Chapter 5 Understanding Culture Understanding Culture Culture: An established, coherent set of beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices shared by a large group of people Influences: Nationality, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, physical abilities, age Culture Defined Culture is: Learned Communicated Layered Lived Intercultural communication: Communicating with someone from a different culture Co-cultures (1 of 2) In any society, there are groups of people who have more power than others. Co-cultural Communication Theory: People who have more power within a society determine the dominant culture. Co-cultures: Members of a society who don’t conform to the dominant culture Co-cultural communication: Underrepresented groups interact with people from the dominant group. Co-cultures (2 of 2) Members of co-cultures develop communication practices for dealing with members of the dominant culture. Use overly polite language Suppress reactions to offensive comments Try to excel to counteract negative stereotypes Conform to negative stereotypes in an exaggerated way Try to act, look, and talk like members of the dominant culture Openly disparage their own co-culture Express co-cultural identity through appearance, actions, and words Cultural Identity Intersectionality: Notion we are the sum total of our overlapping experiences, rather than a singular category Prejudice (1 of 2) Prejudice: When stereotypes reflect rigid attitudes toward groups and their members Stereotype Content Model: Prejudice centers on two judgments about others. How warm and friendly they are How competent they are Prejudice (2 of 2) Benevolent prejudice: Thinking of a particular group as inferior but also friendly and competent Hostile prejudice: Having negative attitudes toward a group of individuals we see as unfriendly and incompetent Cultural Influences on Communication Seven characteristics shape our intercultural communication. Individualism versus collectivism Uncertainty avoidance Power distance High and low context Emotion displays Masculinity versus femininity Views of time Individualism versus Collectivism Individualistic cultures: Value independence and personal achievement Collectivistic cultures: Emphasize group identity, interpersonal harmony, and the well-being of ingroups Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty avoidance: Measure of how different cultures tolerate and accept unpredictability High-uncertainty-avoidance: People place value on control. Low-uncertainty-avoidance: People put more emphasis on letting the future happen without trying to control it. Power Distance (1 of 2) Power distance: Degree to which people in a particular culture view the unequal distribution of power as expected and acceptable Power Distance (2 of 2) High-power-distance: People give privileged treatment and extreme respect to those in high-status positions. Expect individuals of lesser status t ...

1. Chapter 5
Understanding Culture
Understanding Culture
Culture: An established, coherent set of beliefs, attitudes,
values, and practices shared by a large group of people
Influences: Nationality, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual
orientation, physical abilities, age
Culture Defined
Culture is:
Learned
Communicated
Layered
Lived
Intercultural communication: Communicating with someone
from a different culture

2. Co-cultures (1 of 2)
In any society, there are groups of people who have more power
than others.
Co-cultural Communication Theory: People who have more
power within a society determine the dominant culture.
Co-cultures: Members of a society who don’t conform to the
dominant culture
Co-cultural communication: Underrepresented groups interact
with people from the dominant group.
Co-cultures (2 of 2)
Members of co-cultures develop communication practices for
dealing with members of the dominant culture.
Use overly polite language
Suppress reactions to offensive comments
Try to excel to counteract negative stereotypes
Conform to negative stereotypes in an exaggerated way
Try to act, look, and talk like members of the dominant culture
Openly disparage their own co-culture
Express co-cultural identity through appearance, actions, and
words
Cultural Identity
Intersectionality: Notion we are the sum total of our

3. overlapping experiences, rather than a singular category
Prejudice (1 of 2)
Prejudice: When stereotypes reflect rigid attitudes toward
groups and their members
Stereotype Content Model: Prejudice centers on two judgments
about others.
How warm and friendly they are
How competent they are
Prejudice (2 of 2)
Benevolent prejudice: Thinking of a particular group as inferior
but also friendly and competent
Hostile prejudice: Having negative attitudes toward a group of
individuals we see as unfriendly and incompetent
Cultural Influences on Communication
Seven characteristics shape our intercultural communication.

