1. 8: Joints
Objectives
Classification of Joints
1. Explain how joints are classified structurally and functionally.
Fibrous Joints
2. Identify the three types of fibrous joints and give an example of each.
Cartilaginous Joints
3. Indicate the three types of cartilaginous joints and give an example of each.
Synovial Joints
4. Describe the general features of a synovial joint.
5. Define bursae and tendon sheaths.
6. Explain the three factors that influence the stability of a synovial joint.
7. Describe the movements allowed at synovial joints.
8. Examine the types of synovial joints.
Homeostatic Imbalances of Joints
9. Describe what happens in sprains, cartilage injuries, and dislocations.
10. Identify the inflammatory and degenerative conditions that target joints.
Developmental Aspects of Joints
11. Describe the fetal development of joints.
12. Explore the changes that occur to joints as one ages.
Suggested Lecture Outline
I. Introduction to Articulations (p. 253)
A. Sites where two or more bones meet are called joints or articulations.
B. Our joints give our skeleton mobility and hold it together.
II. Classification of Joints (p. 253; Table 8.1)
A. Structural classification focuses on the material binding the bones together and whether or not a
joint cavity is present.
1. In fibrous joints the bones are joined together by fibrous tissue and lack a joint cavity.
2. In cartilaginous joints the bones are joined together by cartilage and they lack a joint cavity.
3. In synovial joints, the articulating bones are separated by a fluid-containing joint cavity.
B. Functional classification is based on the amount of movement allowed at the joint.
1. Synarthroses are immovable joints.
2. Amphiarthroses are slightly movable joints.

2. 3. Diarthroses are freely movable joints.
III. Fibrous Joints (pp. 253–254; Fig. 8.1; Tables 8.1–8.2)
A. Sutures occur between bones of the skull and use very short connective tissue fibers to hold the
bones together.
B. In syndesmoses, the bones are connected by a ligament, which is a cord or band of fibrous tissue.
C. A gomphosis is a peg-in-socket fibrous joint.
IV. Cartilaginous Joints (p. 254; Fig. 8.2; Tables 8.1–8.2)
A. Synchondroses involve a bar or plate of hyaline cartilage uniting the bones, such as the epiphyseal
plate.
B. In symphyses, such as the pubic symphysis, the articular surfaces are covered with articular
cartilage that is then fused to an intervening pad or plate of fibrocartilage.
V. Synovial Joints (pp. 255–272; Figs. 8.3–8.8, 8.10–8.13; Tables 8.1–8.2)
A. The general structure of a synovial joint contains five distinguishing features.
1. Articular cartilage covers the ends of the articulating bones.
2. The joint (synovial) cavity is a space that is filled with synovial fluid.
3. The two-layered articular capsule encloses the joint cavity.
4. Synovial fluid is a viscous, slippery fluid that fills all free space within the joint cavity.
5. Reinforcing ligaments cross synovial joints to strengthen the joint.
B. Bursae and tendon sheaths are bags of lubricant that reduce friction at synovial joints.
C. Factors Influencing the Stability of Synovial Joints
1. The shapes of the articular surfaces of bones found at a synovial joint determine the
movements that occur at the joint, but play a minimal role in stabilizing the joint.
2. Ligaments at a synovial joint prevent excessive or unwanted movements and help to stabilize
the joint; the greater the number of ligaments at the joint the greater the stability.
3. Muscle tone keeps tendons crossing joints taut, which is the most important factor stabilizing
joints.
D. Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints
1. In gliding movements one flat, or nearly flat, bone surface glides or slips over another.
2. Angular movements increase or decrease the angle between two bones.
a. Flexion decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together.
b. Extension increases the angle between the articulating bones.
c. Dorsiflexion decreases the angle between the top of the foot (dorsal surface) and the
anterior surface of the tibia.
d. Plantar flexion decreases the angle between the sole of the foot (plantar surface) and the
posterior side of the tibia.
e. Abduction is the movement of a limb (or fingers) away from the midline body (or of the
hand).
f. Adduction is the movement of a limb (or fingers) toward the midline of the body (or the
hand).
g. Circumduction is moving a limb so that it describes a cone in the air.
