative language at the end. What does this signify and why should it appear here in the book?
Note any special translational difficulties as you study these texts.
1:1
The oracle of God which Habakkuk the prophet saw.
2
O LORD, how long shall I cry for help,
and thou wilt not hear?
Or cry to thee “Violence!”
and thou wilt not save?
3
Why dost thou make me see wrongs
and look upon trouble?
Destruction and violence are before me;
strife and contention arise.
4
So the law is slacked
and justice never goes forth.
For the wicked surround the righteous,
so justice goes forth perverted.
*************************************************************************
3:16
I hear, and my body trembles,
my lips quiver at the sound;
rottenness enters into my bones,
my steps totter beneath me.
I will quietly wait for the day of trouble
to come upon people who invade us.
17
Though the fig trees do not blossom,
nor fruit be on the vines,
the produce of the olive fail
and the fields yield no food,
the flock be cut off from the fold
and there be no herd in the stalls,
18
yet I will rejoice in the LORD,
I will joy in the God of my salvation.
19
God, the LORD, is my strength;
he makes my feet like hinds’ feet,
he makes me tread upon my high places.
To the choirmaster: with stringed instruments.
6. The examples in exercises 4 and 5 were formatted to help you see the structural patterns and parallels.
The example below from Joel 1:2–14 is not formatted. First, figure out the patterns and parallels on a
separate sheet of paper. Then make a list of the main stylistic devices and their apparent purpose within
the text. Finally, point out any potential translation problems and be prepared to present possible
solutions in a joint class discussion.
2
Hear this, you aged men,
give ear, all inhabitants of the land!
Has such a thing happened in your days,
or in the days of your fathers?
3
Tell your children of it,
and let your children tell their children,
and their children another generation.
4
What the cutting locust left,
the swarming locust has eaten.

59
What the swarming locust left,
the hopping locust has eaten,
and what the hopping locust left,
the destroying locust has eaten.
5
Awake, you drunkards, and weep;
and wail, all you drinkers of wine,
because of the sweet wine,
for it is cut off from your mouth.
6
For a nation has come up against my land,
powerful and without number;
its teeth are lions’ teeth,
and it has the fangs of a lioness.
7
It has laid waste my vines,
and splintered my fig trees;
it has stripped off their bark and thrown it down;
their branches are made white.
8
Lament like a virgin girded with sackcloth
for the bridegroom of her youth.
9
The cereal offering and the drink offering are cut off
from the house of the LORD.
The priests mourn,
the ministers of the LORD.
10
The fields are laid waste,
the ground mourns;
because the grain is destroyed,
the wine fails,
the oil languishes.
11
Be confounded, O tillers of the soil,
wail, O vinedressers,
for the wheat and the barley;
because the harvest of the field has perished.
12
The vine withers,
the fig tree languishes.
Pomegranate, palm, and apple,
all the trees of the field are withered;
and gladness fails
from the sons of men.
13
Gird on sackcloth and lament, O priests,
wail, O ministers of the altar.
Go in, pass the night in sackcloth,
O ministers of my God!
Because cereal offering and drink offering
are withheld from the house of your God.
14
Sanctify a fast,
call a solemn assembly.
Gather the elders
and all the inhabitants of the land
to the house of the LORD your God;
and cry to the LORD.
7. From a broader to a narrower perspective on discourse structure, we turn now to a consideration of the
translation of idioms in biblical Hebrew. The following recommendations by M. van den Heever (2007)
offer a point of departure for evaluating our various options in this regard. What do you think of these
recommendations with reference to the examples cited?

Given the fact that some idioms function differently in texts than their non-idiomatic synonyms do,
I would suggest that the best option would be to translate such idioms with idioms or idiomatic
expressions in the target text, if at all possible. The idiom in 2 Samuel 16:10 is a good
example where ‘What do you and I have in common?’ simply does not carry the same emotional
force as, for example, ‘What has this got to do with you?’ The Northern Sotho translation ga se
taba ya lena ye (‘this is not your matter’, i.e. ‘this is none of your business’) seems to render the
meaning and its implicatures satisfactorily in the target text.
