4. Mental Spaces
Mental spaces are conceptual structures proposed by Fauconnier to
describe how language users assign and manipulate references.
When we study linguistic meaning we are studying the way the language
that provides an patchy and partial trigger for a series of complex cognitive
procedures.
Meaning is not ‘in’ language.
Language is like recipe for constructing meaning, a recipe which relies on a
lot of independent cognitive activity.
(Saeed,2016)
04
5. Mental Spaces
Fauconnier’s focus is on the cognitive processes trigged during discourse by
linguistic structure.
When we are involved in using language, we are continually constructing
domains.
o Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar
• World of the play.
• Real world
Fauconnier’s believes that such flexibility is inherent in our use of referring
expression and the mental spaces are an attempt to explain such behavior.
(Saeed,2016)
05
7. Connections between Spaces
One important issue is what links that might be between mental spaces.
Fauconnier discusses the way that speakers can make reference to entities
by number of indirect strategies.
We can refer to a representation of someone by their names.
o Graham looks really young.
• The name of the real Graham trigger
• The image target
(Saeed,2016)
07
8. Connections between Spaces
This phenomenon has been traditionally termed metonymy.
Fauconnier employs an identification principle which allows speakers to use
such referential shifts
• Real Graham (a)
• Photo Graham (b)
• The image (F)
• A description of real Graham (his name, d ͣ )
If two objects(in the most general sense), a and b, are linked by
pragmatic function F(b=F(a)), a description of a, d ͣ , my be used to
identify its counterpart b.
(Saeed,2016)
08
9. Connections between Spaces
o In Len’s painting, the girl with blue eyes has green eyes.
We have two mental spaces:
• Real world a girl with blue eyes.
• Space of painting a girl with green eyes.
Person-image connector
Trigger IMAGE (connector) Target
a: person b: image
girl with blue eyes girl with green eyes
(Saeed,2016)
09
10. Connections between Spaces
It can linked to the relationship between beliefs and reality.
o Len believes that the girl with blue eyes has green eyes.
o Len wants the girl with blue eyes to have green eyes.
Belief contexts
World-mind connector
a b
a: girl with blue eyes b: girl with green eyes
(connector)
Speaker “real” world Len’s belief (as reported by speaker) (Saeed,2016)
10
11. Connections between Spaces
Spacebuilders are a whole range of linguistic elements which serve as trigger for
setting up mental spaces.
These include adverbial of location, adverbs like really, and certain verbs like hope.
The context in which a sentence is uttered will provide the anchoring or
background mental space.
Where spaces are stacked inside one another (Parent space).
The highest parent space will be reality.
o Barry’s in the pub. His wife thinks that he’s in the office.
• The initial space is the speaker reality (R) Barry in the pub
• His wife thinks create a new mental space (M) Barry2 in the office
(Saeed,2016)
11
13. Referential Opacity
Referential opacity is traditionally problematic area where knowledge interact
with reference.
• It is true of policeman called Jones.
o Jones believes that the leader of the Black Gulch Gang is a sociopath.
• Jones doesn’t know that his wife is the leader of the Black Gulch Gang.
o Jones doesn’t believe his wife is a sociopath.
We are not ascribing contradictory belief to Jones even though his wife and the
leader of the Black Gulch Gang denote the same individual.
This is the typical effect of belief context.
(Saeed,2016)
13
14. Referential Opacity
Opaque contexts is a part of a sentence which could be made into a complete sentence by
the addition of a referring expression, but where the addition of different referring expressions,
even though they refer to the same thing or person, in a given situation, will yield sentences
with DIFFERENT meanings when uttered in a given situation.
o The captain suspect that a detective in the squad is taking bribes.
• Captain suspect a particular detective transparent reading (specific).
• Captain suspect that one of the detectives is involved, but doesn’t know which
one opaque reading (non-specific).
These two sentences do not arise from any ambiguity in the sentence but from
different space connecting strategies that hearers may use.
(Saeed,2016)
14
15. Referential Opacity
o In the film, Michelle is a witch.
• We have two spaces: the speaker’s reality (R), and the film (F).
1 2
m1: Michelle m2: Michelle
ACTOR
m1 m2
R F
m2: Michelle
m2: witch
m2
R F
(Saeed,2016)
15
16. Referential Opacity
o In 1996 my wife was very young.
• We have two time spaces:
1. The “now” of the speaker.
2. The time 1996.
• The reference my wife has two interpretation:
A. A wife in 1996 time space and is consistent with the speaker either
having the same wife in the “now” space or not.
B. The person who is the speaker’s wife now was not his wife in 1996, but is
referred to as my wife by shift linking the mental space.