3. Rotation is the turning of a bone along its own long axis.
4. Special Movements
a. Supination is rotating the forearm laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly.

3. b. Pronation is rotating the arm medially so that the palm faces posteriorly or inferiorly.
c. Inversion turns the sole of the foot so that it faces medially.
d. Eversion turns the sole of the foot so that it faces laterally.
e. Protraction moves the mandible anteriorly, juts the jaw forward.
f. Retraction returns the mandible to its original position.
g. Elevation means lifting a body part superiorly.
h. Depression means to move an elevated body part inferiorly.
i. Opposition occurs when you touch your thumb to the fingers on the same hand.
E. Types of Synovial Joints
1. Plane joints have flat articular surfaces and allow gliding and transitional movements.
2. Hinge joints consist of a cylindrical projection that nests in a trough-shaped structure, and
allow movement along a single plane.
3. Pivot joints consist of a rounded structure that protrudes into a sleeve or ring, and allow
uniaxial rotation of a bone around the long axis.
4. Condyloid, or ellipsoid, joints consist of an oval articular surface that nests in a
complementary depression, and permit all angular movements.
5. Saddle joints consist of each articular surface bearing complementary concave and convex
areas, and allow more freedom of movement than condyloid joints.
6. Ball-and-socket joints consist of a spherical or hemispherical structure that articulates with a
cuplike structure. They are the most freely moving joints and allow multiaxial movements.
F. Selected Synovial Joints
1. Knee Joint
a. Enclosed in one joint cavity, the knee joint is actually three joints in one: the
femoropatellar joint, the lateral and medial joints between the femoral condyles, and the
menisci of the tibia, known collectively as the tibiofemoral joint.
b. Many different types of ligaments stabilize and strengthen the capsule of the knee joint.
c. The knee capsule is reinforced by muscle tendons such as the strong tendons of the
quadriceps muscles and the tendon of the semimembranosus.
2. Elbow Joint
a. The elbow joint provides a stable and smoothly operating hinge joint that allows flexion
and extension only.
b. The ligaments involved in providing stability to the elbow joint are the annular ligament,
the ulnar collateral ligament, and the radial collateral ligament.
c. Tendons of several arm muscles, the biceps and the triceps, also provide additional
stability by crossing the elbow joint.
3. Shoulder (Glenohumeral) Joint
a. Stability has been sacrificed to provide the most freely moving joint in the body.
b. The ligaments that help to reinforce the shoulder joint are the coracohumeral ligament and
the three glenohumeral ligaments.
c. The tendons that cross the shoulder joint and provide the most stabilizing effect on the
joint are the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii and the four tendons that make
up the rotator cuff.
4. Hip (Coxal) Joint
a. The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint that provides a good range of motion.
b. Several strong ligaments reinforce the capsule of the hip joint.

4. c. The muscle tendons that cross the joint contribute to the stability and strength of the joint,
but the majority of the stability of the hip joint is due to the deep socket of the acetabulum
and the ligaments.
5. Temporomandibular Joint
a. The temporomandibular joint allows both hinge-like movement and side-to-side lateral
excursion.
b. The joint contains an articular disc that divides the synovial cavity into compartments that
support each type of movement.
c. The lateral aspect of the fibrous capsule contains a lateral ligament that reinforces the joint.
VI. Homeostatic Imbalances of Joints (pp. 272–275; Figs. 8.9, 8.13–8.14)
A. Common Joint Injuries (pp. 272–273; Figs. 8.9, 8.13)
1. Sprains and dislocations are the most common joint injuries.
B. Inflammatory and Degenerative Conditions (pp. 272–276; Fig. 8.14)
1. Bursitis, an inflammation of the bursa, is usually caused by a blow or friction; tendonitis is
inflammation of the tendons, and is usually caused by overuse.
2. Arthritis describes many inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints,
resulting in pain, stiffness, and swelling of the joint.
a. Osteoarthritis is the most common chronic arthritis. It is the result of breakdown of
articular cartilage and subsequent thickening of bone tissue, which may restrict joint
movement.
b. Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disorder that is an autoimmune disease.
c. Gouty arthritis results when uric acid is deposited in the soft tissues of the joints.