4. Individualism versus collectivism
Uncertainty avoidance
Power distance
High and low context
Emotion displays
Masculinity versus femininity
Views of time
Individualism versus Collectivism
Individualistic cultures: Value independence and personal
achievement
Collectivistic cultures: Emphasize group identity, interpersonal
harmony, and the well-being of ingroups
Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance: Measure of how different cultures
tolerate and accept unpredictability
High-uncertainty-avoidance: People place value on control.
Low-uncertainty-avoidance: People put more emphasis on
letting the future happen without trying to control it.

5. Power Distance (1 of 2)
Power distance: Degree to which people in a particular culture
view the unequal distribution of power as expected and
acceptable
Power Distance (2 of 2)
High-power-distance: People give privileged treatment and
extreme respect to those in high-status positions.
Expect individuals of lesser status to behave humbly around
people of higher status
Low-power-distance: People with high status try to minimize
the differences between themselves and lower-status persons.
More informality, treating as equals
High and Low Context
High-context cultures: Use relatively vague and ambiguous
language to convey important meanings
Low-context cultures: Tend not to presume that others share
their beliefs, attitudes, and values, so they strive to be clear and
direct in communication

6. Emotion Displays
Display rules: Cultural guidelines for when, where, and how
people should and shouldn’t express emotion
Masculinity versus Femininity
Masculine cultural values: Accumulation of personal wealth,
assertiveness, and personal achievement indicative of success
Feminine cultural values: Compassion, cooperation, relationship
health, and quality of life for all people
Views of Time
Cultures with a monochronic time orientation view time as a
precious resource that can run out.
Cultures with a polychronic time orientation view time as
flexible, not as a resource to be spent, saved, or guarded.
Creating Intercultural Competence

7. Intercultural competence: The ability to communicate
appropriately, effectively, and ethically with people from
diverse backgrounds
World-Mindedness
World-mindedness: The ability to accept and respect other
cultures’ beliefs, values, and customs
Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s own cultural beliefs,
attitudes, values, and practices are superior to others’
• The opposite of world-mindedness
Attributional Complexity
Attributional complexity: Acknowledging that other people’s
behaviors have complex causes
Communication Accommodation
Communication accommodation theory: People adapt their
communication when:
They seek social approval
They wish to establish relationships
They view others’ language use as appropriate

8. Chapter 4
Experiencing and Expressing Emotions
1
The Nature of Emotion
Understanding what emotions are and how they differ from
feelings and moods is the first step toward better managing our
emotions.
Defining Emotion (1 of 2)
Emotion is:
Triggered by our perception of outside events
Signified by physiological arousal
Determined by our awareness/labeling
Governed by preexisting norms
Reflected in verbal and nonverbal displays

9. 3
Defining Emotion (2 of 2)
Emotion-sharing: Involves disclosing emotions, talking about
them, and pondering them
Emotional contagion: Occurs when the experience of the same
emotion rapidly spreads from one person to others
Feelings and Moods
Feelings: “Small emotions” that generate only limited arousal
Moods: Low-intensity states that typically last longer than
feelings or emotions
5
The Flow of Emotions, Feelings, and Moods
figure 4.1
Types of Emotions
Six primary emotions
Surprise, joy, disgust, anger, fear, sadness
Blended emotions: Experiencing two or more primary emotions
simultaneously

10. Jealousy
Forces Shaping Emotion (1 of 2)
Personality
Shapes our experience and expression of emotion
Three OCEAN traits strongly influence emotions
Extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT):
Helps neurotic patients purge themselves of negative beliefs
8
Forces Shaping Emotion (2 of 2)
Gender
Contributes to our experience and expression of emotion
In Western cultures, gender differences in emotion in part
derived from the way men and women orient to interpersonal
relationships
9
Managing Your Emotional Experience and Expression
“The marshmallow test”: Tested children’s ability to
constructively manage emotions

11. Emotional Intelligence (1 of 2)
Emotional intelligence: Ability to interpret your own and
others’ emotions accurately
Emotionally intelligent people:
Understand their own emotions
Possess empathy
Constructively manage their own emotions
Harness their emotional states in positive ways
Emotional Intelligence (2 of 2)
Emotion management directly influences communication
choices and resulting outcomes.
If you can’t manage your emotions, you can’t communicate
competently.
12
Managing Your Emotions after They Occur
Suppression: Inhibiting thoughts, arousal, and outward
behavioral displays of emotion
Venting: Allowing emotions to dominate our thoughts and
explosively expressing them