It is, of course, often impossible to find an idiom or idiomatic expression in the target language that
covers at least the primary or central semantic features of the Hebrew expression. In such cases, it
may be possible to use some other form of figurative language to convey the source language
expression. The idiom (‘my nose has become hot/burns’, i.e. ‘my anger burns’) in
Zechariah 10:3 is rendered as ulaka lwami lubavuthela bhe (‘my anger burns fiercely at them’) in
one Zulu translation. Although this is, strictly speaking, not a proper idiom according to the criteria
I have proposed, the metaphor ANGER IS HEAT is maintained in a way that is still idiomatic to
Zulu. This translation carries more force than the generic verb –thukuthela (‘be angry’) would do
(cf. Hebrew ).
When neither a suitable idiom nor another figure of speech is available in the target language, the
meaning of an idiom has to be translated with a non-idiom, e.g. (‘he will lift up my face’,
i.e. ‘he will receive me favourably/graciously’) in Genesis 32:21, which was rendered in Tswana as
o tla nkamogela sentle (‘he will receive me well’). Translating an idiom literally is not advisable,
unless the literal meaning of the idiom is intended in the Hebrew text. The exegete of the Southern
Ndebele translation project, for example, seems convinced that the Hebrew expression
(‘and spread your wing over your servant’) in Ruth 3:9 is intended literally, i.e. that Ruth
was asking Boaz to lift the corner of his coat or blanket for her to crawl under rather than pleading
with him to marry her. The phrase was thus rendered as yewungembulele amabhayi (‘please open
[your] shawl to me’). How well the Tswana translation phuthololela lelata la gago diphuka tsa
gago (‘unfold to your servant your wings’) communicates is not an easy question to answer without
testing. …
In summary: when translating an idiom that contains more implicatures than its non-idiomatic
synonym(s), the following possibilities exist, in order of preference:
a. Target language idiom
b. Some other figure of speech in the target language
c. Non-idiom (i.e. literal translation of the idiom’s meaning)
How would you render the several idiomatic passages cited above in your language? Point out some of
the difficulties that you encounter, and describe any novel solutions (equivalences) that you discover.
2.4 What are some of the primary functions of biblical literature?
As we have already seen, the various forms of biblical literature carry out different functions within
the text. Indeed, we need to grasp the notion of function (the particular purpose or task that a given
activity is designed to perform) in order to properly understand the nature of literature. During speech,
for example, the different functions refer to distinctions in the speaker’s communicative intentions
during the utterance of a text, including rhetorical as well as pragmatic or sociological motivations
(e.g., to convey a sense of power, solidarity, politeness, or deference). Moreover, marked literary
forms do not exist for their own sake; rather, they invariably call attention to certain authorial aims or
objectives within the text. The books of the Bible were not composed with just one purpose in mind.
Yes, moral and theological education is important in the Scriptures, but that is not the only purpose for
which they were written. In the case of some books, in fact, we can hardly detect any explicit teaching
at all.
0 ! ! 5
Let us review some of the important functions that the different texts of Scripture carry out when they
are heard or read (see section 1.3). What is the primary purpose of Psalm 23, for example? Is it
supposed to teach us a lesson, a certain doctrine about God? Or is the text intended rather to motivate
us to do something, or not to do something? Or does the psalmist simply wish to express his fervent

61
feelings about God, himself, his circumstances, or life in general? Or perhaps it would be more correct
to say that more than one function is “activated,” or performed, when we read Psalm 23. If so, are
these functions equal in prominence, or is one more important than the other, and how do we decide
this? These are some of the issues and concerns that we will be exploring in more detail.
To begin with, I would suggest that good literature tends to be multifunctional. That is to say, a
literary text normally manifests more than one communicative purpose as it is being conveyed, no
matter the medium (e.g., a printed page, a radio broadcast, a video recording, or an electronic
hypertext program on a computer).
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9
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The following is a list of functions that appear to be especially important in human communication,
including the kind of communication that takes place whenever the Scriptures are read or heard
(through the operation of God’s Spirit, of course). Along with a definition of each function, a passage
is given from Luke’s Gospel (NIV) as an example in which that function seems to be prominent:
1. Referential: to convey or emphasize information (facts, the real world, truth). “Today in the
town of David a Savior has been born to you; he is Christ the Lord. This will be a sign to you”
(Luke 2:11).