VII. Developmental Aspects of Joints (p. 276)
A. Joints develop at the same time as bones, resembling adult form by eight weeks gestation.
B. At late middle age and beyond, ligaments and tendons shorten and weaken, intervertebral discs
become more likely to herniate, and there is onset of osteoarthritis.
Cross References
Additional information on topics covered in Chapter 8 can be found in the chapters listed below.
1. Chapter 1: Planes of the body
2. Chapter 4: Ligaments and tendons (dense connective tissue); hyaline cartilage; fibrocartilage
3. Chapter 6: Epiphyseal plate; articular cartilage; periosteum
4. Chapter 7: Intervertebral discs; stability/flexibility of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle
5. Chapter 10: Role of synovial joints in the movement of the body
6. Chapter 23: Periodontal ligament
Laboratory Correlations
1. Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Cat and Fetal Pig Versions. Eighth
Edition Updates. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.
Exercise 13: Articulations and Body Movements
2. Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Main Version. Seventh Edition
Update. Benjamin Cummings, 2006.

5. Exercise 13: Articulations and Body Movements
Histology Slides for the Life Sciences
Available through Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc. To order, contact your
local Benjamin Cummings sales representative.
Slide 20 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue, Tendon.
Slide 23 Hyaline Cartilage, Trachea.
Slide 24 Fibrocartilage, Intervertebral Disk.
Slide 46 Cartilage-Bone Junction, Toe Bone.
Slide 47 Epiphyseal Plate of a Bone.
Slide 72 Cross-section through the trachea showing psuedostratified ciliated epithelium, glands, and the
supporting ring of hyaline cartilage.
Lecture Hints
1. Clearly distinguish between the two systems of joint classification (structural and functional).
2. Point out the difference between the joint of the first rib and sternum in contrast to ribs 2–10.
3. Emphasize that a muscle must cross a joint in order to cause movement.
4. Compare and contrast the size and shape of the glenoid cavity and acetabulum.
5. If only one synovial joint will be studied in detail, the best choice is the knee.
6. Stress the relationship between the shape of the articular surfaces of a joint, and the types of
movements that are possible at that joint.
Activities/Demonstrations
1. Audio-visual materials listed under Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab.
2. Call on students to demonstrate the various types of body movements: abduction, adduction, flexion,
extension, etc., occurring at specific joints (e.g., flex your knee, rotate your hand).
3. Obtain an articulated skeleton to exhibit joints such as sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses, and others.
4. Obtain a 3-D model of a joint, such as the knee, to illustrate the relationship of ligaments, cartilage,
and muscle. A fresh beef knee joint could also be used.
5. Obtain X rays of patients with gouty arthritis, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis.
6. Obtain a video or request that a local orthopedic surgeon visit the class and describe the techniques
and advantages of arthroscopic knee surgery.
7. Obtain an X ray showing a prosthetic joint.
Critical Thinking/Discussion Topics
1. Why are diarthroses found predominantly in the limbs while synarthroses and amphiarthroses are
found largely in the axial skeleton?
2. What are the advantages of the shoulder joint being the most freely moving joint in the body?
3. Cortisone shots can readily reduce swelling that occurs in joints, such as the shoulder and knee,
following athletic injuries. Why is it dangerous for athletes to continue getting these shots?
4. Physical therapists suggest various stretching exercises before proceeding with rigorous physical
activity. Of what value are these exercises for the joint areas?
5. What does it mean to be “double-jointed”?

6. 6. Most people can “crack” their knuckles. What does this term mean and what effect, if any, will this
have on the knuckles in the future?
7. Bones appear to have numerous projections and protuberances. What do you suppose these are for?
Library Research Topics
1. Joints may often be injured during sports activities. What are the major joint injuries associated with
football, basketball, baseball, and tennis?
2. Congenital dislocation of the hip is an orthopedic defect in which the acetabulum is too shallow and as
a result the head of the femur has poor articulation. What is the current treatment for this defect?
3. The replacement of a damaged joint with an artificial one is becoming more common. Currently,
which joints can be replaced?
4. Temporomandibular joint disorders are very painful. What methods of treatment are there and how
successful are they? How do these joint disorders arise?
5. Much controversy surrounds the use of the drug dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Why is the FDA so
reluctant to provide full approval of this drug for use on humans when it’s widely used for horses?