12. 13
Preventing Emotions
Four strategies for preventing emotions
Encounter avoidance
Encounter structuring
Attention focus
Deactivation
14
Reappraising Your Emotions
Reappraisal: Actively changing how you think about situations
so their emotional impact is changed
15
Emotional Challenges
Four challenges frequently occur in daily life.
Anger
Online communication
Passion
Grief

13. Anger (1 of 2)
Anger: Driven largely by the perception that you have been
improperly or unfairly blocked from reaching a goal
Chronic hostility: Near-constant state of arousal and negativity,
resulting from suppression
Anger (2 of 2)
Many feel that venting “gets the anger out” and leads to
catharsis. . .
However, venting actually boosts anger.
The Jefferson strategy is more effective.
Online Communication and Empathy Deficits (1 of 2)
When communicating online, we:
Lack feedback
Are less likely to perspective-take
Are less likely to feel empathic concern
Online Communication and Empathy Deficits (2 of 2)
To competently express emotions online:
Invest effort into perspective-taking and empathic concern.
Communicate empathy to online partners.
Expect and tolerate aggressive messages.

14. Passion
Passion is a combination of surprise and joy coupled with
several other positive feelings.
It usually fades over time
Grief (1 of 2)
Grief: Intense sadness following substantial loss
To manage your grief, use emotion-sharing.
To help others manage their grief, engage in supportive
communication.
Grief (2 of 2)
To improve your supportive communication:
Make sure the person is ready to talk.
Find the right place and time.
Ask good questions.
Legitimize, don’t minimize.
Listen actively.
Offer advice cautiously.
Show concern and give praise.
Chapter 3
Perceiving Others

15. Perception as a Process
Perception: The process of selecting, organizing, and
interpreting information from our senses
The Process of Perception
figure 3.1
Step 1: Selecting Information
Selection: Focusing our attention on certain sights, sounds,
tastes, touches, or smells in our environment
Salience: The degree to which something is noticeable and
significant to us
Step 2: Organizing the Information You’ve Selected
Organization: Structuring selected information into a coherent
pattern
Punctuation: Structuring information into a chronological
sequence that matches how you experienced the order of events
Step 3: Interpreting the Information (1 of 3)
Interpretation: Assigning meaning to selected information

16. Schemata: Mental structures containing information that defines
concepts’ characteristics and interrelationships
Interpreting the Information (2 of 3)
Attributions: Explanations for others’ comments or behaviors
Internal attributions: Presume internal causes
(character/personality)
External attributions: Presume causes unrelated to personal
qualities
Interpreting the Information (3 of 3)
Three errors in attribution
Fundamental attribution error/
Actor-observer effect
Self-serving bias
Reducing Uncertainty (1 of 2)
Uncertainty Reduction Theory: Our primary compulsion during
initial interactions is to reduce uncertainty about others
Reducing Uncertainty (2 of 2)
Uncertainty can be reduced in several ways.
Passive strategies
Active strategies

17. Interactive strategies
Influences on Perception
Powerful forces outside of our conscious awareness shape our
perception.
Culture
Gender
Personality
Perception and Culture
Culture influences perception in at least two ways.
Culture forms our schemata
Ingroupers and outgroupers
Perception and Gender
We are socialized to believe in gender differences.
Studies show that only about 1% of communication behavior is
influenced by gender.
Perception and Personality (1 of 3)
Personality: Our characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and
acting based on the traits we possess
The “Big Five”(OCEAN)
Openness

18. Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
14
Perception and Personality (2 of 3)
Self-enhancement bias: Tendency to perceive our own unique
traits more favorably than unique traits possessed by others
Perception and Personality (3 of 3)
Implicit personality theories: Beliefs about different personality
types and the ways in which personality traits cluster together
16
Forming Impressions of Others
Interpersonal impressions: Mental pictures of who people are
and how we feel about them
Constructing Gestalts (1 of 2)