2. Directive: to influence the behavior of an audience (motivate and move them). There are two
subtypes.
a. Imperative: to affect a person’s thoughts, words, and/or actions. “No, he is to be called
John. …His name is John” (Luke 1:60, 63).
b. Emotive: to affect one’s feelings and deeper emotions. “Glory to God in the highest, and
on earth peace to [people] on whom his favor rests!” (Luke 2:14).
3. Phatic: to initiate and maintain good interpersonal relationships during communication. There
are two subtypes:
a. Relational: small talk about health, wealth, weather, or family; verbal formulae that
initiate, continue, or conclude discourse; honorific or politeness forms. “I am Gabriel. I
stand in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to you and to tell you this
good news” (Luke 1:19); “Greetings…the Lord is with you!” (Luke 1:28); “I am the
Lord’s servant.…May it be to me as you have said” (Luke 1:38).
b. Ritual: to verbally underscore the common viewpoint and fellowship that people have
or desire; to reflect corporate unity through the solidarity generated by certain key terms
and familiar speech forms. “And do not begin to say to yourselves, ‘We have Abraham
as our father.’…‘What should we do then?’ ” (Luke 3:8, 10).
4. Expressive: to manifest one’s personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and subjective opinions.
“ ‘How can I be sure of this?!’…‘The Lord has done this for me!’ ” (Luke 1:18, 25).
5. Metalingual: to define terms or speak about how language is or should be used. “How is it that
they say the Christ is the Son of David? David himself declares…‘The Lord said to my Lord…’
David calls him ‘Lord.’ How then can he be his son?” (Luke 20:41b, 42a–b, 44).
6. Contextual: to establish links or make reference to the text and/or its situational context. There
are two subtypes:
a. Deictic: anaphoric or cataphoric expressions referring to the present setting of
communication (e.g., this, those, here, there; now, soon, then, later). “ ‘This man

deserves to have you do this’ (Luke 7:4); ‘I say to my servant, “Do this,” ’…‘I have not
found such great faith even in Israel’ ” (Luke 7:8–9).
b. Intertextual/extratextual: references to what was already said either within the same
text or in previous texts (e.g., quotation, paraphrase, allusion). “A voice of one calling in
the desert, ‘Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him’ ” (Luke 3:4).
7. Textual: to establish the discourse structure of a text – its boundaries, transitions, organization,
cohesion, progression, patterning, and peaks. “Blessed are you…for…men insult you…the Son
of Man.…Woe to you…for…men speak well of you…false prophets” (Luke 6:20–26).
8. Poetic/artistic: to highlight a text through formal stylistic means, often emphasizing one of the
other speech functions; also to increase listeners’ (to a lesser extent readers’) appreciation of
some specific excellent/beautiful/eloquent/powerful usage of the language. “…because of the
tender mercy of our God, by which the rising sun will come to us from heaven, to shine on
those living in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet in the path of peace”
(Luke 1:78–79).
In addition to having more than one function active within the same text or even a short passage,
exceptional literature tends to be distinguished especially by the poetic function, which serves to
enhance or augment the operation of other aspects of the communication event. This will become
evident as we examine some longer texts of Scripture in greater detail.
1. Review the functions of communication listed above. Which ones in your opinion are the most
important for Bible translators to try to represent in their TL texts? Why? Which functions are the most
difficult?, Why? Can you give an example based on your own experience of such problems? What was
the ultimate result?
2. Try to find at least one good example from the book of Acts for each of the communicative functions
listed above. Write them, along with the Bible reference, on a separate sheet of paper. Examples of
some of the functions will be much more difficult to find than others, but see if you can find them all. If
you pick a passage that illustrates more than one function, make sure that the particular example you
seek is the dominant one. Look for two more good examples of the poetic function and explain which
other function is being emphasized in each case. Discuss your findings in class.