6. Contact an orthopedic surgeon in your area for information and/or videos on arthroscopic surgery.
7. Review the literature on the procedures and materials used for artificial joint replacements.
8. Rheumatoid arthritis appears to be an autoimmune disease. What are the current methods of treatment
and what is the future prognosis for this disease and its cure?
9. What is the difference between the action of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and steroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
Multimedia in the Classroom and Lab
Online Resources for Students
www.anatomyandphysiology.com www.myaandp.com
The following shows the organization of the Chapter Guide page in both the Anatomy & Physiology Place
and MyA&P™. The Chapter Guide organizes all the chapter-specific online media resources for Chapter
8 in one convenient location, with e-book links to each section of the textbook. Please note that both sites
also give you access to other general A&P resources, like InterActive Physiology®, PhysioEx 6.0™,
Anatomy 360°, Flashcards, a Glossary, a Histology Tutorial, and much more.
Objectives
Section 8.1 Classification of Joints (p. 253)
Section 8.2 Fibrous Joints (pp. 253–254)
Section 8.3 Cartilaginous Joints (p. 255)
Section 8.4 Synovial Joints (pp. 255–272)
Memory: Unique Movements
Memory: Classification of Joints
Section 8.5 Homeostatic Imbalances of Joints (pp. 272–274, 276)
Case Study: Articulations
Case Study: Craniosynotosis
Section 8.6 Developmental Aspects of Joints (p. 276)
Chapter Summary
Self-Study Quizzes
Art Labeling Quiz

7. Matching Quiz
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level I)
Multiple-Choice Quiz (Level II)
True-False Quiz
Crossword Puzzles
Crossword Puzzle 8.1
Crossword Puzzle 8.2
Media
See Guide to Audio-Visual Resources in Appendix A for key to AV distributors.
Video
1. Arthroscopic Knee Surgery (FHS; 45 min., 1997). The physician presents the surgical procedure in
detail. Each step is discussed, involving viewers in the medical and human drama. Bringing surgery
procedures to the classroom setting provides a different perspective to understanding important
concepts.
2. Bones and Joints (FHS; 20 min.). From The New Living Body series. Contains live-action video
showing the human body in action, up-to-date imaging, and three-dimensional computer graphics.
Students can actually observe how the parts work together to provide movement. Illustrations of
difficult concepts greatly help the students understand. This is an excellent supplement to classroom
presentation.
3. Movements at Joints of the Body (FHS; 40 min., 1997). This program, divided into three parts,
demonstrates various body movements. The first part focuses on movement, the second part examines
the actions of muscles, and the third part features a self-quiz.
4. Moving Parts (FHS; 26 min.). This program looks at the coordination of activity and balancing
mechanisms. Shows how muscles, joints, and organs link up, and demonstrates the role of joints.
Increases students’ knowledge of how the parts of the body work together to produce movement.
Software
1. A.D.A.M.® Anatomy Practice (see p. 86 of this guide for full listing).
2. A.D.A.M.® InterActive Anatomy® 4.0 (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
3. A.D.A.M.® MediaPro (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
4. Bodyworks (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
5. The Interactive Hand (LP; Win/Mac, 1997). This CD-ROM details the physiological structure and
functions of the human hand using 3-D modeling. It examines the bones, joints, blood supply, nerve
supply, and more.
6. The Ultimate Human Body (see p. 9 of this guide for full listing).
Lecture Enhancement Material
To view thumbnails of all of the illustrations for Chapter 8, see Appendix B.
Transparencies Index/Media Manager
Figure 8.1 Fibrous joints.
Figure 8.2 Cartilaginous joints.
Figure 8.3 General structure of a synovial joint.
Figure 8.4 Friction-reducing structures: Bursae and tendon sheaths.
Figure 8.5 Movements allowed by synovial joints.

8. Figure 8.6 Special body movements.
Figure 8.7 Types of synovial joints.
Figure 8.8 Knee joint.
Figure 8.9 A common knee injury.
Figure 8.10 The elbow joint.
Figure 8.11 The shoulder joint.
Figure 8.12 The hip joint.
Figure 8.13 The temporomandibular (jaw) joint.