(Saeed,2016)
16
18. Presupposition
Presupposition is the information that a speaker assumes to be already known.
a. John hasn’t stopped smoking.
b. John used to smoke.
c. John hasn’t stopped smoking, because he never smoked.
Presupposition is moving from space to space unless blocked by contradiction
with the entities and relations identified in space (floating).
o Luca believes that it is probable that the king of France is bald, even though in fact there is no
king of France.
• We have three mental spaces:
1. The speaker reality (R)
2. Luka’s belief (B)
3. probable create space (P)
(Saeed,2016)
18
19. Presupposition
The floating or sharing of presuppositions between spaces is possible because
of a general similarity principle of space creation which Fauconnier calls
optimization.
When a daughter space M is set up within a parent space R, structure M implicitly
so as to maximize similarity with R. In particular, in the absence of explicit
contrary stipulation, assume that
a. elements in R have counterparts in M,
b. the relations holding in R hold for counterparts in M, and
c. background assumptions in R hold in M.
(Saeed,2016)
19
21. Conceptual Integration Theory
Conceptual theory is a development of mental space theory which seeks to
account for speaker’s abilities to create and developed extended analogies.
This ability involves speakers taking knowledge from different domains of
experience and combined them to create a new analogy.
Conceptual blending involves the creation of relationship between four or more
mental spaces.
(Saeed,2016)
21
22. Conceptual Integration Theory
o If Clinton had been the Titanic, the iceberg would have sunk.
• Knowledge about Clinton (input 1).
• Knowledge about the sinking of Titanic (input 2).
• A scheme about an entity experiencing threats (generic space).
• Clinton-Titanic sinks the scandal-iceberg (blended space).
An important feature of blend is that they create material that is not
in any of the input spaces; and speakers can elaborate the blend as
far as they wish.
(Saeed,2016)
22
23. Conceptual Integration Theory
Principles of Conceptual Integration :
a. Integration : the scenario in the blended space should be a well-integrated scene.
b. Web: tight connections between the blend and the input should be maintained.
c. Unpacking: it should be easy to reconstruct the inputs and the network of connections,
given the blend.
d. Topology: elements in the blend should participate in the same sorts of relations as their
counterparts in the inputs.
e. Good reason: if an element appears in the blend, it should have meaning.
f. Metonymic tightening: relations between elements from the same input should become
as close as possible in the blend.
(Saeed,2016)
23
24. Conceptual Integration Theory
Conceptual blending theory has applied to variety of linguistic
processes from the formation of lexical blends, and lexical compounds,
to the creation of proverbs, jokes, advertisements, and literary
language in general.
There is a growing literature on blending as cognitive semanticists
have sought to identify the sub-processes involved in the creation of
blends.
(Saeed,2016)
24
26. Section summary
Mental spaces
The diagrams that explains the connection between spaces.
Referential Opacity and belief context.
Presupposition
Conceptual Integration Theory
(Saeed,2016)
26
28. Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar
Cognitive Grammar theory has proposed by Ronald W. Langacker.
There is no distinction between grammar and semantics.
The lexicon, morphology, and syntax are all seen as symbolic system.
A linguistic sign in this view mapping or correspondence between a
semantic structure and a phonological structure.
Langacker believe that larger structure are directly symbolic in the
same way as the words.
Items at all levels in the grammar are characterized in the same
conceptual terms.
(Saeed,2016)
28
30. Nouns, Verbs, and Clauses
A billiard-ball model by Langacker.
It is a theory of reality that incorporates concepts of space, time,
energy, and matter.
These elements are conceived as constituting a world in which discrete objects move
around in space, make contact with one another, and participate in energy interactions.
Conceptually, objects and interactions present a maximal contrast, having opposite
values for such properties as domain of instantiation (space vs. time), essential
constituent (substance vs. energy transfer), and the possibility of conceptualizing one
independently of the other (autonomous vs. dependent). Physical objects and energetic
interaction provide the respective prototypes for noun and verb categories, which likewise
represent a polar opposition among the basic grammatical classes.
(Saeed,2016)
30
31. Nouns, Verbs, and Clauses
A billiard-ball model is extended to the characterization of the
prototypical transitive clauses.
Langacker describes this from the viewpoint of a speaker wanting to
communicate a description of event or scene.
Scene is described as “chunking into discrete events of temporally
contiguous clusters of interactions observed within a setting.”
(Saeed,2016)
31
32. Nouns, Verbs, and Clauses
An action chain is an symmetrical relationship where energy is
transmitted from one entity to a second entity.
prototypical event scheme
AGENT INSTRUMENT PATIENT
SETTING
V
(Saeed,2016)
32
34. Construal
A construal is a basic tent of cognitive linguistics where the speakers
can construe a scene in alternative way.