3. Study Genesis 11:1–9 (RSV), presented below. At first it looks like a simple narrative. But notice the
instances of lexical repetition and try to organize them into a pattern. There are actually two
overlapping structures here, one being linear/sequential in nature (marked by italics), the other being
concentric/chiastic (marked by underlining). Reiterated words are in bold print. Prepare a structural
diagram of this pericope and point out how this particular arrangement serves to highlight the main
thematic message of the passage. Then suggest a possible purpose, or rhetorical function, for this text at
the point where it occurs in the book of Genesis, based on the type of discourse found on either side of
it. The author is not simply telling us a story to inform us of facts; rather, he has a point to make. What
is his point?
1
Now the whole earth had one language and the same words. 2
And as men migrated from the
east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there. 3
And they said to one another,
“Come, let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.” And they had brick for stone, and bitumen
for mortar. 4
Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower with its top in the
heavens, and let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of
the whole earth.” 5
And the LORD came down to see the city and the tower, which the sons of
men had built. 6
And the LORD said, “Behold, they are one people, and they have all one
language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; and nothing that they propose to do
will now be impossible for them. 7
Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that
they may not understand one another's speech.” 8
So the LORD scattered them abroad from there
over the face of all the earth, and they left off building the city. 9
Therefore its name was called
Babel, because there the LORD confused the language of all the earth; and from there the LORD
scattered them abroad over the face of all the earth.

63
4. Consider Genesis 11:1–9 in terms of translation. Is there any way that the structure can be reproduced
in some way in YL? What would people think of that – would they understand it? If not, what might be
done to help them? What about all the repetition in the original Hebrew text (largely carried over in the
RSV) – how important is it? Do you notice any places where it is not possible to reproduce this exactly
in YL? If so, explain why not.
5. Any literary analysis involves a study of repetition (see section 3.6.4), that is, reiteration of
phonological, lexical, syntactic, rhetorical, and larger textual forms. Such repetition – whether exact,
synonymous, or contrastive – when carefully studied in the context of a larger section of discourse,
usually reveals something about the original author’s main communication goals for the text at hand.
Examine Psalm 98 (NIV) below in terms of its repetition – whatever type you can find. Mark the
repetition in the text, and then suggest how it functions in a structural and thematic way to reinforce the
message of this joyous thanksgiving prayer.
1
Sing to the LORD a new song,
for he has done marvelous things;
his right hand and his holy arm
have worked salvation for him.
2
The LORD has made his salvation known
and revealed his righteousness to the nations.
3
He has remembered his love
and his faithfulness to the house of Israel;
all the ends of the earth have seen
the salvation of our God.
4
Shout for joy to the LORD, all the earth,
burst into jubilant song with music;
5
make music to the LORD with the harp,
with the harp and the sound of singing,
6
with trumpets and the blast of the ram's horn –
shout for joy before the LORD, the King.
7
Let the sea resound, and everything in it,
the world, and all who live in it.
8
Let the rivers clap their hands,
let the mountains sing together for joy;
9
let them sing before the LORD,
for he comes to judge the earth.
He will judge the world in righteousness
and the peoples with equity.
6. Consider Galatians 5:16–25 (below), and note the repetition of the words ‘spirit’ ( ) and ‘flesh’
( =). See how these two key terms alternate throughout the text, a fact which serves to set it apart as
a distinct unit. In which verses are they not found? Why not? Can you propose a possible reason?
Suggest how the pattern that is created by these contrasting words serves to establish other important
thematic contrasts within the larger text. What is the rhetorical function of this passage at this point in
the epistle? Which other important stylistic features do you notice in the text, and what is their
function? Examine the original Greek text if possible.
16
But I say, walk by the Spirit, and do not gratify the desires of the flesh.
17
For the desires of the
flesh are against the Spirit, and the desires of the Spirit are against the flesh; for these are
opposed to each other, to prevent you from doing what you would. 18
But if you are led by the
Spirit you are not under the law. 19
Now the works of the flesh are plain: fornication, impurity,
licentiousness, 20
idolatry, sorcery, enmity, strife, jealousy, anger, selfishness, dissension, party
spirit, 21
envy, drunkenness, carousing, and the like. I warn you, as I warned you before, that
those who do such things shall not inherit the kingdom of God. 22
But the fruit of the Spirit is love,
joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, 23
gentleness, self-control; against such
there is no law. 24
And those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions
and desires. 25
If we live by the Spirit, let us also walk by the Spirit.