Figure 8.14 Arthroscopic photograph of a torn medial meniscus
Figure 8.15 X ray of a hand deformed by rheumatoid arthritis.
Table 8.1 Summary of Joint Classes
Table 8.2 Structural and Functional Characteristics of Body Joints
Table 8.2 Structural and Functional Characteristics of Body Joints
A Closer Look Joints: From Knights in Shining Armor to Bionic Humans*
*Indicates images that are on the Media Manager only.
Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions
Multiple Choice and Matching Question answers appear in Appendix G of the main text.
Short Answer Essay Questions
8. Joints are defined as sites where two or more bones meet. (p. 253)
9. Freely moveable joints provide mobility; slightly moveable joints provide strength with limited
flexibility; immovable joints provide strong support, secure enclosures, and protection. (p. 253)
10. Bursae are synovial membrane-lined sacs that function to prevent friction, and are located where
ligaments, muscles, skin, and/or muscle tendons overlie and rub against bone. In the latter case, the
friction-reducing structures are called tendon sheaths. (p. 257)
11. Nonaxial movements mean slipping movements only, uniaxial movements mean movement in one
plane, biaxial movements mean movement in two planes, and multiaxial movements mean movement
in or around all three planes and axes. (p. 259)
12. Flexion and extension refer to decreasing or increasing the angle of a joint and bringing the two
articulating bones together along the sagittal plane, while adduction and abduction refer to moving a
limb closer to or away from the body midline along the frontal plane. (pp. 260–261)
13. Rotation means to turn a bone around its own long axis, while circumduction means to move a limb so
that it describes a cone in space, an action that involves a variety of movements. (p. 261)
14. Uniaxial—hinge (elbow) and pivot (atlantoaxial and radioulnar); biaxial—condyloid (knuckle) and
saddle (thumb); multiaxial—ball and socket (shoulder and hip). (p. 265)
15. The knee menisci deepen the articulating surface of the tibia to prevent side-to-side rocking of the
femur on the tibia and to absorb shock transmitted to the knee joint. The cruciate ligaments prevent
anterior/posterior displacement of the articulating bone and help to secure the joint. (pp. 265–267)
16. The knees must carry the total body weight and rely heavily on nonarticular factors for stability. The
knees can absorb an upward force of great intensity; although they must also absorb direct blows and
blows from the side, they are poorly designed to do so. (pp. 265–267)
17. Cartilages and ligaments are poorly vascularized and tend to heal very slowly. (p. 272)
18. Fibrous capsule: The fibrous capsule, composed of dense irregular connective tissue, is the external
layer of the articular (joint) capsule, and strengthens the joint so that the bones are not pulled apart;
synovial fluid: Synovial fluid occupies all free spaces within the joint capsule, including that within
the articular cartilages, and serves to reduce friction between the cartilages. Synovial fluid also
contains phagocyctic cells that rid the joint cavity of microbes or cellular debris; articular disc:

9. Articular discs are wedges of fibrocartilage that separate the articular surfaces of the bones, thereby
improving the fit between articulating bone ends and making the joint more stable. (pp. 255–256)
Critical Thinking and Clinical Application Questions
1. Most likely bursitis of the subcutaneous prepatellar bursa. It is a good guess that Sophie spends a good
deal of time on her knees (perhaps scrubbing the floors). (p. 273)
2. a. Not really. The shape of the articular surfaces is not as enclosed as other joints, and has a greater
degree of flexibility due to the fact that three bones, not two, create the joint. Also, there are
relatively few strong muscles and ligaments that cross this joint, compared to other joints, such as
the hip or knee. (p. 257)
b. Ligaments.
c. Returning bones back to position without an incision.
d. Sprains heal slowly and need repair to stabilize joint.
e. The examination of a joint by means of an endoscope.
f. Using arthroscopic surgery, only small incisions are needed instead of an open surgical wound.
There is less chance of infection and healing is considerably faster. (p. 272)
3. a. Probably gout, although it is more common in males.
b. Caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals in soft tissues of joints. (p. 274)
4. The vector for the bacteria that causes Lyme disease is the deer tick, a very small tick carried by deer
and other small mammals. (p. 276)
5. When Tony’s mouth opened very wide, the mandibular condyle slid forward to the point that the joint
dislocated. (p. 272)
Suggested Readings
Allman, W.F. “The Knee.” Science 83 (Nov. 1983).