Profiling: a speaker can choose to profile certain segments of chain.
a. Floyd broke the glass with a hammer. AGs INSTR PATo
b. The hammer broke the glass. Ags INSTRs PATo
c. The glass broke. AGs INSTR PATs
(Saeed,2016)
34
35. Construal
A perspective includes the notion of viewpoint and focus.
The role of the observer in scenes: the selection of the observer’s
viewpoint and the choice of elements to focus on.
o The children ran around the house.
• A scene where the children’s motion circle the outside of the house
(external viewpoint of the house as container)
• The children are moving around within the house (internal viewpoint).
(Saeed,2016)
35
36. Construal
The Figure (trajector) is an entity chosen to stand out in some way from
the background, the Ground (landmark).
The choice of focus on either Figure or Ground in a scene can have lexical
significance.
o The light emanated from a beacon.
o The beacon emitted light.
The choice of focus involve not separate verbs but different argument
structure of the same verb.
o The bees swarmed in the field.
o The field swarmed with bees.
(Saeed,2016)
36
37. Construal
A scanning: the speaker ability to structure scene in order to form a
description.
Sequential scanning is a way of viewing a process as a sequence of
component sub-events.
Summary scanning is a way of of viewing a process as a complete unit
where all its sub-events are viewed as an integrated whole.
The speaker’s decision to use a noun or verb to describe an event.
o Wheeler fell off the cliff. (Sequential mode)
o Wheeler’s fall from the cliff. (Summary mode)
(Saeed,2016)
37
39. Construction Grammar
Construction Grammar (CG) is developed by Lakoff, Fillmore, and
Langacker.
It is a cognitive theory that began with the recognition that
grammatical constructions may map to semantic or conceptual
representations in a similar way to lexical items.
Comparative construction
o The bigger they come, the harder they fall. (the X-er the Y-er)
Coordination construction with let alone
o I barely got up in time to EAT LUNCH let alone COOK BREACKFAST. (Y let alone B)
(Saeed,2016)
39
40. Construction Grammar
Caused-motion construction
o She sneezed the powder off the table. SUBJ V OBJ PP
(Y caused X to move along a path represented by the PP)
Sound-motion construction
o The car screeched around the corner. V PP
(go PP while emitting sound of type w)
The Construction Grammar solution is to allow constructions to have
meaning in themselves and thus to license argument structure.
(Saeed,2016)
40
41. Construction Grammar
Resultative construction
o Isabel combed her hair dry. SUBJ V OBJ X-COMP
(Y caused X to become Z)
Time-away construction
o Alexander danced the night away. V-NP[time period] away
(spend NP V-ing)
(Saeed,2016)
41
42. Construction Grammar
Goldberg argues for general constructionist view of language that covers
all form-meaning relations.
All linguistic expressions from words to clauses exhibit form-meaning
correspondence.
a. The chicken cooked all night. (intransitive inchoative)
b. Pat cooked the steaks. (transitive)
c. Pat cooked the steak well-done. (resultative)
d. Pat cooks. (deprofiled object)
e. Pat cooked Chris some dinner. (ditransitive)
f. Pat cooked her away into Illinois state bake-off. (way construction)
(Saeed,2016)
42
43. Construction Grammar
Goldberg suggest involves the creation of a semantic link between the
event denoted by the verb and the event denoted by the construction.
These link include semantic categories of means, manner, and result.
They allow the combination of the arguments licensed by both verb
and construction.
(Saeed,2016)
43
44. Construction Grammar
There is no strict division between grammar and the lexicon: form and
meaning are associated in similar way with units of all size from words to
sentences.
Langacker call them Symbolic units.
Langacker proposed that they are arranged on a continuum of
schematically, or conversely specificity.
Units at one pole are more phonological and semantically specific, such
as words, while at the other they are more abstract and schematic, such
as constriction.
(Saeed,2016)
44
48. Exercise
Using the theory of mental spaces, space builders, and referential
connectors outlined in this chapter, discuss the referential interpretation
of the items in bold in the sentences below:
a. In the novel Hitler wins world war II.
• World of the novel Hitler wins World War II
• Real world Hitler did not win World War II
b. If I were you I’d ask myself ‘why’?
• Real world I would not ask myself why?
• Non-real world I would ask myself why?
(Saeed,2016)
48
49. Exercise
c. On Sundays the 8 a.m. bus leaves an hour later.
• On Sundays bus leaves 7 a.m.
• On the rest of the days bus leaves 8 a.m.
d. In 1947 the president was a child.
• The “now” space the president is old
• The time 1947 the president was child
e. In Andy Warhol’s prints Marilyn Monroe’s face keeps changing color.
• Space of painting Marilyn Monroe face has different color
• Real world Marilyn Monroe face one color (real Marylin Monroe)
(Saeed,2016)
49