7. Find another short text in the Bible that seems to be very literary in its style. Write it out in a literal
translation (including also the original text if possible), and then point out the special features that
support your claim of literariness. Finally, make some suggestions with regard to how you would render

these devices with similar functional effect in YL. (If you cannot think of a text, analyze a selected
portion of Isa. 11.)
8. A literary approach to translation takes human emotions seriously; in fact, emotions are an essential
aspect of the meaning that is communicated by all effective, influential verbal discourse. Consider the
implications for Bible translation of these words of Keith Oatley (in Gavins and Steen 2003:168):
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9. Gibson (1998:11) has made the following observation:
( % ) " ! ! ! "
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!
Behold, you are beautiful, my love,
behold, you are beautiful!
Your eyes are doves,
behind your veil.
Your hair is like a flock of goats,
moving down the slopes of Gilead.
Your teeth are like a flock of shorn ewes
that have come up from the washing …
Your neck is like the tower of David,
built for an arsenal.
whereon hang a thousand bucklers,
all of them shields of warriors.
Your two breasts are like two fawns,
twins of a gazelle, that feed among the lilies. (Song 4:1–2, 4–5)
Discuss Gibson’s comments from the perspective of your culture, and as though you are about to
translate the included biblical text in YL. What are some of the challenges you would face and how do
you propose resolving them? Keep in mind the genre of the passage and the specific book being dealt
with here.
10. The book of Revelation is the most frequently cited example of the essentially nonliterary character of
much of the New Testament. Reid (2004:931) holds such a view: “[T]he style of [John’s] Gospel and
letters is different from that of Revelation; the former are written in excellent Greek, but the latter is
often ungrammatical and uses barbarous idioms.” But contrast Reid’s view with the equally-categorical
opposing opinion of Bauckham (1993:ix), that Revelation is “a work of immense learning,
astonishingly meticulous literary artistry, remarkable creative imagination, radical political critique, and
profound theology.” Perhaps some scholars come to negative opinions about certain NT books simply
because they investigate and evaluate the text from a surface linguistic perspective, and not from a
discourse-oriented literary point of view.
In many cases, John’s Revelation from the Lord certainly being one, the genre, setting, and purpose of
the text can help explain the nature of its composition. The following excerpts from Green and
Pasquarello (2003) point this out:

65
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Reflect upon the preceding selection of quotations and try to find evidence for these claims (or contrary
evidence) within the first two chapters of Revelation. Then point out some of the salient implications of
studies such as this for Bible translators.
Of what relevance or practical importance is this information (assuming that it is true) as they render the
mysteries of Revelation in another language and sociocultural setting?
Does such background information at least deserve a comment in an introduction to the Apocalypse?
If so, what are some of the key literary facts that need to be conveyed to readers – to enable them to
appreciate how the compositional style of Revelation contributes to both its theological content and
rhetorical argument?
In lesson 4 we will examine the structure and function of biblical literature more systematically from
the perspective of genre – that is, the different discourse types that the Bible contains. We have
already begun to do this, but a literary approach requires an even closer look. Before that, however,
we need to put some of the ideas of lessons 1 and 2 together as the basis for a method of translation
that seeks to re-present some of the outstanding stylistic qualities of the Scriptures by means of an
artistic and rhetorical rendering in a given target language. Therefore, in lesson 3 we will consider
some of the main principles and possibilities of a literary functional-equivalence version – a LiFE
translation.

" ! ' ! ! ! # 7 " '
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From the perspective of your cultural setting, would you tend to agree with these conclusions or not?
Make a study of Isaiah 5:20, 30; 8:22; 9:2; 29:15; 42:7; 45:7; 58:10; 59:9; Luke 11:34; 12:35, 46;
22:53; John 1:5; 3:19; 8:12; Acts 26:18; Romans 13:12; 1 Corinthians 4:5; 2 Corinthians 6:12;
Ephesians 4:18. How about the specific example of Isaiah 1:18 — what would be the most effective
literary way of expressing this in your language? Explain your preferred rendering.
10. Consider the following case study (Smalley 1995:2, 61):
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)' ! # $ 7 2
7 ! ) " ) -" ! ! " !