19. Gestalts: General impressions of people,
either positive or negative
Positivity bias: Tendency for Gestalts to be positive when first
formed
Negativity effect: Tendency to emphasize negative information
we learn
Constructing Gestalts (2 of 2)
Halo effect: Positively interpreting what someone says or does
because we have a positive Gestalt of him or her
Horn effect: Negatively interpreting the communication of
people for whom we have negative Gestalts
Calculating Algebraic Impressions
Algebraic impressions: Most accurate and refined of
impressions
We weight some information more heavily than other
information, depending on its importance and positivity or
negativity.
Using Stereotypes
Stereotyping: Overly simplistic interpersonal impressions
Flawed, but streamlines impression process and is almost
impossible to avoid

20. Improving Your Perception
Offer empathy.
Embrace world-mindedness.
Engage in perception-checking.
Offering Empathy
Empathy: “Feeling into” others’ thoughts and emotions
Two components: Perspective-taking and empathic concern
Empathy mindset: Our beliefs about whether empathy is
something that can be developed and controlled
Practicing Responsible Perception
Check:
Your punctuation
Your knowledge
Your attributions
Perceptual influences
Your impressions
24
Chapter 2
Considering Self

21. The Components of Self
The self: An evolving composite of three components that
develop continually over time based on life experience
2
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness: The ability to view yourself as a unique person
and to reflect on your thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
Social comparison (Mead): Observing and assigning meaning to
others’ behavior and then comparing it with your own
Self-Concept (1 of 2)
Self-concept: Your overall perception of who you are, based on
the beliefs, attitudes, and values you have about yourself
Looking-glass self: Your self-concept as shaped by what you
believe others think of you
4
Self-Concept (2 of 2)

22. Self-concept clarity: The degree which you have a clearly
defined, consistent, and enduring sense of self
Self-fulfilling prophecies: Predictions about future interactions
that lead us to behave in ways that ensure the interaction
unfolds as we predicted
5
Self-Esteem (1 of 2)
Self-esteem: The overall value, positive or negative, that we
assign to ourselves
6
Low Self-Esteem: A Vicious Cycle
figure 2.1
Self-Esteem (2 of 2)
Self-discrepancy theory: Your self-esteem is determined by how
you compare to your ideal self and ought self.

23. 8
The Sources of Self
Our selves are shaped by the powerful outside forces of gender,
family, and culture.
Gender and Self
Gender: The composite of social, psychological, and cultural
attributes that characterize a person as male or female
Family and Self (1 of 2)
Interactions with caregivers shape two dimensions of our
behavior.
Attachment anxiety
Attachment avoidance
Family and Self (2 of 2)
Four attachment styles
Secure attachment
Preoccupied attachment
Dismissive attachment
Fearful attachment

24. Culture and Self
Culture: An established, coherent set of beliefs, attitudes,
values, and practices shared by a large group of people
Membership in individualistic vs. collectivistic culture shapes
our views of self.
Communicating Your Self
People know and judge the “you” who communicates with them,
not the “you” you keep inside.
Maintaining Your Public Self (1 of 2)
Face: The public self you want others to see and know
(Goffman)
Maintaining Your Public Self (2 of 2)
Mask: A public self designed to conceal your private self
Example: Rick Welts
Losing face creates feelings of shame, humiliation, and
sadness—embarrassment.
The Relational Self
We carefully craft the presentation of our self to create
interpersonal relationships.

25. Disclosing Your Self to Others (1 of 3)
Self-disclosure: Revealing private information about your self
to others
Interpersonal process model of intimacy: Closeness we feel
toward others is created through self-disclosure and the
responsiveness of listeners.
Disclosing Your Self to Others (2 of 3)
Self-disclosure:
Varies across and within cultures
Happens more quickly online
Promotes mental health
Occurs among men and women equally
Disclosing Your Self to Others (3 of 3)
Improve your self-disclosure skills
Know yourself.
Know your audience.
Don’t force others to self-disclose.
Don’t presume gender preferences.
Be sensitive to cultural differences.
Go slowly.
Opening Your Self to Others (1 of 2)

26. Social penetration theory: Revealing the self to others involves
peeling back or penetrating layers.
Breadth: The number of different aspects of self revealed at
each layer
Depth: How deeply into each other’s self the partners have
penetrated
21
The Layers of Self
figure 2.3
Opening Your Self to Others (2 of 2)
Intimacy: Feeling of closeness and “union” that exists between
us and our partners
23
Your Hidden and Revealed Self
Some “quadrants” of our selves are open to self-reflection and
sharing with other people.
Others remain hidden.
The Johari Window: Each of us has a public area, a hidden area,
a blind area, and an unknown area.