Fackelmann, K.A. “Chicken Cartilage Soothes Aching Joints.” Science News 144 (Sept. 1993): 198.
Fackelmann, K.A. “The Nine-Month Arthritis Cure.” Science News 144 (Oct. 1993): 144.
Germain, B.C. Anatomy of Movement. Eastland Press, 1993.
Gunn, C. Bones and Joints: A Guide for Students. 3rd ed. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1997.
Kantor, F.S. “Disarming Lyme Disease.” Scientific American 271 (Sept. 1994): 34.
Matsumoto, I., et al. “Arthritis Provoked by Linked T and B Cell Recognition of a Glycolytic Enzyme.”
Science 286 (November 1999): 1732–1735.
Mayor, M.B., and J. Collier. “The Technology of Hip Replacement.” Scientific American: Science
and Medicine 1 (May/June 1994): 58–67.
Seppa, N. “Peptide Puts Mouse Arthritis Out of Joint.” Science News 159 (18) (May 2001): 279.
Terkeltaub, R.A. “Gout: Fresh Insights Into an Ancient Disease.” Scientific American: Science and
Medicine 3 (July/Aug. 1996): 22.
Wang, L. “Fat Harbors Cells That Could Aid Joints.” Science News 159 (9) (March 2001): 134.

10. Articular discs are wedges of fibrocartilage that separate the articular surfaces of the bones, thereby
improving the fit between articulating bone ends and making the joint more stable. (pp. 255–256)
Critical Thinking and Clinical Application Questions
1. Most likely bursitis of the subcutaneous prepatellar bursa. It is a good guess that Sophie spends a good
deal of time on her knees (perhaps scrubbing the floors). (p. 273)
2. a. Not really. The shape of the articular surfaces is not as enclosed as other joints, and has a greater
degree of flexibility due to the fact that three bones, not two, create the joint. Also, there are
relatively few strong muscles and ligaments that cross this joint, compared to other joints, such as
the hip or knee. (p. 257)
b. Ligaments.
c. Returning bones back to position without an incision.
d. Sprains heal slowly and need repair to stabilize joint.
e. The examination of a joint by means of an endoscope.
f. Using arthroscopic surgery, only small incisions are needed instead of an open surgical wound.
There is less chance of infection and healing is considerably faster. (p. 272)
3. a. Probably gout, although it is more common in males.
b. Caused by a deposition of uric acid crystals in soft tissues of joints. (p. 274)
4. The vector for the bacteria that causes Lyme disease is the deer tick, a very small tick carried by deer
and other small mammals. (p. 276)
5. When Tony’s mouth opened very wide, the mandibular condyle slid forward to the point that the joint
dislocated. (p. 272)
Suggested Readings
Allman, W.F. “The Knee.” Science 83 (Nov. 1983).
Fackelmann, K.A. “Chicken Cartilage Soothes Aching Joints.” Science News 144 (Sept. 1993): 198.
Fackelmann, K.A. “The Nine-Month Arthritis Cure.” Science News 144 (Oct. 1993): 144.
Germain, B.C. Anatomy of Movement. Eastland Press, 1993.
Gunn, C. Bones and Joints: A Guide for Students. 3rd ed. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1997.
Kantor, F.S. “Disarming Lyme Disease.” Scientific American 271 (Sept. 1994): 34.
Matsumoto, I., et al. “Arthritis Provoked by Linked T and B Cell Recognition of a Glycolytic Enzyme.”
Science 286 (November 1999): 1732–1735.
Mayor, M.B., and J. Collier. “The Technology of Hip Replacement.” Scientific American: Science
and Medicine 1 (May/June 1994): 58–67.
Seppa, N. “Peptide Puts Mouse Arthritis Out of Joint.” Science News 159 (18) (May 2001): 279.
Terkeltaub, R.A. “Gout: Fresh Insights Into an Ancient Disease.” Scientific American: Science and
Medicine 3 (July/Aug. 1996): 22.
Wang, L. “Fat Harbors Cells That Could Aid Joints.” Science News 159 (9) (March 2001): 134.