5 7 ' ) %
! ! B 3UU3HUM#
1 8 ' I 5 ' !!
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B ! F 6 F ! )6 "" !
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In what respects does Smalley express literary concerns here? Do you know of a situation like this in
your region? If so, summarize the key facts of your particular case.
11. Landers (2001:27) says about translators of secular literature that “the majority view…has been that a
translation should affect its readers in the same way that the original affected its first readers (or
listeners, in the case of Homer).…[B]y the SL reader we mean the original source-language
reader…[For example] the original readers of Quixote in no way perceived the speech of the characters
as archaic or antiquated.” Nor did they perceive it stylistically awkward and alien. Have you heard a
similar view expressed before (e.g., see Nida and Taber 1969:1–2)? How does the assertion here by
Landers relate to a literary rendering of the Scriptures? Is there a difference, or should there be? If so, in
which respects? Landers also claims, “I am first and foremost a practitioner and have yet to meet a
working translator who places theory above experience, flexibility, a sense of style, and an appreciation
for nuance.…[W]ho other than scholars would want to read prose (or poetry, for that matter) that bears
the heavy imprint of foreign grammar, idiom, or syntax?” (ibid.:50–1). Discuss this opinion in relation
to translating the Bible.
2.2 What is orature and how does it differ from literature?
This lesson began with an emphasis upon “literature” because the Bible is a collection of written
documents. However, we know that, in ancient Bible times, most writings were produced in order to
be read orally and received aurally by an audience.
6 ! !
5
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! 1
! 5 6 5
Examine the following list of stylistic features and point out the ones that would be prominent in the
oral verbal art forms of your language. Give an example of some of these, if possible.
a. Lexical repetition, often exact and overlapping (“tail-head”) rather than synonymous
b. More variation from normal word order in the different types of discourse

45
c. Rhythmic utterances, especially in sequence
d. Parallel syntactic constructions, favoring parataxis
e. Shorter and looser sentence, paragraph, and other discourse units
f. More frequent speaker/author insertions and asides
g. Colloquial diction, including dialectal forms
h. Many puns, much alliteration and assonance
i. Formulaic discourse openers, closers, and transitions
j. Great preference for direct speech
k. Hyperbole and intensifiers, including ideophones, interjections, and exclamations
l. Many deictic/demonstrative words and particles
m. Vivid figurative language and local color description
n. Ellipsis and anacolutha (broken grammatical constructions)
o. Not as varied, precise, or specific in word choice
p. Accompanying nonverbal communication (gestures, facial expressions, etc.)
q. Dependence on prosody (intonation, pitch, pause, tempo, tone, volume, etc.)
r. Information presented at a slower pace or rate
@/5
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The larger forms of spoken discourse often differ from those of written discourse. Oral narratives in
Chichewa (a Bantu language spoken in Malawi, also known as Chinyanja) tend to be more recursive
and more overtly patterned in organization than narratives that are written out beforehand. The former
are usually shorter and generally incorporate choral songs as well – songs that mark boundaries and
move the plot forward, or express the story’s theme in a figurative or symbolic way. Similarly, these
thematic songs are much simpler and more repetitive in style than popular written poetry, in addition
to being less explicit (more allusive) and syntactically connected. Much oral poetry can be sung as
well as rhythmically recited or chanted before an audience.
1
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5
5
6
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In many cultures, it is necessary to distinguish between written verbal art (i.e., literature) and oral
verbal art (i.e., orature) because the two modes of communicating are quite different in both structure
and style. This is normally true in the case of cultures that have a long history of literature. Many other
cultures, on the other hand, including the majority in Africa, do not make such a clear distinction, and

a great deal of mixing goes on. For example, common oral features may frequently be used in vivid
writing. (The reverse is not as common, however.)
1 @/ 5
5
The distinction between oral and written discourse is of considerable importance to Bible translators.
In some cases, there is not much literature at all in the target language and, therefore, it is quite natural
that the first translations of the Bible will be heavily patterned after oral genres and styles. In other
cases, a resourceful team of translators may deliberately introduce accepted oral features into their
translation, knowing that most of their target group will receive the translation in an oral-aural
manner, rather than in writing. Perhaps a high percentage of people are non-literate, or perhaps an
audio Scripture selection is being prepared. In addition, most translators want portions of the Bible
that are direct speech, or those that are most frequently spoken aloud, to sound very natural. Such a
translation may be called oratorical since it is made with public reading or a performance in mind.