27. 24
The Johari Window
figure 2.4
The Online Self (1 of 2)
Interacting online gives us freedom to be flexible with our
identities and to control how others perceive us.
26
The Online Self (2 of 2)
Always consider the warranting value of information presented
to you online.
Degree to which it is supported by other people and outside
evidence
27

28. Improving Your Online Self-Presentation
Three ways to improve online self-presentation
Be wary of information that contradicts your self-image.
Routinely conduct Web searches on yourself.
Keep the interview test in mind.
28
Chapter 1
Introducing Interpersonal Communication
1
What Is Communication?
Communication: The process through which “people use
messages to generate meanings within and across contexts,
cultures, channels, and media”
2
Defining Communication
Communication:

29. Is a process
Uses messages
Is exchanged through interaction
Occurs in contexts
Happens via channels
Uses media
3
Five Most Common Forms of Communication Modalities Used
by College Students
figure 1.1
Understanding Communication Models
Three models of the communication process:
Linear communication model
Sender, noise, receiver
Interactive communication model
Adds feedback, fields of experience
Transactional communication model
Linear Model of Communication
figure 1.2

30. Interactive Model of Communication
figure 1.3
Transactional Model of Communication
figure 1.4
What Is Interpersonal Communication?
A dynamic form of communication between two (or more)
people in which the messages exchanged significantly influence
their thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and relationships
Defining Interpersonal Communication (1 of 2)
Interpersonal communication is:
Dynamic
Typically transactional
Primarily dyadic
Impact-creating

31. 10
Defining Interpersonal Communication (2 of 2)
Buber names two ways of relating to others:
I-Thou: Deepens bonds and affirms individual uniqueness
I-It: Leads to impersonal communication and even disrespectful
communication
Principles of Interpersonal Communication (1 of 2)
Interpersonal communication:
Conveys content and relationship information
Meta-communication: Communication about communication
Can be intentional or unintentional
12
Principles of Interpersonal Communication (2 of 2)
Interpersonal communication:
Is irreversible
Is dynamic
13
Motives for Interpersonal Communication (1 of 2)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

32. Physical
Safety
Social
Self-esteem
Self-actualization
14
Motives for Interpersonal Communication (2 of 2)
Interpersonal communication fulfills three types of goals:
Self-presentation goals
Instrumental goals
Relationship goals
Research in Interpersonal Communication
Theory
Qualitative approaches
Hypotheses
Quantitative approaches
16
What Is Interpersonal Communication Competence?
Interpersonal communication competence: Consistently
communicating in ways that are appropriate, effective, and

33. ethical
Understanding Competence (1 of 3)
Communication skills: Repeatable, goal-directed behaviors and
behavioral patterns routinely practiced in interpersonal
encounters and relationships
Understanding Competence (2 of 3)
Appropriateness: The degree to which your communication
matches situational, relational, and cultural expectations
We judge how appropriate our communication is through self-
monitoring.
High self-monitors follow expectations, while low self-monitors
“act like themselves.”
Understanding Competence (3 of 3)
Effectiveness: The ability to use communication to accomplish
self-presentational, instrumental, and relational goals
Ethics: The set of moral principles that guide our behavior
toward others
Improving Your Competence Online (1 of 2)
Online communication: Any interaction by means of social
networking sites (e.g., Facebook), e-mail, text- or instant-

34. messaging, Skype, chatrooms, and even massively multiplayer
online video games
Improving Your Competence Online (2 of 2)
Choose your medium wisely.
Don’t assume online is more efficient.
Presume posts are public.
Remember posts are permanent.
Practice creating drafts.
Issues in Interpersonal Communication
Culture
Gender and sexual orientation
Online communication
The dark side of interpersonal relationships
23