On the other hand, an oral style may sometimes be deliberately avoided. If it has been predetermined
that the translation is to be a very literal one, perhaps for “theological” reasons (wanting to closely
reflect “the actual Word of God”), then the translators will stick closely to the original Hebrew and
Greek text and not introduce idiomatic vernacular oral features. It may be that an earlier translation
(perhaps one prepared by the first missionaries) is still very influential, honored, and widely used, and
the new version is specifically aimed at being only a revision, with no major restructuring desired or
even allowed.
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If a team wishes to develop a more oral-aural style of translation, rendering their text in such a way
that it is more pleasing to the ears of the audience, they must recognize that it will require a high level
of commitment and competency. It will be much more of a creative, perhaps even an experimental,
exercise. On the other hand, the process must still manifest careful controls so that the biblical text is
not distorted in terms of content, tone, or purpose. More research will be needed with respect to the
oral art forms of the TL. The team will need to know which genres and styles are used for which
purpose and with what intended impact, and what the normal settings are for the literary genres in
terms of formality, and to what extent modification can take place.
Then the team must determine which oral stylistic devices and compositional techniques can be used
and where they are appropriate. Some forms may be deemed too colloquial, substandard, technical, or
speaker-restricted (e.g., the jargon of youth, the argot of elders, or foreign loanwords). Their
connotation may be too dubious for use in the Scriptures. Some features may be acceptable in certain
approved contexts, perhaps in dramatic direct speech, but not elsewhere, lest they over-emotivize the
biblical text (e.g., ideophones or exclamations). Still others can – and must – be used freely in order
for the translation to sound natural and be clearly understood (e.g., certain demonstrative particles,
transitional conjunctions, word orders, tense sequence patterns, and speech registers).
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47
The translation team must seek good oral models. In many language settings today, they may find
such models of an oratorical style in popular singers, public speakers, radio broadcasters, vernacular
drama groups, and skillful oral performers of ancient verbal art forms. They may also find them in
Christian evangelists and revivalists who have not been influenced by Westerners. While widely-
recognized models of excellent oratory do exist, they must, then, be carefully collected (often by
recording them for later transcription), analyzed, published, and distributed (or broadcast) in order to
develop standards of popular and specialist assessment to the point where they may be effectively
applied in written literature.
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Remember that the medium of print itself requires certain compositional modifications to be made
during the transposition of an oral to a published text. For example, it may be necessary to modify the
discourse for less repetition; a more explicit expression of content (to compensate for the lack of a
human situational context); punctuation (to compensate for the lack of intonational and elocutionary
features); more precise conjunctive and transitional function words; and a lower incidence of informal
registers or colloquial word choices.
1. What do the following passages tell you about public communication in Bible times: Ezekiel 33:30–31;
Acts 8:30; 15:21; Colossians 4:16; 1 Thessalonians 5:27?
2. Study Psalm 148 and identify some of its prominent oral features, giving some specific examples. Say
whether or not these are common in the oral art forms of YL. If they are not, which other devices might
be used to convey a similar impact, without introducing an unwanted connotation?
3. Evaluate the following observations with regard to the importance of the phonological factor in
translation. How do these thoughts about “sound” apply to a Bible translation that you are familiar with,
say, with reference to 1 Corinthians 13? Give several specific suggestions in this regard.
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4. Mention a Bible translation, either in your mother tongue or another language, that manifests a good
oratorical style—that is, a text that sounds powerful, beautiful, persuasive, poetic, etc. (depending on
the genre). Why do you think so – that is, on the basis of which specific linguistic features in the text?
14 When composing question 3, I originally did not want to reveal the last two sources lest it influence the readers’ evaluation of the
opinion expressed in each case. Unfortunately, at some point in the drafting I misplaced the references and so the two sources, which
are different, are now lost to me. I therefore owe an apology to their authors for this omission.

48 LiFE-Style Translating - Literary Forms in Scripture

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48 LiFE-Style Translating - Literary Forms in Scripture